Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Assessment of plasma gasification of high caloric waste streams

a,*
Bert Lemmens , Helmut Elslander a, Ive Vanderreydt a, Kurt Peys a, Ludo Diels a,
Michel Oosterlinck b, Marc Joos b
a
VITO, Boeretang 200, B-2400 Mol, Belgium
b
APT, Westmeerbeeksesteenweg 2a, 2221 Heist-op-den-Berg, Belgium

Accepted 21 July 2006

Available online 28 November 2006

Abstract

Plasma gasification is an innovative technology for transforming high calorific waste streams into a valuable synthesis gas and a
vitrified slag by means of a thermal plasma. A test program has been set up to evaluate the feasibility of plasma gasification and the
impact of this process on the environment. RDF (refuse derived fuel) from carpet and textile waste was selected as feed material for
semi-pilot gasification tests. The aim of the tests was: (1) to evaluate the technical feasibility of making a stable synthesis gas; (2) to char-
acterize the composition of this synthesis gas; (3) to define a suitable after-treatment configuration for purification of the syngas and (4)
to characterize the stability of the slag, i.e., its resistance to leaching for use as a secondary building material. The tests illustrate that
plasma gasification can result in a suitable syngas quality and a slag, characterized by an acceptable leachability. Based on the test results,
a further scale-up of this technology will be prepared and validation tests run.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The most important conversion reactions are:

C þ H2 O $ CO þ H2
Gasification is a non-incineration thermal process which
uses high temperatures in an oxygen-starved environment CO þ H2 O $ CO2 þ H2
to decompose an input waste material into simple mole- C þ 2H2 $ CH4
cules as CO, CO2, H2, CH4, etc., and also fly ash and slag. CH4 þ H2 O $ CO þ 3H2
Gasification consists of several exothermic reactions and
1
endothermic reactions (Moustakas et al., 2005; André CX HY þ X H2 O $ X CO þ ðX þ Y ÞH2
2
et al., 2005; Salam and Bhattacharya, 2004; Franco et al.,
2003; Duret et al., 2005). The most important oxidation C þ CO2 $ 2CO
reactions are: The latter equation describes the Boudouard reaction
C þ O2 $ CO2 whereby carbon can convert CO2 to CO. This conversion
is important in gasification as CO2 is of low value in syngas
1
C þ O2 $ CO and should be restricted to a minimum to increase the over-
2 all efficiency of the installation. The CO/CO2 ratio in-
1
CO þ O2 $ CO2 creases with higher temperatures and is considered an
2 important regulation parameter for control of the gasifica-
1 tion process.
2CX HY þ ð2X þ Y ÞO2 $ 2X CO2 þ Y H2 O
2 By means of high temperature gasification, solid waste
can be converted into a valuable synthesis gas and a vitri-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 14 33 69 17; fax: +32 14 32 65 86. fied slag. The syngas can be used for efficient production of
E-mail address: bert.lemmens@vito.be (B. Lemmens). energy due to its high caloric content or as a raw material

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2006.07.027
 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569 1563

for the production of chemical substances (Malkow, 2004)
(e.g., the production of methanol, Fischer Tropsch diesel,
hydrogen). The vitrified slag should be inert for leaching
processes and as a consequence applicable as, for example,
a building material additive (Lapa et al., 2002). The use of
a plasma to initiate the gasification reactions is the innova-
tive aspect of this research.
In case of plasma gasification, the heat source of the gas-
ifier is one or more plasma arc torches that produce a very
high temperature plasma gas (up to 15,000 °C). The plasma
torch is an independent heat source, which allows control
of temperature independently from fluctuations in the feed
quality and supply of air/oxygen/steam needed to gasify
the feed. The optimum characteristics can be set and read-
ily maintained, and are not affected by the condition of the
waste material. This gives important process variability
benefits compared to gasification without an external heat
source. In gasification without plasma, the temperature
depends on the amount of oxygen that exothermically
delivers heat. This is done with success in the Thermose-
lectÒ Process where oxygen is used to obtain temperatures
of 2000 °C for operation in slagging mode (Calaminus and
Stahlberg, 1998). The drawback of only using oxygen is
that more CO2 is present in the syngas, thus lowering the
caloric value of the raw syngas, and that the amount of
CO2 in the syngas fluctuates with the temperature control.
Plasma gasification only has two products: synthetic gas
and vitrified slag. Both products have a commercial value.
The organic molecules break down under high tempera-
ture conditions into a synthetic gas. Simultaneously fusion
occurs for all inorganic components (glass, metals, silicates,
heavy metals) into a volcanic type lava, which after cooling
forms a basaltic slag. Vitrified slag has a commercial value,
either as substitute for aggregate in concrete (Moustakas
et al., 2005), as sub-base in road construction, as a basis
material for sand blasting (Calaminus and Stahlberg,
1998) or as raw material for ceramic products.
Residues from the syngas cleaning (fly ash, precipitated
metals, etc.) will be internally recycled by injecting them in
the molten slag. In this way they are not separately
removed as waste products for landfilling. The injection
into the slag needs further research to examine its effect
on slag quality and on concentration of metals in the syn-
gas as subsequent volatilization can occur.
2. Test equipment and measuring program
2.1. Description of the test equipment
The test reactor used in the gasification experiments was
originally designed for the application of plasma technol-
ogy in the metallurgical field. As such, it is not representa-
tive of the design of a large scale reactor and was not
adapted for gasification purposes. Nevertheless, the system
is considered as the best available plasma reactor available
to the team at the time of the tests. It suits its purpose for
demonstration of the plasma gasification and collection of
the data.
The configuration of the pilot installation is schemati-
cally represented in Fig. 1. It consists of the plasma reactor,
an oxidizer to combust the synthesis gas, a bag filter and
finally a stack for emission of the combustion gases.
The pilot installation includes a cylindrical reactor ves-
sel, with a cast refractory coating of 10 cm thickness. The
plasma torch of graphite is located on the top of the reactor
and is oriented vertically and downwards into the reactor
vessel. The bottom of the reactor contains around 250 kg
of crude iron. Due to the potential difference between the

MP 2

Graphite
torch

Secondary
air

MP 1 Oxidizer
After
burner

Bag filter
Primary
air
Furnace
MP 3

Fan
Stack
Metal bath + slag

Fig. 1. Schematic view of the pilot installation for gasification (MP = measuring point).
1564 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569

graphite electrode (positive pole) and the crude iron bath Table 1
(negative pool), a discharge results, which leads to the for- Composition of RDF feed for gasification test
mation of thermal plasma. This results in a temperature Parameter Unit Value
inside the gasification reactor of 1600 °C. In a full-scale Caloric value kJ/kg 20,986
installation, metals from the RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) Dry matter % 99.9
will dissolve in the bath. Depending on the rate of evapo- Ash residue % 14.9
C (ISO 609-1996) % dm 60.1
ration of metals and increase of metals in the bath, new H (ISO 609-1996) % dm 8.2
metal will have to be supplied to the bath or metal tapped O (By difference) % dm 14.7
from the reactor. N (ISO 332-1981) % dm 2.1
The reactor pressure is controlled by means of a variable S (ASTM D4239:C-97) % dm 0.1
speed fan at a pressure of 0.3 to 4.7 mbar. The installa- Heavy metals
tion lacks automation in measuring the CO and CO2 con- Antimony mg/kg dm 20
tent and regulating the oxygen flow. In other words, an Arsenic mg/kg dm <2
Barium mg/kg dm 42
optimal gasification process cannot be achieved with this
Cadmium mg/kg dm 0.51
installation. Chromium mg/kg dm 42
The shredded RDF is fed at the top of the reactor by Iron mg/kg dm 1,920
means of an Archimedes screw with a closed hopper, Cobalt mg/kg dm 5.6
together with argon and pressurized air. Important for a Copper mg/kg dm 28
Mercury mg/kg dm <0.1
stable gasification is that the waste material is continuously
Lead mg/kg dm 8.6
fed into the hottest region of the reactor vessel and the flow Molybdenum mg/kg dm 1.7
of air/oxygen to the reactor is controlled well. Nickel mg/kg dm 16
The resulting gases are transported in this reactor sys- Selenium mg/kg dm <5
tem without forced cooling to a two-step thermal oxidizer Tin mg/kg dm 28
Vanadium mg/kg dm 3.6
where they are burned by addition of primary and second-
Zinc mg/kg dm 265
ary cooling air. A two-step oxidizer is required to limit the
temperature increase due to the exothermic oxidation. The Anions
Total chloride mg/kg dm 2,480
oxidizer is used here to simulate the burning of the syngas.
Total fluorine mg/kg dm 51
After the oxidizer, the flue gas is cooled down to 160 °C Bromide mg/kg dm 102
before the bag filter as a result of heat loss in the flue gas Total sulfur mg/kg dm 2,330
duct. This is a slow cooling situation, which results in a
worst-case situation for dioxin formation.
A total amount of 136 kg RDF was gasified during the
2.2. Composition of feed tests. The maximum feeding rate amounted to 22 kg/h.

RDF is a waste stream that consists of a mixture of plas-
tics, paper, wood and dried organic material. RDF is con-
sidered to be one of the more important fuels for
gasification because it has a homogeneous structure and
a high calorific value. Furthermore RDF can be considered
a problematic solid for gasification because of presence of
halogens, sulfur and heavy metals, which pose environmen-
tal problems. The RDF used is a mixture of plastics and
carpet waste. The RDF is pelletized to make it suitable
for use in the feeding system of the pilot gasifier. The com-
position of the RDF sample is presented in Table 1.
Due to the heterogeneity of RDF, its composition can
vary considerably between different samples. Based on pre-
vious experiences and analyses, it is clear that the presence
of antimony, barium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, tin
and zinc is significant and important. These elements are
used often in the production of plastics as filler materials
to enhance certain chemical and physical characteristics.
Other important components posing a risk for environ-
mental emissions (air, fly ash, slag) are chlorides and sulfur.
The presence of PVC is responsible for the presence of
chloride. The sulfur comes from vulcanized material of
the carpet waste.
2.3. Measuring program
The test program evaluates: (1) the possibility of making
a stable synthesis gas, (2) the composition of this synthesis
gas, (3) a suitable after-treatment process for purification
of the syngas in order to have energy recovery without
harmful emissions and (4) the stability of the slag (i.e., its
resistance to leaching).
To assess these issues, three gas compositions were mon-
itored (Fig. 1):
 MP1: composition of the synthesis gas (CO, CO2, O2,
H2, CH4, THC, NO, NO2, SO2, HCl, NH3, HCN).
 MP2: composition of the combustion gas after the oxi-
dizer (PCDDs/PCDFs, heavy metals, dust, gas velocity,
temperature, moisture content).
 MP3: composition of the combustion gas after the bag
filter (CO, CO2, O2, CH4, THC, NO, NO2, SO2, HCL,
HF, NH3, HCN).
Measurements at MP1 are required for characterization of
the quality of the produced gas. Important process param-
eters as CO, CO2, CH4, total hydrocarbons and H2 are
 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569 1565

monitored. The total hydrocarbon content is representative

for the completion of the gasification reaction and should
be as low as possible. Due to the high temperature of the
syngas, not all environmentally important parameters can
be measured directly on the syngas because isokinetic sam-
pling is not possible.
Dioxins and furans are measured at MP2, after the oxi-
dizer. These measurements give supplementary informa-
tion about the combustion gases. As no purification of
the syngas (e.g., scrubbing) can be done with the pilot
installation, the data on dioxin concentrations are not rep-
resentative of the future plasma gasification reactor tech-
nology. Nevertheless, dioxin measurements after the
oxidizer are important to assess the risk for dioxin forma-
tion, e.g., in a gas engine.
Other gaseous and wet emissions are measured after the
bag filter (MP3). Fig. 3. Residual slag after the pilot test.
After the test the resulting slag was tested for reuse as a
building material. In the tests performed, the fly ash was for sub-method 1–3, must be <10 mm and 90% (w/w) of
not reintroduced into the slag for vitrification. the material must be <4 mm. In the fourth sub-method
Sustainable use or recycling of material is only possible (pr)EN12457-4, the material is analyzed as delivered and
if the structure and properties of a material/substance are should only be size-reduced for particle sizes >10 mm.
known. A complete characterization, therefore, consists The latter hereby mirrors the German DIN 38414 S4 leach-
of the determination of the environmental properties as ing procedure.
well as of the material characteristics (micro-analytical In all cases the sample material is brought into contact
techniques). After the gasification test, a slag residue with water and shaken for 24 h (procedure 2) or for two
remains on top of the metal bath. This is shown in Fig. 3. consecutive periods of 6 h and 18 h (procedure 3). The solid
Most important are the leaching tests. The harmoniza- residue is separated by filtration. The eluates are analyzed
tion of the European leaching procedures resulted in the for metals and anions. The analysis of the eluate provides
(draft) European Standard procedure for the leaching of the concentrations of the constituents in the eluate,
granular waste materials and sludges at compliance level expressed in lg/l. The final results are expressed as the
(pr)EN12457. The test gives the option of a one-stage or emission at a liquid/solid ratio of 10 (L/S 10), in mg/kg.
two-stage batch leaching procedure, depending on the The leachability is also studied following the column
waste properties and purpose of the test. leaching test (NEN7343) as a basic characterization test.
The one-step procedure uses leaching in a L/S = 2 l/kg The material is size-reduced to <4 mm. The material is
(prEN12457-1) or L/S = 10 l/kg (prEN12457-2,4). The placed in a vertical column and brought into contact with
two-step test (prEN12457-3) uses a consecutive 6 h at an upstream flow (demineralised water). The cumulative
L/S = 2 l/kg and 18 h at L/S = 8 l/kg. The particle size, liquid-to-solid ratio (L/S) at the end of the test is 10. The

30
CO H2 CO2 O2
CO
25
Concentration (vol%)

20

15
H2

10

CO 2
5

0
13:57 O2 14:27 14:57 15:27 15:57 16:27 16:57 17:27
Time

Fig. 2. Continuous registration of CO, H2, CO2 and O2 during gasification on 17/11/2002.
1566 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569

eluate is collected in different fractions at L/S of 0.1, 0.2, gasification. Temporal peaks in oxygen result from the
0.3, 0.5, 1.0, 3.0 and 5.0. In each eluate the concentration leaks of large amounts of air into the reactor vessel due
of the different parameters is determined. The cumulative to problems with the feeder.
emission of each parameter is then calculated. The presence of NH3 and HCN was expected with gas-
The following leaching tests were performed: a one-step ification. Further tests will be done with air enriched with
agitation test (prEN12457-2), a two-step agitation test oxygen or pure oxygen instead of air to assess if this
(prEN12457-3), and the column leaching test (NEN7343). reduces the concentration of NH3. HCN may be formed
The column leaching test was performed in duplicate, to from NH3 and CO, according to the following reaction:
evaluate possible deviation in the results. All tests are per-
CO + NH3 $ HCN + H2 O ð1Þ
formed on granular material as described in the previous
paragraphs. Here only the results from test according to In any case, both components can be removed substantially
NEN7343 are shown. by a combined water (acidic) and alkaline scrubber. Never-
theless, the formation of these components during gasifica-
3. Results and discussion tion should be limited. Further tests will be needed to
demonstrate that better regulation of oxygen in the gasifier
3.1. Syngas quality can limit the presence of NH3 and HCN.
Further tests will also need to look at variations in syn-
In Table 2, the average concentrations of the syngas dur- gas composition depending on feedstock composition and
ing pseudo steady state conditions are represented (total of type of oxidant (oxygen or steam) (Belgiorno et al.,
3 h, 44 min measuring time). As the pilot test was subject to 2003). The composition has to be stable for a stable oper-
periodic interruptions due to problems with the feeding ation of a gas engine. These tests will determine the extent
system, a large number of fluctuations can be seen in the of premixing of the available feedstock that is needed for
measurements (Fig. 2). To make a valid interpretation of the production of a consistent syngas quality.
the syngas quality, only the periods of pseudo-steady-state
are interpreted to calculate the average syngas quality. 3.2. Emission measurements after the oxidizer
Pseudo-steady-state coincides with periods where the CO
concentration increases above 10 vol%. During these peri- The emissions after the oxidizer were measured to assess
ods, the CO/CO2 ratio increases to values between 5 and 8. the emission of heavy metals, dust, chlorides, fluorides, etc.
The amount of total hydrocarbons was quite high. The These parameters can not be measured in the synthesis gas
presence of high amounts of soot required a frequent because of the temperature of the syngas (isokinetic sam-
replacement of the filter of the gas conditioning system in pling needed). The measurements are not representative of
the measurement apparatus. Soot and hydrocarbons are combustion of cleaned syngas but are suitable to assess the
symptoms of incomplete gasification, caused by a too short feasibility to design an appropriate gas purification system
residence time in the gasifier. The non-ideal configuration for the syngas. The measurements are presented in Table 3.
(for gasification purposes) of the pilot gasifier does not per- The emissions contain large amounts of dust before the
mit this problem to be avoided. bag filter and are laden with heavy metals. After the tests,
In Fig. 2, the concentration of CO, CO2, H2 and O2 dur- the presence of dust in the refractory duct between the reac-
ing pseudo-steady state conditions is represented. The fig- tor and the oxidizer and in the oxidizer was observed. In a
ure illustrates clearly the prevalence of CO during full-scale system with higher residence times in the reactor,
the carry over of dust would be smaller and there would be
less deposits in ducts.
Table 2 Because chloride is present and the gas cools down in
Average composition of syngas during gasification (MP1)
the critical temperature window of 200–400 °C where sec-
Parameter Unit Value ondary dioxin formation occurs, high concentrations of
CO vol% 17.6 dioxins are found. These concentrations must be compared
H2 vol% 8.1 to the norm of 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3. These measurements are
THCa vol% propane 2.8 not representative of a final, full-scale installation because
CH4a vol% propane 1.1
CO2 vol% 3.6
syngas cleaning will remove the chlorine, dust and heavy
O2 vol% 1.1 metals.
NO mg/Nm3 dr <2 The CO-concentration of 1123 mg/Nm3 dr shows that
NO2 mg/Nm3 dr <2 the oxidation is not optimal. This can also add to the
NOx mg/Nm3 dr <3 dioxin formation.
SO2 mg/Nm3 dr 273
NH3 mg/Nm3 dr 346
HCl mg/Nm3 dr 6.2 3.3. Characterization of the slag and leaching tests
HCN mg/Nm3 dr 279
a
CH4 is part of the THC; CH4 and THC are expressed as % propane The composition of the slag was analyzed by X-ray dif-
equivalents. fraction and by analysis of the total content of carbon,
 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569 1567

Table 3 Table 4
Results of measurements at MP2 and MP3 Analysis of total content of slag
Parameter Unit Value Parameter Unit Value
3
Flow Nm /h dry 1365 Dry matter % 99.9
Temperature °C 160 TOC % 0.4
H2O-content % 4.5
Heavy metals
dust mg/Nm3 dr 2078
Antimony mg/kg dm 26
NO ppm 23
Arsenic mg/kg dm <2
NO2 ppm <2
Barium mg/kg dm 358
SO2 ppm <2
Cadmium mg/kg dm <0.5
CO ppm 1,123
Chromium mg/kg dm 99
THC ppma 11
Iron mg/kg dm 53,800
CH4 ppma 4
Cobalt mg/kg dm 33
CO2 % 2.2
Copper mg/kg dm 28
O2 % 17.5
Mercury mg/kg dm <0.1
HCl mg/Nm3 dr 0.18
Lead mg/kg dm <2
HCN mg/Nm3 dr 2.801
Molybdenum mg/kg dm 1.3
NH3 mg/Nm3 dr 3.173
Nickel mg/kg dm 17
HF mg/Nm3 dr <0.1
Selenium mg/kg dm <5
Dioxins/furans ngTEQ/Nm3 dr 14.061
Tin mg/kg dm <2
Heavy metals Gaseous On dust Vanadium mg/kg dm 109
Zinc mg/kg dm 7.2
Sb mg/Nm3 dr 0.738 2.500
As mg/Nm3 dr <0.004 <0.013 Anions
Pb mg/Nm3 dr 0.040 0.218 Total chloride mg/kg dm 570
Ni mg/Nm3 dr 0.005 0.023 Total fluorine mg/kg dm <30
Zn mg/Nm3 dr 1.014 3.167 Total sulfur mg/kg dm 3910
Cu mg/Nm3 dr 0.109 0.231 Bromide mg/kg dm 27
Co mg/Nm3 dr <0.004 <0.006
Se mg/Nm3 dr <0.016 <0.032
Sn mg/Nm3 dr 0.051 0.269
V mg/Nm3 dr <0.004 <0.006
Ba mg/Nm3 dr 0.242 1.154
When limit values of different countries are compared,
Cd mg/Nm3 dr 0.009 0.044 care should always be taken in the correct interpretation
Cr mg/Nm3 dr 0.046 0.179 of the results, since there are differences in leaching tests,
Tl mg/Nm3 dr <0.016 <0.032 expression of results, grain sizes, etc.
Mo mg/Nm3 dr <0.004 0.036 The technical feasibility of commercial applications of
Hg mg/Nm3 dr 0.0001 <0.00006
a
the slag was not studied in this research because not
CH4 is part of the THC; CH4 and THC are expressed as % propane enough material was produced.
equivalents.

3.4. Syngas cleaning

metals and anions. The results of the analysis of the total
content are shown in Table 4. The carbon content is low,
which shows that the gasification of material in the reactor
was complete. Of the metals, mostly iron is present from
the metal bath. The X-ray diffraction showed that the slag
consisted mostly of calcium aluminates, calcium silicate
and calcium aluminium silicate.
The results of the leaching tests comply with the Flemish
legislation. The Flemish limits are tested following
NEN7343. Also the limits of the Netherlands are measured
following NEN 7343. These values are presented in Fig. 4.
The first bar shows the measurements performed on the
sample. The corresponding value is shown as a number.
The second bar is the Flemish limit. Bars 3 and 4 show
the two norms from the Netherlands. The leaching results
comply with the Flemish legislation. The Netherlands has
limit values for two types of secondary building material.
The slag complies with the least stringent norm but does
not comply with the stringent type of secondary building
material. The material exceeds the limit for antimony, bar-
ium and selenium.
The plasma gasification plant needs to incorporate effi-
cient gas cleaning equipment to meet contaminant toler-
ance limits for use in a gas engine or turbine (Morris and
Waldheim, 1998). Five groups of contaminants are impor-
tant: dust, heavy metals, sulfur compounds, nitrogen com-
pounds (NH3 and HCN) and halogens.
These substances can be eliminated as follows:
 Particulate matter can be removed by high temperature
filtration, cyclones or with scrubbers. Filters or
cyclones are advantageous since the particulates are
removed as dry solid that can be injected into the slag
for vitrification. Due to the high temperature, prelimin-
ary cooling may be required to avoid filter damage. In
a water scrubber, dust is removed as a slurry that has
to be dewatered and dried before injection into the
slag.
 Metals bound to dust will be removed together with par-
ticulates. Residual metal vapors are removed in an acid
scrubber due to cooling and dissolving.
1568 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569

100

35
10

< 0,200
1
mg/kg

< 0,100
< 0,100
< 0,100

< 0,050
< 0,050

< 0,050
< 0,050

< 0,050
0,052

0,028

0,025
0,1

< 0,015
0,01

< 0,001
0,001
Sb As Ba Cd Cr Co Cu Hg Pb Mo Ni Se Sn V Zn
metals
APT Leaching test Flanders VLAREA Granular materials
Netherlands BMD Granular materials N 1 Netherlands BMD Granular materials N 2

Fig. 4. Presentation of the leaching results (NEN7343) and the legislative limits in different countries. The numbers give the results of the leaching tests.

 The bulk quantity of HCl and HF and the NH3 can be  The test process control does not have the capability to
removed in an acid scrubber. This may be a venturi continuously measure CO/CO2, which is critical to mon-
scrubber, to combine their removal with dust itor the dissociation of the organic components in the
elimination. feed and as such benefit from the better process control
 For the removal of HCN, SO2, H2S and residual HCl with plasma.
and HF, an alkaline scrubber can be used. Wet lime  Oxygen enrichment of the process air was not possible in
sorption is an alternative technology, resulting in the the pilot reactor used. The reduced nitrogen concentra-
formation of CaSO3, Ca(CN)2 and CaS. tion could also decrease secondary formation of nitro-
 The risk for dioxin formation can be decreased by the gen compounds, such as NH3 and HCN.
high temperature removal of dust, because the presence  The existing oxidizer does not work optimally and due
of dust during cooling of the syngas is an important pre- to the absence of any gas scrubbers, the syngas cannot
cursor of dioxins and furans. A proper design of the gas- be purified. As a consequence, the emissions from the
ification plant should succeed in meeting the legislative oxidizer are worst case and are not representative of
levels for dioxins and furans in the exhaust gas of a an integrated gasification plant, including necessary syn-
gas engine. thesis gas purification technology.

Based on these measurements, a syngas cleaning system 3.6. Mass and energy balance
can be designed using available technologies. A purification
system must have a quench and/or heat recovery to cool The mass balance of the gasification test could not
the gases, dust removal followed by acid and alkaline be made because no steady state condition was reached
scrubbers. The feasibility of different technologies depends for a sufficient time, as Fig. 3 shows. Future tests
on the type of waste that is gasified and more specifically with steady state operation will make it possible to
on the concentration of impurities in the waste. determine a mass balance on carbon, metals, chlorine,
etc.
3.5. Evaluation of the test reactor An energy balance can be made for the test based
on the use of energy for the plasma torch and the max-
One of the main problems during the test was the estab- imum feeding rate of RDF to the reactor. Because of the
lishment of a steady state condition because the pilot reac- small reactor size, the heat loss will be significant and
tor was not adapted for gasification purposes: thus the use of energy not representative of a large-scale
system.
 Due to the lack of any cooling, the feeder clogged peri- During the tests, the use of electricity for the generation
odically due to the melting of the plastic fraction of the of plasma amounted to 82–112 kW. Based on an efficiency
RDF. This inhibited the creation of prolonged steady of 40% of electricity production with a gas engine, this cor-
state conditions. responds to 740–1000 MJ/h primary energy.
 B. Lemmens et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 1562–1569
The maximum feeding rate attained during the tests was
22 kg/h. With a caloric value of 21 MJ/kg, this corresponds
to 462 MJ/h added to the reactor as waste.
Hence the energy balance shows that during the tests
more energy was used than added as waste. Because no
flow rate of the syngas could be measured, it is not possible
to calculate the energy flow corresponding to the produced
syngas. Because extra energy is added with the plasma
torch, the energy flow from the syngas could be higher than
the energy flow from the waste. This improves the energy
balance of the process. This is an important research topic
for a future pilot test because the goal is an installation for
energy from waste.
4. Conclusion
The tests illustrate that plasma gasification is a technol-
ogy with potential for treatment of high calorific waste.
Independent control of temperature and oxygen supply is
possible. However, because of a non-optimal test reactor,
stability of the gasification could not be assessed. The pro-
duced syngas had a CO/CO2 ratio between 5 and 8. The
average syngas contains 17.6 vol% of CO, 8.1 vol% H2,
3.6 vol% of CO2, 2.8 vol% of THC and 1.1 vol% of oxygen.
Based on the measurements of the contaminants in the
syngas a suitable gas cleaning system consisting at least
of a quench, a dust removing technology (filters, cyclones)
and an acid and alkaline scrubber can be designed. The effi-
ciency of this gas cleaning system has to be proven in fur-
ther pilot tests.
The vitrified slag complies with the Flemish legislation
for use as a secondary building material. Further research
1569
is needed under steady state conditions to confirm these
results. The recycling of fly ash can have a significant effect
on the leaching tests. Also further mechanical and chemical
testing is needed to prove the technical suitability as a
building material.
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