CAMS

Welcome to the second topic in the course. In this section we will deal
with cams, cam followers, motions, uses for etc. The main objective here
is to provide you with a good knowledge of cams and the knowledge to
draw a cam profile when given the cam data, or to draw a displacement
diagram when given the cam profile. The table below shows the main
contents of the topic. To view each one, simply click on the text below.

CAMS -
Contents

Introduction to Cams
Uses for Cams
Classifying Cams
Profile Shapes of Cams
Cam Followers
Cam Design Considerations
Cams versus Linkages
 Cam Motions
Displacement Diagrams
Drawing Cam Profiles
Drawing Cam Displacement
Diagrams

MAIN
CONTENTS
 Introduction to Cams
A cam is a mechanical component of a machine that is used to transmit
motion to another component, called the follower, through a prescribed
motion program by direct contact.

A cam mechanism consists of three elements: the cam, the follower (or
follower system), and the frame. The follower is in direct contact with the
cam. The cam may be of various shapes. The follower system includes all of
the elements to which motion is imparted by the cam. This may be
connected directly to the follower, or connected through linkages and
gearing. The frame of the machine supports the bearing surfaces for the cam
and for the follower.
 Uses for cams:
The cam mechanism is a versatile one. It can be designed to produce
almost unlimited types of motioning the follower. It is used to transform
a rotary motion into a translating or oscillating motion. On certain
occasions, it is also used to transform one translating or oscillating
motion into a different translating or oscillating motion.
Cams are used in a wide variety of automatic machines and
instruments. Typical examples of their usage include textile
machineries, computers, printing presses, food processing machines,
internal combustion engines, and countless other automatic machines,
control systems and devices. The cam mechanism is indeed a very
important component in modern mechanization.

The cam operated valve system:

The most well known use of cams is in car engines. The Cam operated
valve system can be found in modern car engines and incorporates a
number of cams; the valves are opened by cams, four- and six-lobed
cams govern the spark distribution and many car petrol oil pumps are
cam driven.

To view a cam operated valve system in motion, simply click on the next
below:

Cam operated valve.

Cam-Valve animation
 Classifying cams

Cams can be conveniently classified into two main

groups:

Group a:
Cams that impart motion to the follower in a plane in line with the axis
of rotation of the cam (as does a cylindrical cam).

Group b:
Cams that impart motion to the follower in a plane at 90 degrees to the
axis of rotation, as with face or edge cams. Most cams fall into this
category.
The cam, as a means of producing a given type of motion, is simple and
reasonable to design, provided the simple principles are understood.
Another advantage is that, generally, a cam can easily be changed or
modified to allow a change of motion, without interfering with the
remainder of the mechanism.

Eccentric cam:
A circular cam is often called an eccentric cam because the axis of
rotation of the cam is offset from the geometric center of the circular
disc.

Concentric disc:
A concentric disc attached to a rotating shaft would have its axis of
rotation coinciding with its geometric center.
 Edge cams
It must be appreciated that this type of cam, where the follower is in
contact with the edge of the cam disc, is only capable of imparting
positive motion to its follower in one direction, that is, during the rise
portion of the cam movement. During the fall portion of the cam
movement the follower must be maintained in contact with the cam
either by the mass of the follower and its mechanism or, more usually,
by a spring. Both methods have their advantages.
 Box cam
A groove can be milled in the face of cam discs. As the cam rotates, a
follower located in the groove has its motion guided by the groove. This
type of cam is called a box cam.
 Cylindrical cams:
Cylindrical cams are used when motion has to be transmitted parallel to
the axis of rotation of the cam. The cylindrical or barrel cam consists of
a rotating cylinder with a helical (screw shaped) groove in its curved
surface. A follower with a tapered roller end is located in the groove. As
the cylinder turns, the follower moves in a straight line parallel to the
axis of the rotation barrel cam. This type of cam is often used to guide
thread on sewing machines, looms and fabric making machines.
To draw a cylindrical cam, simply click on next below.
cylindrical cam animation
 PROFILE SHAPES OF SOME CAMS
The most common kind of cam is the plate cam. It consists of a narrow
plate or disc, which is fixed to a rotating shaft. The plate is shaped so
that the follower will produce a pre-determined form of motion. Most
cams are designed to have a smooth curved shape so that the motion
transmitted to the follower is smooth and without sudden jerks.

PEAR-SHAPED CAMS:

These type cams are often used for controlling valves. For example, they
are used on motor car camshafts to operate the engine valves. A
follower controlled by a pear-shaped cam remains motionless for about
half a revolution of the cam. During the time that the follower is
stationary, the cam is in a dwell period. During the other half revolution
of the cam, the follower rises and then falls. As the pear-shaped cam is
symmetrical, the rise motion is the same as the fall motion.

CIRCULAR CAMS:

These cams are sometimes called eccentric cams. The cam profile is a
circle. The center of rotation of the cam is often from the geometric
center of the circle. The circular cam produces a smooth form of motion
called a simple harmonic motion. These cams are often used to produce
motion in pumps. Circular cams are often used to operate steam engine
valves. As the cam is symmetrical, the rise and fall motions are the
same.

HEART SHAPED CAMS:

This cam causes the follower to move with a uniform velocity. Heart-
shaped cams are essential when the follower motion needs to be uniform
or steady as, for example, in the mechanism that winds thread evenly on
the bobbin of a sewing machine. A heart-shaped cam can be used for
winding wire evenly on the former of a solenoid.
 UNIFORM ACCELERATION AND
RETARDATION CAMS:

A cam shaped as shown controls the motion of the follower so that it

moves with uniform acceleration and retardation. The follower gains
and looses velocity at a constant rate. Uniform acceleration and
retardation cams are used to controls the motion of linkages in complex
machinery.
Now that we have covered the various types of cams, we can look at the
various types of cam followers.
 Cam followers:

There are three types of cam followers, and since the type of follower
influences the profile of the cam it is worthwhile considering the
advantages and disadvantages of each type. The three types are the
knife-edge, the roller follower and the flatfoot or mushroom follower.

The knife edge follower:

This is the simplest type, is not often used due to the rapid rate of wear.
When it is adopted, it is usually for reciprocating motion, running in
slides and there is considerable side thrust, this being a component of
the thrust from the cam.

The roller follower:

This eliminates the problem of rapid wear since the sliding effect is
largely replaced by a roller action. Some sliding will still take place due
to the varying peripheral speed of the cam profile, due to the changing
radius of the point of contact. Note also that the radial position of the
contact between the cam and the roller, relative to the follower center,
will change according to whether a rise or fall motion is taken place:
this fact has to be considered when constructing the cam profile. Again,
with the roller follower, considerable side thrusts are present, a
disadvantage when dealing with reciprocating motions. This side thrust
will be increased when using small rollers.

The flat foot or mushroom follower:

This has the advantage that the only side thrust present is that due to
the friction between the follower and the cam. The problem of wear is
not so great as with the knife-edge follower, since the point of contact
between the cam and follower will move across the face of the follower
according to the change of shape of the cam. A trick to lessen further
the effect of wear is to design the follower to be capable of axial rotation
and arrange the axis of the follower to lie to one side of the cam. Thus
the contact with the cam will tend to cause rotation of the follower. The
cam profile, to work with a flatfoot follower, must be convex at all
parts, in order to prevent the corners of the follower digging into the
cam profile. The minimum cam radius should be as small as possible to
minimize sliding velocity and friction.

The drawing below shows the three

types of cam followers:
To view each of the followers in motion with a cam in 3D, simply click
on the text below:

3D motions

3D knife – edge follower with cam.

3D roller follower with cam.

3D flat – face follower with cam.

knife-edge follower with cam
roller follower with cam
flat foot follower with cam
 Cam design considerations

All three types of cam followers can be mounted in

the following ways:

1) In-line with the cam center line,

2) Offset from the cam center line, or

3) Mounted on a swinging radial arm.

All cam followers wear at different rates depending on the follower
shape, size, type etc. the next section shows how to reduce wear in a flat-
foot follower.

Reducing wear in a flat-face cam

follower:
One method of reducing wear on a flat-face follower is to allow the
follower to rotate as the cam rotates. This leads to an even amount of
wear on the follower.

Overcoming resistance to cam motion:

When using a spring anchored to a fixed point, the force exerted by the
spring will vary during the camshaft revolution, reaching a maximum
when the follower is at the full diameter of the cam and the spring at its
maximum extension. The camshaft drive has to overcome this
increasing resistance to rotation. During the fall portion of the cam
motion, the spring loading (which is decreasing) is tending to push the
cam round, assisting rotation. These conditions give rise to unbalanced
torque (turning moments) requirements from the camshaft driving
motor. Using a double-arm cam lever with two followers, one on each
arm and each running on its cam, can eliminate this fluctuating load.
The cams must be designed to match each other, the second cam rising
when the first cam falls, but care must be taken to provide a small
amount of clearance: when one cam is driving, the other follower must
be slightly clear of its cam. This is to ensure that the followers do not
lock when passing over peaks. This difficulty can be eliminated if two
separate arms, with followers on two mating cams, are used, the arms
being spring-loaded together. This will give an almost constant spring
length during the camshaft revolution.

Considerations to be taken in cam

design:
If the cam follower and its mechanism are made too heavy, then during
the early part of the cam rise (that is, the acceleration portion) the force
imparted to the follower by the cam will be large. This gives a high
torque requirement at this part of the camshaft revolution.
Furthermore, once the heavy follower and its mechanism are moving,
the momentum will tend to keep it moving at that speed. This means
that the cam may not be in control, during the second part of the rise,
and the heavy spring loading will be necessary to maintain contact
between the cam and the follower at the end of the rise.

From these considerations, it can be seen that among the main aims to
be borne in mind during cam design are:
High accelerations and declarations are to be avoided to minimize
force requirements;

Maximum accelerations should occur during the middle of the

stroke;

The mass of the mechanism to be moved by the cam should be as

small as is practicable.
 Cams versus linkages.
A variety of mechanical systems are available for use by the designer
to satisfy a number of motions and work function requirements. For
complex motions wheel mechanisms (such as gears) and flexible drivers
(such as belts and chains) cannot fulfill their purpose. In most
situations, the designer must choose between a cam mechanism and a
link mechanism. The inherent characteristics and the relative
advantage of the two types of mechanisms have being summarized in
the table below.

Comparison between Cams and

 Linkages

CAMS LINKAGES
Easily designed to coordinate Satisfy limited number of
large numbers of input/output input- output motion
motion requirements. requirements.

Occupy less space. Occupy more space.

Slight manufacturing
Dynamic response is sensitive
inaccuracy has little effect on
to the manufacturing accuracy
output.
of the cam contour.

Expensive to produce. Less expensive.

Easy to obtain dynamic Difficult and complicated

balance. analysis involved in dynamic

Joint wear is non critical and

Subject to surface wear.
quieter in operation.

cams versus linkages continued...

First, for machine operations where precise positioning requirements
must be met together with phase synchronization, link mechanisms,
which can satisfy a limited number of specified output conditions, can
rarely meet these more complicated requirements. Cams offer flexibility
in the selection of working periods, dwells, and other items; their use
permits a better timing of interfacing movements in a machine.

Secondly, it is very important to consider the compactness of design. A

cam system is generally much more compact than its counterpart
linkage system. This can best be illustrated by an example. Consider the
design of a mechanism for operating the valves on an internal
combustion engine. A mechanism must be used that will convert
rotation to translation. The valves must remain closed during the
compression and firing strokes of the engine, and the velocity of the
valves must be zero (dwell) during the intake and exhaust strokes of the
engine. One seeks a "dwell linkage" that has a traditional rise-dwell-
return-dwell output motion event when input motion is uniform
rotation. A six bar linkage, such as the one shown in, would be a good
linkage design so far as force transmission and the control of velocity
and acceleration are concerned. Shows the schematic of a cam and
follower system design.

It is relatively simple to balance dramatically a camshaft. On the

contrary, it is difficult and complicated to balance a linkage system. To
keep the comparison in proper prospective, however, the advantages of
linkages must also be kept in mind. Linkages are usually cheaper and
easier to manufacture because the dynamic performance of a linkage is
not as sensitive to manufacturing errors as is that of a cam. A small
error on a cam profile can cause server vibrations in the response to the
follower. Also, the connected joints in the linkage are less subject to
wear than are the surfaces of cams and followers. In this day and age,
the design of mechanical linkages is a highly developed science: one
often hears the opinion that the operation of high speed machinery can
be made quieter and smoother by replacing cams with a link system
designed or synthesized to give approximately the same output motion.
As cam design advances to produce cams that are quieter and
smoother, the reported advantages of linkages in this respect may
become less significant.

The diagram below shows:

a) a six-bar dwell linkage, and

b) a schematic of cam-and-follower system for an

over-head
operating system.
 Cam motions:

When the cam turns through one motion cycle, the follower executes a
series of events consisting of rises, dwells, and returns. Rise is the
motion of the follower away from the cam center; dwell is the motion
during which the follower is at rest; and return is the motion of the
follower toward the cam center. When a designer is developing a cam
profile to produce a certain motion, the information available to
him/her would certainly include the amount of movement required by
the follower (the displacement).

The time available in which this movement is to be carried out, and the
angular speed of the camshaft (assumed to be constant, as it usually is).
He/she would also be aware of the type of motion and its characteristics
most likely to be suitable for his particular purpose. It has already been
seen that, to appreciate the forces acting on the cam and its follower, it
is necessary to know the accelerations imparted to the follower. From
the time available and the r.p.m. of the camshaft, it is possible to
calculate the number of degrees of camshaft rotation available to carry
out the motion. In order to have a complete picture of this information
it is advisable to construct a displacement-time, velocity-time, and
acceleration-time graph for the motion. From these figures it is possible
to gauge the disadvantages likely to occur in practice.

The features that should be appreciated in any design are;

 • Low acceleration and deceleration values at the beginning and
end of the strokes, to lesson the spring loading necessary to
maintain contact between cam and follower.

• No abrupt changes in acceleration.

• Low masses to be moved.

These features are more critical as the speed of the cam is increased and
several standard types of motion are used. Three types of motion will be
considered next.
 Displacement diagrams:

Design requirements in the part of the machine under consideration

will dictate the type of movement required in the cam follower. This is
then translated into the profile of a cam, which will give the follower the
required motion. When designing this profile the movement of the
follower is usually considered in four separate sections: the period when
the follower is at the bottom of its movement, called the bottom dwell;
the movement required during the rise or lift of the follower; the period
when the follower remains at the top of its movement, called the top
dwell; and the movement required when the follower returns to the
bottom position. There are three different types of follower motion in
standard use, which are shown below.

To view the motions, simply click on the text below.

displacement diagrams

uniform velocity

simple harmonic motion

uniform acceleration and retardation.

 Uniform (constant) velocity:

Since the velocity is constant, the displacement diagram will be a

straight line with constant slope and the velocity diagram rectangular
with zero acceleration.
However, to achieve this velocity immediately at the commencement of
the motion, and maintain it until the very end of the stroke, would
require infinitely high accelerations and declarations for infinitely short
periods of time at the beginning and end of the stroke. This of course is
impossible. To reduce these peak accelerations and declarations and to
make the motion possible the conditions are modified to include a short
period of uniform acceleration and deceleration at the beginning and
end of the motion. This means that the follower moves with uniform
velocity for most of the stroke, parabolic or circular arcs being
introduced at the beginning and end of the displacement diagram.
Despite these modifications it can be seen that, considering the
conditions previously laid down, the high accelerations, particularly
those at the end of the outgoing stroke and the beginning of the fall
stroke, require heavy springing to ensure continuous contact between
edge cam and follower.
To view a step - by - step account of how to draw the follower
performance graph, simply click on the next below:

Uniform acceleration follower performance graph.

uniform velocity animation
 Simple harmonic motion.

The displacement diagram is a sine curve and if a cam is produced from

this curve only (i.e. devoid of top and bottom dwell) it will have lobes of
circular form. Consideration shows that this type of cam will give the
smoothest change of motion in the follower. An eccentric cam transmits
simple harmonic motion to the follower. Examples of simple harmonic
motion from everyday life are the up and down motion of a cork
bobbing on the waves on a pond, and the oscillating motion of a
pendulum weight as it swings from side to side, as shown below.

Another example of simple harmonic motion is the projection (or

shadow) of uniform circular motion onto a straight line. If we view from
above, a toy train engine going around a circular track, we will see
circular motion. But if we look at the shadow of the train cast by a lamp
edge-on to the track, the engines shadow appears to oscillate back and
forth. The shadow is said to be moving in simple harmonic motion
which is shown below.
Example of simple harmonic motion
animation

To view an excellent interactive example of Simple Harmonic

Motion, simply click on the next below. To return from the page,
simply click on the BACK button on the tool bar on the top of the
screen.
 Simple harmonic motion follower
performance graph.

To view a step by step account of how to draw the simple harmonic

motion follower performance graph, simply click on the next below.

• Simple harmonic motion follower performance graph.

simple harmonic motion animation
 Uniform acceleration and retardation.
This displacement curve is parabolic. It gives a uniform rate of acceleration
from the start to the midpoint and a similar uniform rate of retardation from
the midpoint to the end of the movement.
To view a step by step account of how to draw the uniform acceleration
and retardation follower performance graph, simply click on the next
below.

• Uniform acceleration and retardation follower performance

graph.
uniform acceleration and retardation
animation
 Drawing cam profiles.
Now that we have seen the various types of cams and cam followers, we
can now begin to draw a cam profile according to the given cam data.
In order to draw a cam profile we must know how to draw the cam
displacement diagram. You have already viewed these diagrams, so
make sure you know how to draw each one before you try to draw the
cam profile.

cam rotation directions

Before you begin to draw a cam profile according to the given data, you
must know what direction the cam is to rotate.
If the cam is to rotate in a clockwise direction, then the outside diameter
of the profile is numbered in an anti-clockwise direction, so
If the cam is to rotate in an anti-clockwise direction, then the outside
diameter of the profile is numbered in a clockwise direction.
To view how to draw a cam profile according to the given data, simply
click on the text below.

drawing cam profiles

• Uniform velocity with a knife edge follower.

• Simple harmonic motion with a roller follower.

• Uniform acceleration and retardation with an in-line flat face

follower.

• Uniform acceleration and retardation and uniform velocity, with

a knife-edge follower.

• Uniform velocity with an offset roller follower.

• Uniform velocity with a radial arm roller follower.

 uniform velocity with a knife-edge follower
animation
Cam data
In-line knife edge follower,
50 mm minimum diameter,
40 mm lift (rise) with uniform velocity,
0 degrees to 90 degrees bottom dwell, 90 degrees to 180 degrees rise,
180 degrees to 270 degrees top dwell, 270 degrees to 360 fall,
clockwise rotation.
 simple harmonic motion with a roller follower
animation
Cam data
In-line roller follower, diameter 12 mm,
minimum cam diameter 50 mm,
total rise 42 mm, both rise and fall have simple harmonic motion,
0 to 90 degrees bottom dwell,
90 to 180 degrees rise with simple harmonic motion,
180 to 270 degrees top dwell,
270 to 360 degrees fall with simple harmonic motion,
because this is a symmetrical cam it can rotate in either direction.
 uniform acceleration and retardation with an incline
flat face follower animation
Cam data,
In-line flat face follower,
minimum cam diameter 50 mm,
rise 36 mm through 180 degrees and a similar fall, both having U.A.R.,
this produces a symmetrical cam giving the required follower motion
with either direction of rotation.
 uniform acceleration and retardation + uniform
velocity, with a knife-edge follower animation
Cam data,
In-line knife edge follower,
minimum cam diameter 50 mm,
rise 42 mm through 180 degrees with uniform acceleration and
retardation,
fall 42 mm through 180 degrees with uniform velocity,
clockwise rotation.
uniform velocity with offset roller follower animation
Cam data
minimum cam diameter 50 mm,
bottom dwell 0 to 60 degrees, rise 60 to 150 degrees, top dwell 150 to 210
degrees, fall 210 to 300 degrees 300 to 360 degrees bottom dwell,
total lift 36 mm, uniform velocity, clockwise rotation, roller follower
diameter 12 mm,
offset 20 mm to the right of the cam centerline.
 uniform velocity with a radial arm roller follower
animation
Cam data
roller follower diameter 16 mm, mounted on a radial arm to the
dimensions given,
full lift of roller 0 to 180 degrees, top dwell 180 to 270 degrees, fall 270
to 360 degrees, uniform velocity,
clockwise rotation,
 drawing the displacement diagram
Sometimes a cam problem can be given in the reverse order i.e. the cam profile is
given and you have to draw the displacement diagram for that profile. To draw
this diagram you simply work in the reverse order of the previous problems. A
step-by-step procedure for such a problem is shown below:

1) Draw the given cam profile.

2) Divide the cam into 30 degree sectors.

3) Rotate each intersection point onto the vertical line.

4) Project each of these points to the displacement diagram rectangle.

5) Draw the displacement diagram.

The diagram below shows a typical cam problem, in which the cam profile is
given and the cam displacement diagram has to be drawn.
To view a step-by-step account of how to draw the cam displacement diagram
for the cam profile above, simply click on the next below.

Solution to above cam problem.

 drawing the cam displacement diagram
(animation)

Congratulations you have now completed the section on cams. To move

on to the final section on gears, simply click on the next below.