Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION TO
DERIVATIVES
DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVES
1
Derivatives
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION :
2
Derivatives
sound mechanism for insuring against various kinds of risks arising in the
world of finance. They offer a range of mechanisms to improve
redistribution of risk, which can be extended to every product existing,
from coffee to cotton and live cattle to debt instruments.
3
Derivatives
Presently, most major institutional borrowers and investors
use derivatives. Similarly, many act as intermediaries dealing in derivative
transactions. Derivatives are responsible for not only increasing the range
of financial products available but also fostering more precise ways of
understanding, quantifying and managing financial risk.
DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVES :
4
Derivatives
5
Derivatives
CHAPTER – 2
HISTORY OF DERIVATIVES
DERIVATIVES IN INDIA
DEVELOPMENT OF DERIVATIVES
MARKET IN INDIA
6
Derivatives
CHAPTER 2
HISTORY OF DERIVATIVES :
7
Derivatives
the 1860’s. In 1865, CBOT listed the first ‘exchange traded’ derivatives
contract, known as the futures contracts. Futures trading grew out of the
need for hedging the price risk involved in many commercial operations.
The Chicago Mercantile Exchange (CME), a spin-off of CBOT, was
formed in 1919, though it did exist before in 1874 under the names of
‘Chicago Produce Exchange’ (CPE) and ‘Chicago Egg and Butter
Board’ (CEBB). The first financial futures to emerge were the currency in
1972 in the US. The first foreign currency futures were traded on May 16,
1972, on International Monetary Market (IMM), a division of CME. The
currency futures traded on the IMM are the British Pound, the Canadian
Dollar, the Japanese Yen, the Swiss Franc, the German Mark, the
Australian Dollar, and the Euro dollar. Currency futures were followed
soon by interest rate futures. Interest rate futures contracts were traded
for the first time on the CBOT on October 20, 1975. Stock index futures
and options emerged in 1982. The first stock index futures contracts were
traded on Kansas City Board of Trade on February 24, 1982.
8
Derivatives
options. There was so much speculation that people even mortgaged their
homes and businesses. These speculators were wiped out when the tulip
craze collapsed in 1637 as there was no mechanism to guarantee the
performance of the option terms.
9
Derivatives
number of financial derivatives which served as effective risk
management tools to cope with market uncertainties.
The CBOT and the CME are two largest financial exchanges
in the world on which futures contracts are traded. The CBOT now offers
48 futures and option contracts (with the annual volume at more than 211
million in 2001).The CBOE is the largest exchange for trading stock
options. The CBOE trades options on the S&P 100 and the S&P 500
stock indices. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange is the premier exchange
for trading foreign options.
The most traded stock indices include S&P 500, the Dow
Jones Industrial Average, the Nasdaq 100, and the Nikkei 225. The US
indices and the Nikkei 225 trade almost round the clock. The N225 is also
traded on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange.
DERIVATIVES IN INDIA :
10
Derivatives
commencement of operations in selected scripts. Liberalised exchange
rate management system has been introduced in the year 1992 for
regulating the flow of foreign exchange. A committee headed by
S.S.Tarapore was constituted to go into the merits of full convertibility on
capital accounts. RBI has initiated measures for freeing the interest rate
structure. It has also envisioned Mumbai Inter Bank Offer Rate (MIBOR)
on the line of London Inter Bank Offer Rate (LIBOR) as a step towards
introducing Futures trading in Interest Rates and Forex. Badla
transactions have been banned in all 23 stock exchanges from July 2001.
NSE has started trading in index options based on the NIFTY and certain
Stocks.
11
Derivatives
settlement’ or account period settlement. In its present scene, trades on
the largest stock exchange (NSE) are netted from Wednesday morning till
Tuesday evening, and only the net open position as of Tuesday evening is
settled. The future style settlement has proved to be an ideal launching
pad for the skills that are required for futures trading.
12
Derivatives
pivotal role of the market index in modern finance. The flows of this index
and the importance of the market index in modern finance, motivated the
development of the NSE-50 index in late 1995. Many mutual funds have
now adopted the NIFTY as the benchmark for their performance
evaluation efforts. If the stock derivatives have to come about, the should
restricted to the most liquid stocks. Membership in the NSE-50 index
appeared to be a fair test of liquidity. The 50 stocks in the NIFTY are
assuredly the most liquid stocks in India.
13
Derivatives
Association. With the setting up of the ‘Gujarati Vyapari Mandali” in 1900,
the futures trading in oilseed began. Commodities like groundnut, castor
seed and cotton etc began to be exchanged.
14
Derivatives
like Iron Ore, Aluminium, Nickel, Lead, Zinc and Energy Commodities like
crude oil, coal. Commodities form around 50% of the Indian GDP. Though
there are no institutions or banks in commodity exchanges, as yet, the
market for commodities is bigger than the market for securities.
Commodities market is estimated to be around Rs 44,00,000 Crores in
future. Assuming a future trading multiple is about 4 times the physical
market, in many countries it is much higher at around 10 times.
15
Derivatives
margins, broker net worth, deposit requirement and real–time monitoring
requirements. The Securities Contract Regulation Act (SCRA) was
amended in December 1999 to include derivatives within the ambit of
‘securities’ and the regulatory framework was developed for governing
derivatives trading. The act also made it clear that derivatives shall be
legal and valid only if such contracts are traded on a recognized stock
exchange, thus precluding OTC derivatives. The government also
rescinded in March 2000, the three decade old notification, which
prohibited forward trading in securities. Derivatives trading commenced in
India in June 2000 after SEBI granted the final approval to this effect in
May 2001. SEBI permitted the derivative segments of two stock
exchanges, NSE and BSE, and their clearing house/corporation to
commence trading and settlement in approved derivatives contracts. To
begin with, SEBI approved trading in index futures contracts based on
S&P CNX Nifty and BSE–30 (Sense) index. This was followed by approval
for trading in options based on these two indexes and options on
individual securities.
16
Derivatives
contracts is done in accordance with the rules, byelaws, and regulations
of the respective exchanges and their clearing house/corporation duly
approved by SEBI and notified in the official gazette. Foreign Institutional
Investors (FIIs) are permitted to trade in all Exchange traded derivative
products.
• Put volumes in the index options and equity options segment have
increased since January 2002. The call-put volumes in index
options have decreased from 2.86 in January 2002 to 1.32 in June.
17
Derivatives
The fall in call-put volumes ratio suggests that the traders are
increasingly becoming pessimistic on the market.
• Farther month futures contracts are still not actively traded. Trading
in equity options on most stocks for even the next month was non-
existent.
• Daily option price variations suggest that traders use the F&O
segment as a less risky alternative (read substitute) to generate
profits from the stock price movements. The fact that the option
premiums tail intra-day stock prices is evidence to this. If calls and
puts are not looked as just substitutes for spot trading, the intra-day
stock price variations should not have a one-to-one impact on the
option premiums.
18
Derivatives
foreign currencies. The concept of price is clear to almost everybody
when we discuss commodities. There is a price to be paid for the
purchase of food grain, oil, petrol, metal, etc. the price one pays for use of
a unit of another persons money is called interest rate. And the price one
pays in one’s own currency for a unit of another currency is called as an
exchange rate.
19
Derivatives
bought information very quickly to the markets. Information which would
have taken months to impact the market earlier can now be obtained in
matter of moments. Even equity holders are exposed to price risk of
corporate share fluctuates rapidly.
20
Derivatives
against future losses. This factor alone has contributed to the growth of
derivatives to a significant extent.
21
Derivatives
Advances in financial theories gave birth to derivatives.
Initially forward contracts in its traditional form, was the only hedging tool
available. Option pricing models developed by Black and Scholes in
1973 were used to determine prices of call and put options. In late 1970’s,
work of Lewis Edeington extended the early work of Johnson and started
the hedging of financial price risks with financial futures. The work of
economic theorists gave rise to new products for risk management which
led to the growth of derivatives in financial markets.
22
Derivatives
CHAPTER – 3
Types of DERIVATIVES
23
Derivatives
CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF DERIVATIVES :
Derivatives
24
Derivatives
1. FORWARDS -
2. FUTURES -
25
Derivatives
exchanges in which a clearing house interposes itself between buyer and
seller and guarantees all transactions, so that the identity of the buyer or
the seller is a matter of indifference to the opposite party. Futures contract
protect those who use these commodities in their business.
3. OPTIONS -
26
Derivatives
any asset that is traded. The price at which the underlying is traded is
called the ‘strike price’.
a. CALL OPTION :
A contract that gives its owner the right but not the
obligation to buy an underlying asset-stock or any financial
asset, at a specified price on or before a specified date is
known as a ‘Call option’. The owner makes a profit provided he
sells at a higher current price and buys at a lower future price.
b. PUT OPTION :
A contract that gives its owner the right but not the
obligation to sell an underlying asset-stock or any financial
asset, at a specified price on or before a specified date is
known as a ‘Put option’. The owner makes a profit provided he
buys at a lower current price and sells at a higher future price.
Hence, no option will be exercised if the future price does not
increase.
27
Derivatives
Put and calls are almost always written on equities, although
occasionally preference shares, bonds and warrants become the subject
of options.
4. SWAPS -
b. CURRENCY SWAPS :
28
Derivatives
Currency swaps is an arrangement in which both
the principle amount and the interest on loan in one currency
are swapped for the principle and the interest payments on loan
in another currency. The parties to the swap contract of
currency generally hail from two different countries. This
arrangement allows the counter parties to borrow easily and
cheaply in their home currencies. Under a currency swap, cash
flows to be exchanged are determined at the spot rate at a time
when swap is done. Such cash flows are supposed to remain
unaffected by subsequent changes in the exchange rates.
c. FINANCIAL SWAP :
5. BASKETS -
29
Derivatives
6. LEAPS -
7. WARRANTS -
8. SWAPTIONS -
30
Derivatives
Settlements
F u t u r e sareM
made
a r kdaily
e t through Settlement
F o r w a roccurs
d Mon a rdate
k eagreed
t
the exchange clearing house. Gains upon between the parties to each
on opendeposits
Margin positionsaremaytobebe required transaction.
Typically, no money changes hands
withdrawn and losses are collected until delivery, although a small
of all participants.
daily. margin deposit might be required of
Long and short positions are usually Forward positions are not as easily
non-dealer customers on certain
liquidated easily. offset or transferred to the other
occasions.
Contract terms are standardised participants.
All contract terms are negotiated
Settlements are normally made in Most transactions result in delivery.
with all buyers and sellers privately by the parties.
cash, with only a small percentage
negotiating only with respect to
of all contracts resulting actual
price.
delivery.
Non-member participants deal Participants deal typically on a
A single, round trip (in and out of No commission is typically charged if
through brokers (exchange principal-to-principal basis.
the market) commission is charged. the transaction is made directly with
members who represent them on
It is negotiated between broker and another dealer. A commission is
the exchange floor)
customer
Participants and is include
relatively small in charged
banks, to born
Participants are buyer andinstitutions
primarily seller,
relation to the value
corporations, of theinstitutions,
financial contract. however,
dealing withif transacted through
one other and aother
individual investors, broker.
and
interested parties dealing through
Trading is regulated. Trading is mostly unregulated.
speculators. one
The or
The delivery price is the spot price. more dealers.
delivery price is the forward
The clearing house of the exchangeA participant must examine the
price.
becomes the opposite side to each credit risk and establish credit limits
cleared transactions; therefore, the for each opposite party.
credit risk for a futures market
participant is always the same and
there is no need to analyse the
credit of other market participants.
31
Derivatives
CHAPTER – 4
role of derivatives
32
Derivatives
CHAPTER 4
1.] HEDGERS –
2.] SPECULATORS –
33
Derivatives
have a particular view about future price of a commodity, shares, stock
index, interest rates or currency. They consider various factors like
demand and supply, market positions, open interests, economic
fundamentals, international events, etc. to make predictions. They take
risk in turn from high returns. Speculators are essential in all markets –
commodities, equity, interest rates and currency. They help in providing
the market the much desired volume and liquidity.
3.] ARBITRAGEURS –
4.] BROKERS –
34
Derivatives
35
Derivatives
5.] MARKET MAKERS AND JOBBERS –
6.] EXCHANGE –
36
Derivatives
fixed trading period and execute transactions. In online trading system,
exchange provide access to members and make available real time
information online and also allow them to execute their orders. For
derivative market to be successful exchange plays a very important role,
there may be separate exchange for financial instruments and
commodities or common exchange for both commodities and financial
assets.
37
Derivatives
which are cash settled contracts, the issue of delivery may not arise, but it
would be there in stock futures or options, commodity futures and options
and interest rates futures. In the absence of proper custodian or
warehouse mechanism, delivery of financial assets and commodities will
be a cumbersome task and futures prices will not reflect the equilibrium
price for convergence of cash price and futures price on maturity,
custodian and warehouse are very relevant.
38
Derivatives
strength and volume in the market. For commodities, Forward Market
Commission is working for settling up national National Commodity
Exchange.
ROLE OF DERIVATIVES :
Futures and options contract can be used for altering the risk
of investing in spot market. For instance, consider an investor who owns
an asset. He will always be worried that the price may fall before he can
sell the asset. He can protect himself by selling a futures contract, or by
buying a Put option. If the spot price falls, the short hedgers will gain in
the futures market, as you will see later. This will help offset their losses in
the spot market. Similarly, if the spot price falls below the exercise price,
the put option can always be exercised.
39
Derivatives
you can always invest in an asset and then change its risk to a level that
is more acceptable to you by using derivatives.
40
Derivatives
41
Derivatives
CHAPTER – 5
42
Derivatives
CHAPTER 5
43
Derivatives
foreign exchange forward market, would make the resultant cost of the
loan prohibitively expensive for the borrower.
The “Normal yield curve”, reflects that it is much easier for banks to
borrow at the short end of the curve than the long end. This means that
banks can fund themselves much more effectively in the inter bank market
in maturities such as the overnight, tom / next (overnight from tomorrow,
or tomorrow to the next day), spot / next, one week, one month, three
months and six months than they can in maturities such as five years or
20 years.
44
Derivatives
With the development of the swaps market it is possible for banks
to satisfy their customers demands for fixed rate funding while ensuring
that the banks assets and liabilities are matched. Suppose a bank has a
customer who needs 5 years fixed rate funds. Let us say that the bank
finances in this loan in the interbank market at 3 month LIBOR. The bank
now has a 3 month liability and a 5 year asset (Figure 1).
The bank is short floating rate interest at 3 month LIBOR and long
fixed rate interest at the rate at which it lends to its customer. This is
called the asset liability mismatch. So in order to hedge its position the
banks needs to match its exposure to 3 month LIBOR by receiving on a
floating rate basis in an interest rate swap, and match its exposure on a
fixed rate basis by paying a fixed rate in a interest rate swap. This is a
hedge which is ideally suited to an interest rate swap which the bank
receives a floating rare of interest and pays a fixed rare (Figure 2).
45
Derivatives
This structure has the benefit for the bank that it eliminates the
bank’s exposure to interest rate risk. The bank can no longer profit from a
fall in interest rates but it cannot lose money on its asset and liability
mismatch as a result of an increase in rates. The bank will make or lose
money based on its pricing of the credit risk in the transaction and its
overall loan exposure rather than on its ability to forecast interest rates.
Hence the interest rate swaps provide banks with an opportunity to
change their risks from interest rate to credit.
46
Derivatives
CHAPTER – 6
CASE STUDIES
47
Derivatives
CHAPTER 6
CASE STUDIES :
CASE STUDY 1
Scenario
Delivery
Funding
48
Derivatives
Borrowing Rate
Outlook
The treasurer is worried that the central bank’s future policy directions will
lead to an increase in short term rates.
Market Conditions
Strategy
The treasurer buys the December Put Option with a strike price of 91.25
(implied rate of 8.75%), which allows the manufacturer to enter into a Euro
– Dollar futures contract for a premium price of .25. the notional principal,
that is the size of the contract is $ 1 million, so ten contracts are taken to
cover the full short-term borrowing cost. The put will make money only if
the underlying future falls below the strike price less the price paid for the
option. Remember, the Euro-Dollar future is quoted as an index on a base
of 100, a lower price means a higher rate of interest
49
Derivatives
Results
In Mid-December, depending upon how the LIBOR rate has changed, the
treasurer will use or not use the put option on the future which was
purchased. If the cost of short-term borrowing has remained the same or
declined, the put option will expire worthless. The money expended upon
the premium, of 0.25 % per $ 1 million contract, will have been lost. If,
however, interest rates were to rise, the put option contract on the Euro-
Dollar future will be exercised. If, for example, Euro – Dollar Rates rise to
10.76% (89.10 on the index) which would have given the treasurer a
borrowing cost of 11.26% (LIBOR + 50 bases points), the Put would be
utilised, exercising the right to sell the option on the future at the strike
price of 91.25, for an intrinsic value of 2.1 (Or 2% in interest terms).
The gain in value on the Put options contract compensates for the
increased cost of borrowing on the LIBOR Rate. The risk of funding the
new mainframe computer has been managed.
CASE STUDY 2
50
Derivatives
Scenario
Delivery
In Mid June, 2005, the manufacturer is scheduled to receive and pay for
the imports.
Funding
Exchange Rate
The present rate is STG/ USD = 1.50, which is satisfactory with respect to
commercial objectives, but a weakening of more than 5% will result in
diminished margins or a non competitive position.
51
Derivatives
Outlook
Market Conditions
Strategy
The manufacturer buys one call option contract with a Strike or Exercise
price of 1.51. If the US dollar weakens the call contract will be used to buy
the Pounds – Sterling at the set price. If, the US dollar stays the same or
strengthens, the contract will expire worthless and the premium paid for
the option will have been lost.
Results
52
Derivatives
In June 2005, the Us dollar does weaken and the new spot exchange rate
is STG/USD = 1.60. Hence, the call option at 1.51 has intrinsic value of 9
US cents. Instead of the 1 million Pound Sterling required by the
manufacturer costing 1.6 million US dollars, the exercise of the call
contract will net $ 90000 US ( $ 1.6 million – $ 1.51 million).
After subtracting the price of the premium of 2.5%, the net gain will be $
50000 US ( $ 1.6 million – $ 1.55 million), which partially off-sets the
depreciation in the US Dollar exchange Rate, and is within the
manufacturer’s target range of 5% to remain competitive on pricing.
53
Derivatives
RECOMMENDATIONS
investors.
54
Derivatives
BIBLIOGRAPHY :
BOOKS
INTERNET
www.cxotoday.com
www.indiainfoline.com
www.indiamart.com
55
Derivatives
ABBREVIATION
56
Derivatives
57
Derivatives
58