energies

Article
A Comparative Computational Fluid Dynamics Study
on an Innovative Exhaust Air Energy Recovery Wind
Turbine Generator
Seyedsaeed Tabatabaeikia 1 , Nik Nazri Bin Nik-Ghazali 1, *, Wen Tong Chong 1 ,
Behzad Shahizare 1 , Ahmad Fazlizan 1,2 , Alireza Esmaeilzadeh 1 and Nima Izadyar 1
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya,
50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; saeedtk@siswa.um.edu.my (S.T.); chong_wentong@um.edu.my (W.T.C.);
shahizare@siswa.um.edu.my (B.S.); afazlizan@yahoo.com (A.F.); aesmaeilzadeh2@gmail.com (A.E.);
n.izadyar15@gmail.com (N.I.)
2 School of Ocean Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia
* Correspondence: nik_nazri@um.edu.my; Tel.: +60-379-674-454

Academic Editor: Frede Blaabjerg

Received: 15 March 2016; Accepted: 15 April 2016; Published: 6 May 2016

Abstract: Recovering energy from exhaust air systems of building cooling towers is an innovative
idea. A specific wind turbine generator was designed in order to achieve this goal. This device
consists of two Giromill vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) combined with four guide vanes and
two diffuser plates. It was clear from previous literatures that no comprehensive flow behavior study
had been carried out on this innovative device. Therefore, the working principle of this design was
simulated using the Analysis System (ANSYS) Fluent computational fluid dynamics (CFD) package
and the results were compared to experimental ones. It was perceived from the results that by
introducing the diffusers and then the guide vanes, the overall power output of the wind turbine was
improved by approximately 5% and 34%, respectively, compared to using VAWT alone. In the case
of the diffusers, the optimum angle was found to be 7˝ , while for guide vanes A and B, it was 70˝
and 60˝ respectively. These results were in good agreement with experimental results obtained in the
previous experimental study. Overall, it can be concluded that exhaust air recovery turbines are a
promising form of green technology.

Keywords: vertical axis wind turbine; guide vane; computational fluid dynamics (CFD); turbulence
model; exhaust air recovery systems; building integrated

1. Introduction
There is considerable impetus to find new effective energy sources currently due to the limitation
of fossil fuels and environmental concerns such as carbon emission and global warming. Among
all of the sustainable forms of energy, the application of wind energy has increased rapidly on the
grounds that wind energy unlike other traditional power plants does not pollute the environment.
In addition, there are no atmospheric emissions causing acid rain or global warming related issues [1].
Wind energy is also renewable and abundant. One of the closest competitors to wind energy is solar
energy which has some ramifications—it heats up the atmosphere and causes air movement.
However, in comparison with the overall demand for energy, the scale of wind power usage is
still small; in particular, the level of development in Malaysia is extremely low for various reasons [2].
For instance, local suitable areas for wind power plants are limited and the average velocity of the local
wind is low [3]. Therefore, the development of a new wind power system to generate a higher power
output, especially in areas with lower wind speeds and complex wind patterns, is an urgent demand.

Energies 2016, 9, 346; doi:10.3390/en9050346 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 346 2 of 19

In order to address this issue, various innovative designs have been proposed to either augment
energy generation of wind turbines [4–10], or harvest unnatural sources of wind to generate power [11].
The design is called an exhaust air energy recovery wind turbine generator, in which the high speed
wind exhausted from a cooling tower fan system is considered as the source of energy. In this paper,
the authors aimed to achieve the optimum design for this wind turbine using computational fluid
dynamic (CFD) simulation.
To achieve the highest performance of the exhaust air energy recovery wind turbine, its
aerodynamic performance has to be investigated first. There are two main ways to determine the
aerodynamic performance including experimental and numerical simulation. Several methods such as
CFD simulation, Blade Element Momentum (BEM) theorem, and Golstein’s vortex theorem can be
utilized in order to accomplish the numerical simulation [12,13]. An experimental and numerical study
on aerodynamic characteristics of an H-Darrieus turbine using BEM theorem for numerical simulation
was carried out by Mertens et al. [14]. A blind study comparison was also arranged by the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) [15] on a two bladed horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) in
a NASA-AMES wind tunnel under different operating conditions. Although, even in the simplest
working operating condition the BEM predictions showed a 200% deviation from the experimental
values, CFD codes consistently presented better performance.
In order to perform the CFD simulation of vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT), the Unsteady
Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes (URANS) equations were solved [16–18]. In simulation studies,
the numerical predictions are compared to results achieved experimentally to validate the considered
numerical methods. In the case of the VAWT simulation, the power coefficient is generally
chosen for this purpose [19]. Testing a large model in the laboratory is not practical. Hence,
some researchers [20,21] have tested their CFD methods on small scale turbines. Although for
two dimensional (2-D) simulation a large discrepancy could be seen, considering the cost of simulation,
the result can still be satisfactory.
From previous experimental studies of Chong et al. [22,23], it was concluded that this new
invention is not only capable of recovering 13% of the energy but also it does not give any significant
negative impacts on the performance of the cooling tower provided that it is installed in the correct
position. The optimum position of the VAWT rotor was also experimentally tested by Fazlizan et al. [24].
It was shown that the best vertical and horizontal distances from the exhaust fan central axis are at
300 mm and 250 mm respectively. In another experimental study, Chong et al. [22] discussed the effect
of adding diffuser plates and guide vanes on the power output. The works discussed above regarding
the exhaust air energy recovery wind turbine are mostly experimental and analytical. The CFD
validation regarding these experimental data has not yet been reported. In this paper, a brief and
meticulous CFD analysis, and validation of VAWT are reported. At the first phase of this study, a brief
two dimensional parametric study was done in order to select the best parameters; namely, turbulence
model, mesh density, and the time step. As it is commonly perceived, a suitable turbulence model is
mandatory to achieve an accurate and fast solution of the URANS equations. A mesh independent
solution is also required to ensure the quality of analysis. In the second phase, the numerical results
were validated by comparing power coefficients with experimental data [24]. Following this step,
two diffuser plates were introduced to the design which presented a considerable augmentation in the
VAWT performance. The possible reasons behind this increase are discussed. Finally, the impact of
using guide vanes with various angles was investigated. It was found that using guide vanes can also
boost the power output provided that they are used at an optimum angle. This phenomenon is briefly
explained with the help of flow visualization.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 3 of 18

2. Working Principles of VAWT

Energies 2016, 9, 346
The force and velocity distribution on a schematic VAWT is shown in Figure 1. The vector3sum
of 19

of the free stream wind velocity ( R) and the air velocity (U ) is known as the relative velocity
2. Working Principles of VAWT
(W ) :
The force and velocity distribution on a schematic VAWT is shown in Figure 1. The vector sum of
Ñ Ñ
the free stream wind velocity pω ˆ Rq and WtheUairvelocity
( Rp)Ñ Ñ
(1)
Uq is known as the relative velocity pWq:
Considering the orbital blade position
Ñ shown
Ñ in Figure 1, the maximum velocity is achieved
Ñ Ñ
when   0 and the minimum velocity is at   180 .Rq
W “ U ` p´ ω ˆ (1)

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Force
Force and
and velocity
velocity distribution
distribution on a vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) [25]
(VAWT) [25]

The tip speed

Considering theratio (λ)blade
orbital is the ratio shown
position of the in
tipFigure
tangential speed of the
1, the maximum blades
velocity (ωR) and
is achieved the
when
free-stream
θ “ 0˝ and thewind velocity;velocity
minimum this ratio is expressed
is at θ “ 180˝ . as:
R speed of the blades (ωR) and the free-stream
The tip speed ratio (λ) is the ratio of the tip tangential
wind velocity; this ratio is expressed as:  (2)
U
ωR
λ“ (2)
According to standard airfoil theory, the lift (L) U and drag (D) forces can then be used to obtain
the tangential
Accordingforce (FT) and
to standard the theory,
airfoil axial force N.(L)
the lift The
andtangential force can
drag (D) forces is the
thenforce acting
be used along the
to obtain
blade’s velocity and it pulls the blade around. However, the normal force direction is
tangential force (FT ) and the axial force N. The tangential force is the force acting along the blade’s toward the
rotor center,
velocity and itpushing
pulls the against the shaft
blade around. bearings.
However, The tangential
the normal force is
force direction (Ftoward
T) is inthecharge
rotor of the
center,
generated
pushing torquethe
against and the bearings.
shaft power outputs of the VAWT.
The tangential force (FT ) is in charge of the generated torque and
The mechanical
the power outputs of torque on the axis of a VAWT can be written as follows:
the VAWT.
The mechanical torque on the axis of a VAWT can be written as follows:
T
Ct ,average 
1 T 2 (3)
Ct,average “ ARU (3)
212 ρARU 2
P
P
C p , average 
C p,average “ 1
(4)
1 3 (4)
2 ρAU 3
AU
2 coefficient and the power coefficient. A is the
where Ct,average and Cp,average are respectively the torque
swept turbine area and shown by the following equation:
where Ct ,average and Cp,average are respectively the torque coefficient and the power coefficient. A is
the swept turbine area and shown by the following
A“ Hˆ equation:
D (5)
Energies 2016, 9, 346 4 of 19

Rearranging the wind turbine power equation and considering the tip speed ratio (λ) value from
Equation (3), the wind power equation can be described as:

1 1 ωR 3
P“ ρAC p U 3 “ ρAC p p q (6)
2 2 λ

3. Numerical Model
In this study, the incompressible, unsteady Reynolds Average Navier-Stokes (URANS) equations
are solved for the entire flow domain. The coupled pressure-based solver was selected with a second
order implicit transient formulation for improved accuracy. All solution variables were solved via a
second order upwind discretization scheme since most of the flow can be assumed to be not in line
with the mesh [26]. The URANS vector equation is written as:

BρU 2
` ∇ ¨ pρUUq “ ´∇pP ` µ∇ ¨ Uq ` ∇ ¨ rµp∇U ` p∇UqT qs (7)
Bt 3
Here, ρ, µ and U are the density, viscosity, and velocity respectively.
The above equation is an averaged one for the unsteady case. This unsteadiness occurs mainly
due to turbulence. For incompressible flow, the continuity equation is:

∇¨U “ 0 (8)

The momentum equation could be simplified as:

BU
` ∇ ¨ pUUq “ ´∇ p ` ∇ ¨ pνe f f ∇Uq (9)
Bt
For ease of calculation the equation has been divided by the density. Here p is the dynamic
pressure and νe f f is the effective kinematic viscosity.
Analysis System (ANSYS) Fluent computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was employed in the
present study. Since the nature of VAWTs is unsteady, a transient solver was used to solve
incompressible flow in a moving mesh model. Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations
(SIMPLE) solver was chosen for the pressure-velocity coupling. A second order scheme was
used in order to solve the momentum, turbulent kinetic energy, specific dissipation rate and
transient formulations.

4. Parametric Study
The unsteady nature of VAWTs has made the CFD analysis of them difficult and expensive.
In order to minimize this computational cost, a precisely planned approached is required. By choosing
the right parameters, such as the turbulence model, the mesh density and the time step, not only a
huge amount of time can be saved but also a greater degree of accuracy can be achieved.
Almohammadi et al. [27,28], broadly analyzed the impact of mesh density in VAWT power
output. In their two dimensional study, shear stress transport (SST) transitional, and RNG ´ K ´ ε
the turbulence model were tested, and it was concluded that the SST transitional was the better one.
Some parametric studies were also done by Qin et al. [20]. They used RNG ´ K ´ ε similar to one of
their earlier works [29]. Although their work was in three dimensions, they carried out the parametric
studies in two dimensions and they claimed to achieve mesh independency. While RNG ´ K ´ ε is
well-known to predict the vortices formation, and flow separation quite accurately, some researchers
advocate the SST ´ k ´ ω. In addition to these two models one equation model Spalart-Allmaras was
also tested in this study due to the fact that it is a single equation model and computationally less
expensive [19].
Energies 2016, 9, 346 5 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 346 5 of 19
Energies 2016,authors
The 9, 346 conducted the parametric study in two dimensions. The parametric study5 of 18
was
carried out atauthors
a Tip Speed Ratiothe
(λ)parametric
of 2.2.
The The
authors conducted
conducted the parametric study in
study in two
twodimensions.
dimensions.The parametric
The study
parametric was was
study
carried
carried out at a Tip
out at a TipDomainSpeed Ratio (λ) of 2.2.
Speed Ratio (λ) of 2.2.
4.1. Computational
4.1. Computational Domain
In order to validate
4.1. Computational Domain the simulation results, they were compared with the experimental data
In order to validateby
obtained in the laboratory theFazlizan
simulation results,
et al. they were
[24]. Figure compared
2 shows with the experimental
the experimental apparatus data
used in
In orderintothe
obtained validate thebysimulation
laboratory Fazlizan et results,
al. [24]. they were
Figure 2 showscompared
the with the
experimental experimental
apparatus used in data
this study.
obtained in the laboratory by Fazlizan et al. [24]. Figure 2 shows the experimental apparatus used in
this study.
this study.

Figure 2. Experimental apparatus

The geometrical specificationsFigure Figure

of the2.2. Experimental
computational apparatus
Experimental apparatus.
domain used in the validation phase are
shown in Figure 3. The fan diameter and the position of the VAWT can clearly be seen in this figure.
The Thegeometrical
geometrical specifications ofofthe computational domainusedusedin inthethe validation phase
are are
All the blades are airfoilspecifications
FX 63-137 withthe chordcomputational
length of 45 domain
mm. The rotor validation
diameter phase
(D R) is 300 mm
shown in Figure 3. The fanfandiameter and the theposition
position of the
the VAWT
VAWTcan canclearly
clearly be be seen in this figure.
and shown in Figure
the rotating 3. The
interface diameter
diameter in and
360 mm. The tip speed ratio (TSR) magnitudeseen in this figure.
was assumed to
All the
All blades areare
the blades airfoil
airfoilFX
FX63-137 withchord
63-137 with chord length
length ofmm.
of 45 45 mm. The rotor
The rotor diameter diameter (DRmm
(DR ) is 300 ) is 300
and mm
be TSR = 2.2 for all cases. It means that the rotational speed of the wind turbine is assumed to be 77.5
and the rotating
rotatinginterface
interfacediameter
diameter in in
360360
mm. mm. TheThe
tip speed
tip speedratioratio
(TSR)(TSR)
magnitude
magnitudewas assumed to be to
was assumed
rad/s. The fan was set at the 708 rpm which resulted in the velocity profile shown in Figure 4. This
TSR = 2.2 for all cases. It means that the rotational speed of the wind turbine is assumed
be TSR = 2.2 for all cases. It means that the rotational speed of the wind turbine is assumed to be 77.5 to be 77.5 rad/s.
profile
The was
fanfanthensetinserted
was to the which
velocity inlet inboundary condition by using user defined functions
rad/s. The was at setthe
at 708
the rpm
708 rpm whichresulted the velocity
resulted profile shown
in the velocity profile in shown
Figure 4.inThis profile
Figure 4. This
(UDF).
was then inserted to the velocity inlet boundary condition by using user defined functions (UDF).
profile was then inserted to the velocity inlet boundary condition by using user defined functions
(UDF).

Figure
Figure 3. Computational
Computationaldomain.
domain

Figure 3. Computational domain

Energies 2016, 9, 346 6 of 19
Energies 2016, 9, 346 6 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 346 6 of 18

Figure
Figure 4. Exhaust fan
4. Exhaust
Figure 4. fan velocity
fan velocity profile
velocity profile.
profile

The
The velocity profile
velocity profile of
profile of the
of the fan
the fan at
fan at various
at various distances
various distances is
distances is illustrated
is illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 4. 4.
4.
The velocity
Due
Due to
to the
the revolution
revolution of
of the
the turbine,
turbine, the
the moving
moving mesh
mesh approach
approach was
was used
used for
for the
the VAWT. The
Due to the revolution of the turbine, the moving mesh approach was used forVAWT.
the VAWT.The
rotating
rotating and fixed
and fixed domains
domains are separated
are separated by interfaces
by interfaces which
which are shown
are shown by Figure
by Figure 5. The same
5. The5.same sized
sized
The rotating and fixed domains are separated by interfaces which are shown by Figure The same
mesh
mesh was
was selected
selected for
for both
both sides
sides of
of the
the interface.
interface. According
According to
to the
the fluent
fluent guidebook
guidebook [26],
[26], the
the same
same
sized mesh was selected for both sides of the interface. According to the fluent guidebook [26], the
characteristics
characteristics in interface
in interface cell sizes
cell sizes can obtain a faster convergence. Unstructured mesh was chosen
same characteristics in interface cellcan obtain
sizes a fastera convergence.
can obtain faster convergence. Unstructured
Unstructuredmesh was meshchosen
was
for
for all
all the
the domains. The The generation of
of mesh started from
from the airfoils; in
in the
theingrid independency test,
chosen for domains.
all the domains. generation
The generation mesh of started
mesh started the
from airfoils;
the airfoils; grid
the independency
grid independency test,
various
various mesh
mesh sizes
sizes from
from 0.05
0.05 to
to 0.2
0.2 mm
mm were
were applied
applied to
to the
the airfoils.
airfoils. The
The mesh
mesh was
was then
then coarsened
coarsened as
as
test, various mesh sizes from 0.05 to 0.2 mm were applied to the airfoils. The mesh was then coarsened
it goes
it goes further
further to the
to to
thetheouter
outer domain.
domain. In
InInorder
order to precisely capture the flow behavior around the blade,
as it goes further outer domain. ordertotoprecisely
preciselycapture
capturethe theflow
flowbehavior
behavioraround around the
the blade,
blade,
ten boundary
boundary layerslayers
layers of of the
of the structural
the structural
structural meshmesh were
meshwere generated.
weregenerated.
generated.In In this
Inthis way,
thisway,
way,thethe Y
Y
theYplusplus is also
is also guaranteed
guaranteed
ten boundary plusis also guaranteed to
to stay
stay as as
low low
as
to stay as low as 1. as
1. 1.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Mesh
5. Mesh of
Mesh of rotating
of rotating area
rotating area.
area
Figure
To
To study
study the
the effect
effect of
of mesh
mesh dependency,
dependency, three
three different
different meshes
meshes were
were produced.
produced. TheThe meshing
meshing
was To study the effect of mesh dependency, three different meshes were produced. Theonmeshing was
was done following particular size functions. The refinement was only carried out on the
done following particular size functions. The refinement was only carried out the blades.
blades.
done following
Since particular size functions. The the
refinement was only carried out on the blades. Since
Since an enclosure is put around the blade, the refining is limited to the blade surface, and the
an enclosure is put around the blade, refining is limited to the blade surface, and the
an enclosure
enclosure. Theis stationary
put around the blade,
domain and the
the refining
other is limited
portion of to the blade
rotating domain surface,
remainand the enclosure.
unchanged. The
enclosure. The stationary domain and the other portion of rotating domain remain unchanged. The
The
mesh stationary domain andTable
the other portiondependency
of rotating domain remain unchanged. The mesh
mesh description
description isis given
given in
in Table 1.
1. The
The mesh
mesh dependency study study is
is shown
shown inin Section
Section 4.3.
4.3.
description is given in Table 1. The mesh dependency study is shown in Section 4.3.
Table
Table 1.
1. Different
Different mesh
mesh description.
description.
Mesh
Mesh Description
Description M3
M3 M2
M2 M1
M1
Number
Number ofof cells
cells 260,531
260,531 850,054
850,054 901,560
901,560
No.
No. of nodes on
of nodes on aa blade
blade 350
350 700
700 900
900
Energies 2016, 9, 346 7 of 19

Table 1. Different mesh description.

Mesh Description M3 M2 M1
Number of cells 260,531 850,054 901,560
No. of nodes on a blade 350 700 900

4.2. Turbulence Testing

In this study, RNG ´ K ´ ε, Spalart-Allmaras (S-A) and SST ´ k ´ ω turbulence models were
investigated. Except for S-A, the other two turbulence models use the turbulence kinetic energy k and
the dissipation rate. For, k the value was decided using the following equation:

3
k“ ˆ pU Iq2 (10)
2
Here, U and I refer to average velocity which is 5.28 m/s (inflow) and turbulence intensity
respectively. The turbulence intensity was assumed to be 5%. The value of turbulence kinetic energy is
0.1045 (m2 /s2 ). The value of ω is obtained using the following equation:

1 1
ω “ k 2 {LCµ4 (11)

Here, L is the turbulent length scale and Cµ is a non-dimensional constant. The turbulent length
scale is assumed to be 0.01 m. The turbulence intensity represents the incoming vortices, and the
turbulent length scale depicts the smallest possible diameter of the vortices.
Yahkot et al. [30] used renormalization to derive the RNG ´ K ´ ε model from the typical K ´ ε
model. The main intention was to accurately model the Reynolds stress, and predict the production of
dissipation terms. The number of equations increased, which leads to higher computational time. The
value of ε is derived using the following equation:
1 3
P “ Cµ4 k 2 {L (12)

The Spalart-Allmaras model is a one equation model which was designed with the objective of
numerical efficiency. As it is a one equation model, it is much faster than the RNG ´ k ´ ε model.
This model is effective for wall-bounded and adverse pressure gradient flows in the boundary layer.
However this model is known to perform poorly in laminar to turbulent transition.
The SST ´ k ´ ω model is an improved version of the standard k ´ ω model. It uses the original
Wilcox k ´ ω formulation near walls. Again it switches to k ´ ε behavior while resolving the free
stream. The adjustment of eddy viscosity formulation enables this model to accurately deal with the
transport effects of the turbulent shear stress. As a result, it avoids the common problem associated
with the standard k ´ ω model.
Achieving convergence in the unsteady case of VAWT is time consuming especially for the
convergence criteria of 10´5 which is used in this study. In order to achieve convergence in a reasonable
time, under relaxation is put to use. An under-relaxation factor of 0.3 for the pressure equation, 0.7 for
turbulent kinetic energy k, and 0.8 for the velocity equation are used.
The deviation between the torque coefficient obtained from the fourth and fifth revolution is less
than 5%. Therefore, it was assumed that the steady periodic output was achieved after 4–5 revolutions.
It can be seen from Table 2 that the result obtained from the SST ´ k ´ ω model is the closest one to
the experimental value. In the simulation, the influence of the rotating and support arm was ignored.
If these entities had been included the outcome would have been different. The value of the Power
coefficient (CP ) would have been reduced.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 8 of 19

Table 2. Numerical and experimental results.

Computational Time for 1 s

Description Power Coefficient
of Computational Case
RNG k-epsilon 0.0820 45.2 h
SST k-omega 0.1003 48.6 h
S-A 0.114 31.4 h
Experimental 0.0918 -
RNG, re-normalisation group; SST, shear stress transport; S-A, Spalart-Allmaras.

Therefore, SST ´ k ´ ω was selected as the turbulence model in this study. Since the system is
characterized by a low Reynolds number, the k ´ ε and the Spallart-Allmaras model cannot capture
and predict the flow development, especially in laminar separation bubbles. Thus, the SST ´ k ´ ω
model can be utilized as a low Reynolds turbulence model without any extra damping functions.
Furthermore, this model is able to provide a very good prediction of the turbulence in adverse pressure
gradients and separating flow. Furthermore, the shear stress transport (SST) formulation is formed by
combining the k ´ ω and k ´ ε models. This structure assists the SST method to switch to the k ´ ε
model in order to avoid the k ´ ω problem in the inlet free-stream turbulence properties and to use the
k ´ ω formulation in the inner parts of the boundary layer.

4.3. Mesh Dependency Study

Table 1 gives the specifications of meshes used in this study. The authors used the power coefficient
of VAWT for the mesh independency check. In the case of the wind turbine the quantity considered to
be the most important one is performance. Roache et al. [26] described the method of using Richardson
extrapolation for finding the required mesh resolution and convergence. Almohammadi et al. [28] also
used the method. The mesh resolution required for an accurate result is identified as:

Cp1 ´ Cp2
Cpexact “ Cp1 ` ` Higher order truncation (13)
rP ´ 1

Here the subscripts refer to different mesh resolution levels. The quantity p denotes the order
of accuracy and the order of accuracy was assumed to be 2. As for catching vortices and resolving
dynamic stall, high resolution meshing was provided near the blade, there was no need to refine other
parts of the computational domain. The process of refining is briefly discussed in Section 4.1. The
apparent convergence study is defined by the following equation:

Cp2 ´ Cp1
R˚ “ (14)
Cp3 ´ Cp2

If,
R* >1 Monotonic divergence
1 > R* > 0 Monotonic convergence
0 > R*> ´1 Oscillatory convergence
R* < ´1 Oscillatory divergence

The mesh convergence was found to be (´0.641). So it is an oscillatory convergence case. It can
successfully be concluded that the mesh dependency is achieved and depicted by Figure 6.
 R* >1 Monotonic divergence
1 > R* > 0 Monotonic convergence
0 > R*> −1 Oscillatory convergence
R* < −1 Oscillatory divergence
The mesh convergence was found to be (−0.641). So it is an oscillatory convergence case. It can
Energies 2016, 9, 346 9 of 19
successfully be concluded that the mesh dependency is achieved and depicted by Figure 6.

Figure
Figure 6. 6. Variation
Variation of of torque
torque coefficient
coefficient by by azimuth
azimuth angle
angle forfor different
different mesh
mesh densities
densities at tip
at tip speed
speed ratio
ratio=(TSR)
(TSR) 2.2. = 2.2.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 9 of 18

4.4. Dependency of Time Increment

4.4. Dependency of Time Increment
The accuracy and convergence of a CFD study is highly dependent on choosing the right time
The
step accuracy
[20]. and convergence
Four different time steps ofwerea CFD study isbased
considered, highlyondependent
the VAWT on choosing
rotational the right
speed, time a
to achieve
step [20]. Four different time steps were considered,
˝ ´ 1 based on the VAWT rotational speed,
reliable result. The largest dt was equal to 3 ω ; equivalent to three degree rotation and the smallest to achieve
a reliable
one was result.
0.5˝ ω´The largest dtto was
1 ; equivalent half aequal
degreeto rotation
3°ω−1; equivalent
when the tipto speed
three ratio
degree
was rotation
2.2. and the
smallest one was 0.5°ω −1 ; equivalent to half a degree rotation when the tip speed ratio
As Figure 7 illustrates, a trivial difference between torque coefficient of dt = 1 ω and 0.5˝ ω´1 ˝ was
´ 1 2.2.
As Figure
existed. 7 illustrates,
Therefore, a time step a trivial difference
of 1˝ ω ´1 (0.00025 between torque for
s) was chosen coefficient
successiveof numerical
dt = 1°ω−1 simulations
and 0.5°ω−1 in
existed.
order Therefore, a time step of
to save computational 1°ωand
time
−1 (0.00025
cost. s) was chosen for successive numerical simulations in
order to save computational time and cost.

Figure
Figure 7. Time
7. Time dependency
dependency study.
study.

4.5. Final
4.5. Parameters
Final Parameters
From
From thethe
discussion
discussion of of
thethe
turbulence
turbulencemodels
models it is evident
it is that
evident S-A
that S-Ais is
not compatible
not compatible with thethe
with
present
presentobjectives.
objectives. The
The performance ofofRNG RNG ´ k´k εand
 andSST ´ k ´
SST ωkisalmost
 is similar.
almost similar.
However,
SST ´ k ´SST
However, ω is believed
k   is to capture
believed tothe wakethe
capture vortices better than
wake vortices RNG
better than ´ kRNG´ ε.  k   .the
Again, result
Again,
theobtained from SSTfrom
result obtained ´ k ´ SST  k closest
ω is the   is tothe
theclosest
experimental value. This is why
to the experimental value.theThis
turbulence
is whymodel
the
turbulence model SST  k   was chosen. As seen from the mesh dependency analysis, the resultthe
SST ´ k ´ ω was chosen. As seen from the mesh dependency analysis, the result obtained from
finest mesh
obtained fromM-3the does
finestnot differ
mesh much
M-3 from
does notthe medium
differ muchfine mesh
from theM-2. This fine
medium is why the M-2.
mesh M-2 mesh
This was
is
chosen. Finally, the chosen time step was 1˝ ω´1 equal to 0.00025 s. −1
why the M-2 mesh was chosen. Finally, the chosen time step was 1°ω equal to 0.00025 s.

4.6.
4.6. CFD
CFD Validation
Validation
The
The researchers
researchers in in
thethe Mechanical
Mechanical Department
Department of of
thethe University
University of of Malaya
Malaya carried
carried out
out several
several
experiments, and an analytical study [4,6,22–24,31,32] on VAWT performance. The simulation result of
experiments, and an analytical study [4,6,22–24,31,32] on VAWT performance. The simulation result
of this study was verified using the experimental data obtain by Fazlizan et al. [24]. The specification
of the experimental setup and the computational domain are described in Section 4.1. The
simulations were done for seven revolutions. The results were obtained from the last three
revolutions.
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the power coefficient between CFD simulation and the
Energies 2016, 9, 346 10 of 19

this study was verified using the experimental data obtain by Fazlizan et al. [24]. The specification of
the experimental setup and the computational domain are described in Section 4.1. The simulations
were done for seven revolutions. The results were obtained from the last three revolutions.
Figure 8 shows the comparison of the power coefficient between CFD simulation and the
experimental result for TSR in the range of 0.9 to 3.0. The simulation result is in good agreement with
the experimental values [24]. The discrepancies may occur due to insufficient mesh resolution, and
turbulence modeling. The turbulence model and computational domain of this study were chosen
after parametric studies. These studies were conducted in TSR 2.2. According to the popular definition
of Reynolds number of a wind turbine, the characteristic length should be the diameter of the rotor
disc. The Reynolds number in this study was 1.58 ˆ 105 . However the blades experience relative
velocity with the change of TSR, and the Reynolds number varies from 1.38 ˆ 105 to 1.90 ˆ 106 . In this
range both laminar and turbulent flow is expected around the blade. Resolving the transition from
laminar to turbulent flow is not easy. Conventionally, parameters obtained from a parametric study
are valid for the specific Reynolds number, at which the study is administered. As the parametric
study is carried out in TSR 2.2, it can be observed from Figure 8 that the simulation values near TSR 2.2
Energies 2016, 9, 346
are comparatively closer to the experimental ones than the other TSRs. However the range 10 ofofvarying
18
Energies 2016, 9, 346 10 of 18
Reynolds number in this study is not that high. Again the deviations of the present study are in a
the range of varying Reynolds number in this study is not that high. Again the deviations of the
satisfactory
the rangerange
present study in comparison
of varying
are in aReynolds to
satisfactory some
number existing
range in papers
this study
in comparison [20,29].
istonot that
some high. Again
existing papers the deviations of the
[20,29].
present study are in a satisfactory range in comparison to some existing papers [20,29].

Figure 8. Power coefficients obtained by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and
Figure 8. Power coefficients obtained by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and
experimental
Figure result.
8. Power
experimental result. coefficients obtained by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation and
experimental result.
5. Results and Discussion
5. Results and Discussion
5. Results and Discussion
In order to improve this design, two diffuser plates and four guide vanes as well as an extra
In order
In order to improvethis
VAWT to
were improve
introduced to itdesign,
this which two
two diffuser
design,resulted platesand
to the design
diffuser plates andfour
shown four guide
in guide
Figure 9. vanes
vanes as well
as well asextra
as an an extra
VAWT were
VAWT introduced
were to to
introduced it which resulted
it which resultedtotothe
thedesign shownin
design shown inFigure
Figure9.9.

Figure 9. Iso-metric view of the augmented exhaust air energy recovery turbine.

Figure
A detailed
Figure 9. 9.
two Iso-metric view
dimensional
Iso-metric view of the
model
of augmented
theofaugmented exhaust
the proposed air energy
design
exhaust airisenergyrecovery
illustrated inturbine.
recoveryFigure 10. The effect
turbine.
of added features of the VAWT performance is discussed in the following sections.
A detailed two dimensional model of the proposed design is illustrated in Figure 10. The effect
of added features of the VAWT performance is discussed in the following sections.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 11 of 19

A detailed two dimensional model of the proposed design is illustrated in Figure 10. The effect of
added
Energies features
2016, 9, 346of the VAWT performance is discussed in the following sections. 11 of 18

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Two-dimensional (2D) model
Two-dimensional (2D) model of
of the
the exhaust
exhaust air
air energy
energy recovery
recovery turbine.
turbine.

5.1. The
5.1. The Effect
Effect of
of the
the Diffuser
Diffuser Angle
Angle
As can
As can be
be understood
understood from
from Equation
Equation (6),
(6), the
the generated
generated power
power isis hugely
hugely correlative
correlative to
to the
the cubed
cubed
wind speed.
wind speed. Therefore,
Therefore, by
by even
even aa minor
minor increment
increment in in the wind velocity,
the wind velocity, aa considerable
considerable increase
increase in
in
power output can be obtained. Enhancement of the wind velocity around a wind
power output can be obtained. Enhancement of the wind velocity around a wind turbine by using the turbine by using
the fluid
fluid dynamic
dynamic nature,nature, especially
especially by concentrating
by concentrating the windthe windlocally,
energy energyhaslocally,
alwayshas always
been been
considered
considered an effective way to boost the wind turbine’s
an effective way to boost the wind turbine’s output power. output power.
Wind-concentrating devices
Wind-concentrating devices known
known asas diffusers
diffusers have
have been
been widely
widely employed
employed in in wind
wind turbines
turbines
in order
in order to
to enhance
enhancethe thepower
powergeneration.
generation.According
According to to
thethe
basic laws
basic of conservation
laws of mass
of conservation and
of mass
energy—called
and energy—called Bernoulli’s
Bernoulli’slaw—the
law—the mass flow
mass is proportional
flow is proportional to to
thethearea ratio (pA
arearatio Aexit / Ainflow
exit {Ainflow )q.
.
Therefore, more mass flow can be increased if the exit area of the fluid is larger than than itsits inflow
inflow area.
area.
Unfortunately, nature is not not that
that generous.
generous.To Tobebemore
moreprecise,
precise,opening
openinganglesangles less
lessthan
than10° ˝ have
10have to
be be
to used
used to toavoid
avoid what
whatisiscalled
calledflowflowseparation
separation[33].[33].Therefore
Thereforeininthisthis study,
study, 5°,5˝ , 7°,
7˝ , and 99° ˝ were

selected for the diffuser plates’ angle (α). The engineering task then then is
is to
to find
find aa reasonable
reasonable area area ratio.
ratio.
Serious work started in 1956 by Liley and Rainbird [34] and efforts up to 2007 were summarized by
Bussel [35].
van Bussel [35].
At the first step,step, two diffuser plates with three different different angles
angles were
were introduced
introduced while while guide
vanes A and B were were kept
kept at at 90 ˝ . The TSR in all cases, the same as the
90°. the parametric
parametric study section, was
assumed to be 2.2. The comparison
comparison of the torque coefficients obtained from a single blade in each
arrangement is shown in Figure 11. As is clear, the diffuser with 77° ˝ has the higher peak as well as a

positivetorque
more positive torquearea.
area.Figure
Figure 12 12 illustrates
illustrates the the
powerpower output
output forfour
for the the different
four different
designs. designs.
While
While
the the diffuser
diffuser ˝
with 5 with ˝
and 95°degree
and 9°showsdegreealmost
showsthe almost
same the samethe
amount, ˝
amount,
7 diffuserthe 7° diffuser the
improves improves
power
thealmost
by power5% bycompared
almost 5%tocompared
the designto the design
without without
diffusers. It is diffusers.
thus concludedIt is thus
that concluded
the optimum that the
angle
optimum
for angleplates
the diffuser 7˝ . This plates
for theisdiffuser result is in7°.good
This agreement
result is in with
goodtheagreement
experimental with data
the experimental
achieved by
data achieved
Chong byand
et al. [22] Chong et al. [22]
previous and previous
research done by Abe research
et al. done
[36]. by Abe et al. [36].
This improvement is justified by considering the fact fact that
that the
the diffuser-plates
diffuser-plates are causing a flow
augmentation effect, which leads to a discharged airflow increment based on Bernoulli’s principle. principle.
Ultimately, this
Ultimately, thisincreased
increasedvolumetric
volumetric flow
flow raterate interacts
interacts withwith the VAWT
the VAWT blades, blades,
resulting resulting in a
in a higher
higher energy
energy output.output.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 12 of 19
Energies 2016, 9, 346 12 of 18
Energies 2016, 9, 346 12 of 18

Figure 11. Effect

Figure11.
11. of
Effectof angle
ofangle of
angleof diffusers
ofdiffusers on torque
diffuserson
on torque coefficient.
coefficient.
Figure Effect torque coefficient.

Figure 12. Power coefficient of different diffuser plate arrangements.

Figure
Figure12.
12.Power
Powercoefficient
coefficientof
ofdifferent
differentdiffuser
diffuser plate
plate arrangements.
arrangements.

5.2. The Effect of Guide Vanes

5.2.
5.2. The
TheEffect
EffectofofGuide
Guide Vanes
Vanes
Considering the optimum angle of the diffuser plates to ˝be 7°, the next step is to change the
Considering
Considering the the optimum
optimumangle
angleofofthe
the diffuser
diffuser plates
plates to 7be, the
to be 7°, next
the next step
step is is to change
to change the
the angles
angles of the guide vanes. This step was done in two stages by rotating a single guide vane at each
angles of the vanes.
of the guide guide vanes. This
This step wasstep
donewasindone in twoby
two stages stages by rotating
rotating a single aguide
single guide
vane vanestage.
at each at each
stage.
stage.
5.2.1. Guide Vane A
5.2.1. Guide Vane A
5.2.1. Guide Vane A
The effects of eleven different angles in the range of 30˝ to 130˝ with intervals of 10 are studied
The effects of eleven different angles in the range of 30° to 130° with intervals of 10 are studied
in this
Thestage. The
effects principle
of eleven behindangles
different the guide
in thevanes
rangeare
of the
30° same
to 130° aswith
the diffuser.
intervals They are studied
of 10 are capable
in this stage. The principle behind the guide vanes are the same as the diffuser. They are capable of
of creating low pressure zones and consequently increasing the air flow speed.
in this stage. The principle behind the guide vanes are the same as the diffuser. They are capable As is clear from
of
creating low pressure zones and consequently increasing ˝ the air flow speed. As is clear from Figure
Figure 13,
creating lowthe guide vane
pressure zoneswith
and an angle of 70increasing
consequently providesthetheairhighest outputAspower
flow speed. is clearamong all the
from Figure
13, the guide vane with an angle of 70° provides the˝ highest output ˝ guide power among all the other
other
13, thearrangements.
guide vane with Onean of the reasons
angle that the the
of 70° provides 30 highest
and 130output vanesamong
power provide allthe
thelowest
other
arrangements. One of the reasons that the 30° and 130° guide vanes provide the lowest power
arrangements.
power coefficient Oneisof thethey
that reasons
mostlythatacted
the 30°
as a and 130° guide
blockage for inlet vanes
wind provide the lowest
by creating a largepower
wake
coefficient is that they mostly acted as a blockage for inlet wind by creating a large wake
coefficient is that they mostly acted as a blockage for inlet wind by creating a large wake
behind themselves.
behind themselves.
behind themselves.
The results and other specifications of the tests are tabulated in Table 3. The numbers after the
The results and other specifications of the tests are tabulated in Table 3. The numbers after the
letters A and B indicate the guide vane angles of β and ψ (see Figure 10). The torque (T) and power
letters A and B indicate the guide vane angles of β and ψ (see Figure 10). The torque (T) and power
coefficient (Cp) were calculated using Equations (4) and (5), respectively. This table also indicates
coefficient (Cp) were calculated using Equations (4) and (5), respectively. This table also indicates
that β = 70° results in the highest power output. The relative deviations of the output power
that β = 70° results in the highest power output. The relative deviations of the output power
compared to the baseline design, when both β and ψ are equal to 90°, are also tabulated in Table 3.
compared to the baseline design, when both β and ψ are equal to 90°, are also tabulated in Table 3.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 13 of 19
Energies 2016, 9, 346 13 of 18

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Effect of guide
Effect of guide vane
vane “A”
“A” angle
angle on
on power
power coefficient.
coefficient

Table 3. The results and other specifications of the various cases

The results and other specifications of the tests are tabulated in Table 3. The numbers after the
letters A and B indicate the guide vane angles of β and ψ (see Figure 10). The Deviation from
torque (T) and power
Cm T TSR Cp P
coefficient (Cp ) were calculated using Equations (4) and (5), respectively. This Baseline
tableDesign (%) that
also indicates
˝
β = 70A30B90 0.032
results in the 0.024 output.
highest power 2.2The relative
0.071 deviations
1.86 of the output −31.6176
power compared to
A40B90
the baseline design,0.045
when both 0.033
β and ψ are 90˝ , are also
2.2equal to0.099 2.59 −4.77941
tabulated in Table 3.
A50B90 0.045 0.033 2.2 0.098 2.57 −5.51471
A60B90 Table 3. The
0.049 results and
0.036 2.2other specifications
0.108 of2.82
the various cases.3.676471
A70B90 0.053 0.039 2.2 0.116 3.03 11.39706
A80B90 0.046Cm 0.033T 2.2 0.101 2.63 Deviation from
−3.30882
TSR Cp P
Baseline Design (%)
A90B90 0.047 0.035 2.2 0.105 2.72 0
A100B90A30B90 0.0380.032 0.028 0.024 2.22.2 0.071
0.083 1.86
2.18 ´31.6176
−19.8529
A40B90 0.045 0.033 2.2 0.099 2.59 ´4.77941
A110B90A50B90 0.0420.045 0.031 0.033 2.22.2 0.093
0.098 2.42
2.57 −11.0294
´5.51471
A120B90A60B90 0.045
0.049 0.033
0.036 2.22.2 0.099
0.108 2.57
2.82 −5.51471
3.676471
A130B90A70B90 0.036
0.053 0.027
0.039 2.22.2 0.08
0.116 2.09
3.03 −23.1618
11.39706
A80B90
Cm, coefficient 0.046 T, torque;
of momentum; 0.033 TSR, 2.2
tip speed0.101 2.63
ratio; Cp, coefficient ´3.30882
of power; P, generated power.
A90B90 0.047 0.035 2.2 0.105 2.72 0
A100B90 0.038 0.028 2.2 0.083 2.18 ´19.8529
FigureA110B90
14 compares the variation
0.042 0.031 in the2.2
torque 0.093
coefficient2.42of the two different
´11.0294arrangements for
a completeA120B90
revolution.0.045
As clear,0.033
although 2.2before the
0.099azimuth 2.57angle of 90° the figures are almost
´5.51471
A130B90
identical, the 70° guide0.036 0.027 a higher
vane provides 2.2 torque0.08 2.09afterwards´23.1618
coefficient , which leads to a higher

averageCpower coefficient.
m , coefficient This T,
of momentum; increase cantip
torque; TSR, bespeed
more clearly
ratio; observed
Cp , coefficient in Figure
of power; 15, where
P, generated power.the total
torque coefficient of all five blades is shown. As is apparent utilization of the 70° guide vane
provided
Figurea considerable
14 compares enhancement
the variation in in the
produced
torque torque.
coefficientEven ofthough
the twoitdifferent
is out of arrangements
this study scope,
for
it is noteworthy that this modification in design decreased the fluctuation
a complete revolution. As clear, although before the azimuth angle of 90 the figures are almost rate
˝ in the torque diagram
which canthe
identical, result
70˝ in less vane
guide fatigue in the VAWT.
provides a higher torque coefficient afterwards, which leads to a higher
According to Figure 15, the most
average power coefficient. This increase can be more significant difference
clearly inobserved
torque coefficient
in Figurefor 15,the two the
where cases of
total
β = 90°coefficient
torque and 70° occurs when
of all five 90° is< shown.
blades θ < 180°.AsTherefore,
is apparentthe contourofofthe
utilization the70pressure
˝ guide vanecoefficient
providedat
θ = 120° was plotted in Figure 16 to investigate the possible reason
a considerable enhancement in produced torque. Even though it is out of this study scope, it is for this increment. It can be
observed
noteworthy in that
this figure that when the
this modification 70° guide
in design vane isthe
decreased used the distribution
fluctuation of the
rate in the torquelowdiagram
pressurewhich
zone
on the top of the blade is significantly
can result in less fatigue in the VAWT. improved. This phenomenon caused more pressure difference
between the low and top of the blade leading to a higher torque.
 Energies 2016, 9, 346 14 of 19
Energies
Energies2016,
2016,9,9,346
346 14
14ofof18
18

Figure
Figure14.
Figure 14.Torque
14. Torquecoefficient
Torque coefficientof
coefficient single
ofaasingle blade.
singleblade.
blade.

Figure
Figure15.
Figure 15.Total
15. Totaltorque
Total torquecoefficient
torque of
coefficientof
coefficient five
offive blades.
fiveblades.
blades.

According to Figure 15, the most significant difference in torque coefficient for the two cases
of β = 90˝ and 70˝ occurs when 90˝ < θ < 180˝ . Therefore, the contour of the pressure coefficient
at θ = 120˝ was plotted in Figure 16 to investigate the possible reason for this increment. It can be
observed in this figure that when the 70˝ guide vane is used the distribution of the low pressure zone
on the top of the blade is significantly improved. This phenomenon caused more pressure difference
between the low and top of the blade leading to a higher torque.

Figure
Figure16.
16.Pressure
Pressurecoefficient
coefficientcontour.
contour.(a)
(a)ββ==90°
90°and
and(b)
(b)ββ==70°.
70°.
Energies 2016, 9, 346 15 of 19
Figure 15. Total torque coefficient of five blades.

˝ ˝
Energies 2016, 9, 346
Figure 16.Pressure
Figure16. Pressurecoefficient
coefficientcontour.
contour.(a)
(a)ββ==90
90°and
and (b)
(b) ββ == 70
70°.. 15 of 18

5.2.2.
5.2.2. Guide
Guide Vane
VaneBB
The ˝
The next
next stage
stage proceeded
proceeded by byfixing
fixingthe
theguide
guidevane
vaneatatββ==7070°.. Seven
Seven different
different arrangements
arrangements in in
the ˝ ˝
the range of ψ = 30° to 90° with 10 intervals were considered for guide vane B. Due to the
range of ψ = 30 to 90 with 10 intervals were considered for guide vane B. Due to the position
position of
of
this ˝
this guide
guide vane,
vane, angles
angles greater
greaterthan
than9090°were
were ignored.
ignored. As
As is
is obvious
obvious in in Figure
Figure 17,
17, the
the greatest
greatest power
power
coefficient belongs to the arrangement with ψ = 60 ˝ when it is equal to 0.134.
coefficient belongs to the arrangement with ψ = 60° when it is equal to 0.134.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Effect
Effect of
of guide
guide vane
vane BB angle
angle on
on power
power coefficient.
coefficient.

The results and other specifications of the tests are shown in Table 4. From this table it is
The results and other specifications of the tests are shown in Table 4. From this table it is indicated
indicated that ψ = 60° results in the highest power output with 3.49 W. The first column from the
that ψ = 60˝ results in the highest power output with 3.49 W. The first column from the right shows
right shows the relative deviations of the output power from the baseline design, when both β and ψ
the relative deviations of the output power from the baseline design, when both β and ψ are equal to
are equal to 90°, are also tabulated in Table 3.
90˝ , are also tabulated in Table 3.
Table 4. The results and other specifications of the various cases.

Deviation from
Cm T TSR Cp P
Baseline Design (%)
A70B30 0.051 0.038 2.2 0.114 2.96 8.823529
A70B40 0.053 0.039 2.2 0.117 3.04 11.76471
A70B50 0.055 0.04 2.2 0.121 3.15 15.80882
A70B60 0.061 0.045 2.2 0.134 3.49 28.30882
A70B70 0.055 0.041 2.2 0.122 3.19 17.27941
A70B80 0.052 0.039 2.2 0.1165 3.02 11.02941
A70B90 0.053 0.0392 2.2 0.1168 3.03 11.39706
Cm, coefficient of momentum; T, torque; TSR, tip speed ratio; Cp, coefficient of power; P, generated power.

The torque coefficient variation in two different arrangements for a complete revolution is
compared in Figure 18. As it is clear, from θ = 0° to θ = 160°, both diagrams are relatively congruent;
Energies 2016, 9, 346 16 of 19

Table 4. The results and other specifications of the various cases.

Deviation from
Cm T TSR Cp P
Baseline Design (%)
A70B30 0.051 0.038 2.2 0.114 2.96 8.823529
A70B40 0.053 0.039 2.2 0.117 3.04 11.76471
A70B50 0.055 0.04 2.2 0.121 3.15 15.80882
A70B60 0.061 0.045 2.2 0.134 3.49 28.30882
A70B70 0.055 0.041 2.2 0.122 3.19 17.27941
A70B80 0.052 0.039 2.2 0.1165 3.02 11.02941
A70B90 0.053 0.0392 2.2 0.1168 3.03 11.39706
Cm , coefficient of momentum; T, torque; TSR, tip speed ratio; Cp , coefficient of power; P, generated power.

The torque coefficient variation in two different arrangements for a complete revolution is
compared in Figure 18. As it is clear, from θ = 0˝ to θ = 160˝ , both diagrams are relatively congruent;
however, after this point the torque coefficient related to ψ = 60˝ is considerably higher until the end
of the cycle,
Energies 2016, 9,leading
346 to a 15% higher average torque coefficient. 16 of 18

Figure 18. Torque coefficient

coefficient of aa single
single blade.
blade.

6. Economic
6. EconomicFeasibility
Feasibility
A techno-economic
A techno-economic analysis
analysis has
has been
been carried
carried out
out on
on the
the novel
novel exhaust
exhaust air
air energy recovery wind
energy recovery wind
turbine generator installed on a cooling tower commonly used in Malaysia. For the
turbine generator installed on a cooling tower commonly used in Malaysia. For the cooling tower with cooling tower
awith a 7.5rated
7.5 kW kW rated fan motor,
fan motor, 13.3%13.3%
of theofdischarged
the discharged energy
energy is expected
is expected to betorecovered.
be recovered.ForFor a year
a year of
of operation of the cooling tower with this system, approximately 7.3 MWh is
operation of the cooling tower with this system, approximately 7.3 MWh is estimated to be recovered. estimated to be
recovered.analysis
Economic Economic analysis
shows shows that
that capital, capital, components
components replacement,replacement, as well and
as well as operation as operation and
maintenance
maintenance
costs costs are
of the system of the system
covered in are covered of
the lifetime inthe
thesystem.
lifetimeForof this
the system. For net
project, the thispresent
project,(NPV)
the net
is
present (NPV) is 25,347 Malaysian Ringgit (RM)
25,347 Malaysian Ringgit (RM) for the 20-year lifetime. for the 20-year lifetime.

7. Conclusions
Conclusions
A 2D CFDCFD study
study was
was carried
carried out
out on
on aa novel
novel wind
wind turbine
turbine design.
design. The effects of different
diffuser plate angles and guide vane angles were investigated. It was derived from the results that
by introducing diffusers and then guide vanes, the overall power output of the wind turbine was
improved by by approximately
approximately5% 5%and
and34%,
34%,respectively,
respectively, compared
compared to using a VAWT
to using a VAWTalone. In the
alone. Incase
the
of theofdiffusers,
case the optimum
the diffusers, angle angle
the optimum was found to be 7°,
was found ˝
to while
be 7 ,for guide
while forvanes
guideAvanes
and B,Aitand
wasB,70° and
it was
70 ˝ and
60°, 60˝ , respectively.
respectively. These results
Theseare in good
results are inagreement with experimental
good agreement results results
with experimental obtained in the
obtained
laboratory. Overall, it can be concluded that exhaust air recovery turbines
in the laboratory. Overall, it can be concluded that exhaust air recovery turbines offer aoffer a promising
technology.
opportunity in green technology.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia and
The University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia for the financial support under Grant RP006C-13AET,
HIRG: UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/15 (D000015-16001), and Malaysia Technical Cooperation Program (MTCP)
scholarship.

Author Contributions: Seyedsaeed Tabatabaeikia, Behzad Shahizare, and Nima Izadyar have conceived CFD
Energies 2016, 9, 346 17 of 19

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education of
Malaysia and The University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia for the financial support under Grant
RP006C-13AET, HIRG: UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/15 (D000015-16001), and Malaysia Technical Cooperation
Program (MTCP) scholarship.
Author Contributions: Seyedsaeed Tabatabaeikia, Behzad Shahizare, and Nima Izadyar have conceived
CFD simulation, performed experimental study and written this article. Nik Nazri Bin Nik-Ghazali and
Wen Tong Chong are the heads of two groups in University of Malaya that guide all of the procedures.
Ahmad Fazlizan and Alireza Esmaeilzadeh have assisted in paper writing and result analysis.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

A Swept turbine area

BEM Blade element momentum
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
Ct, average Average of mechanical torque coefficient
Cp, average Average power coefficient
FT Tangential force
GIT Grid independency test
k Kinetic energy
L Turbulent length
R* Monotonic divergence
P Dynamic pressure
SST Shear stress transport
URANS Unsteady Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes
U Air velocity
VAWT Vertical axis wind turbine
W Relative velocity
Greek
α Diffuser angle
β Angle of guide-vane A
θ Azimuth angle
λ Tip speed ratio
µ Viscosity
νeff Effective kinematic viscosity
ρ Density
ψ Angle of guide-vane B
ω Angular velocity

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