Energy Methods

in Stress
Analysis
Energy Methods
in Stress
Analysis

Kenneth Molton

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Energy Methods in Stress Analysis

Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2019.

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First published by Momentum Press®, LLC

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ISBN-13: 978-1-94944-917-4 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-94944-918-1 (e-book)

Momentum Press Sustainable Structural Systems Collection

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Collection ISSN: 2376-5127 (electronic)

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 Abstract

This book presents methods for the calculation of the displacement

of structures under load by using the rate of change of work done (by
the loads) and the corresponding rate of change of strain energy in the
structure.
The methods solve linear problems, statically indeterminate struc-
tures, nonlinear problems, frames and stiffness matrices used in finite
­element analysis.
The method extends to the calculation of critical buckling loads for
struts, plates and panels, and the post buckling stiffness of plates and
panels.
The presentation offers a clear logic without recourse to the concepts
of virtual work, minimum potential energy, complementary energy or the
unit load method.

KeyWords

buckling; deflection; frames; linear; nonlinear; statically indeterminate;

stiffness; strain energy; work done
 Contents

List of Figures xi
1  Introduction 1
1.1  Free Body 1
1.2  Loads on a Structure 2
2  Strain Energy 5
2.1  Direct Tension/Compression 5
2.2  Strain Energy in Bending 7
2.3 Shear 8
3  Relationship between Work Done by the Load and
Strain Energy in the Structure 11
3.1  Initial Deflection 12
3.2  Static Equilibrium from Constant Load 12
3.3 Static Equilibrium from Applied Displacement 14
4  Cantilever Beam in Bending 17
4.1 Static Equilibrium with a Constant Load 17
4.2 Static Equilibrium with an Applied Displacement 18
4.3  Maximum Dynamic Deflection 18
5  Review of Formulae 19
6  Linear or Nonlinear Applicability 21
7  Multiple Loads 23
7.1  Multiple Loads 23
7.2 To Calculate Deflections Where There Is No
Applied Load 24
8  Statically Indeterminate Problems 25
9  Simplification of Calculation 29
viii  •   Contents

10  Flange in Tension—Application Example 31

10.1  Method 1 31
10.2  Method 2 32
10.3  Method 3 32
11  Further Load Scenarios 35
11.1  Evenly Distributed Load 35
11.2  Elastic Supports 36
12  Frames 39
12.1  Simple Frame 39
12.2  Trestle Frame 41
13  Introduction to the Finite Element Method 43
13.1  Simple Lap Joint 43
13.2  Trestle Frame 46
13.3  Beam Element 53
13.4  Tapered Beam Element 57
13.5 Transformation from Local to Global Coordinate
Systems59
13.6 Populate the Global Stiffness Matrix 63
14  Nonlinear Structures 69
14.1  Dihedral bars 69
14.2  Anhedral Bars 70
15  Nonlinear Deflections 73
15.1 Beam/Columns 73
16  Buckling of a Long Slender Strut 77
17 Strain Energy Due to Loads/Moments in Two
Dimensions 83
17.1  Direct Loads 83
17.2  Bending Moments 84
18  Plates, Bending 87
18.1  Bending Under Lateral Loads 87
19  Plates, Buckling 89
19.1 In Plane Compression Simply Supported Edges
and Ends 89
19.2  Transverse Strain Alleviation 94
19.3 Buckling Simply Supported One Edge Fixed,
One Edge Free 95
19.4  Stiffener with Cap 99
 Contents   •   ix

20  Plates in Shear Loading 101

21  Plasticity Modification 107
21.1  Plasticity in Curvature 107
21.2  Direct Strain Plasticity 109
22  Panels, Buckling 111
22.1  Panel Analysis 112
Index 115
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1.  Illustration of work done by a falling object. 2

Figure 1.2.  Diagrammatic rod in tension. 3
Figure 1.3. Graph showing Load v. Elongation for load profiles
and the reaction of the rod. 3
Figure 2.1.  Load v. elongation for direct tension or compression. 6
Figure 2.2.  Element under bending moment. 7
Figure 2.3.  Diagram of displaced shape under shear load. 8
Figure 3.1.  Spring balance with load. 11
Figure 3.2.  Strain energy and work done v. displacement. 13
Figure 3.3.  Strain energy and work done v. reaction. 15
Figure 4.1.  Cantilever beam with transverse end load. 17
Figure 7.1.  Cantilever beam with two transverse loads. 23
Figure 8.1.  Beam with multiple loads and supports. 25
Figure 10.1.  Free body diagram of a bolted flange. 31
Figure 11.1.  Evenly distributed loads. 35
Figure 11.2.  Elastic supports. 36
Figure 12.1.  (a) Portal frame (b) Portal frame with load components. 39
Figure 12.2.  Multibar frame, pin-ended struts. 41
Figure 13.1.  Idealization of lap joint. 43
Figure 13.2. Multibar frame, pin-ended struts, and different
stiffness’. 47
Figure 13.3.  Resolving displacements into x and y axis. 48
Figure 13.4.  Simple beam. 54
Figure 13.5.  Tapered beam. 57
Figure 13.6.  Transforming node displacements. 61
xii  •   List of Figures

Figure 13.7.  Transforming loads. 62

Figure 14.1.  Dihedral bars. 69
Figure 14.2.  Strain energy and work done v. displacement. 70
Figure 14.3.  Anhedral bars. 70
Figure 14.4.  Strain energy and work done v. displacement. 71
Figure 15.1.  Beam/column under compression. 73
Figure 15.2.  Detail view at strut end. 75
Figure 16.1.  A long slender strut under a compressive load. 77
Figure 16.2.  Strain energy stored in compressed and buckled shapes. 80
Figure 17.1.  Direct strain in two dimensions. 83
Figure 17.2.  Element in bending in two dimensions. 84
Figure 18.1.  Double curvature surface described by Sin function. 87
Figure 19.1.  Double curvature Sin surface. 89
Figure 19.2.  Strain energy v. displacement. 92
Figure 19.3.  Load v. displacement. 92
Figure 19.4.  K values. 94
Figure 19.5.  K values. 96
Figure 19.6.  Simply supported one edge fixed. 96
Figure 19.7.  K values. 98
Figure 19.8.  Stiffener with cap. 99
Figure 20.1.  Buckled shear panel. 101
Figure 20.2.  Diagram of displaced shape under shear load. 102
Figure 20.3.  Schematic of approximate area considered. 103
Figure 21.1.  Limit strain overlaid onto assuming sin distribution. 109
Figure 22.1.  Illustration of Stiffened Panel. 111
Figure 22.2.  Illustration of potential skin buckled shape. 112
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Energy methods can provide a relationship between the applied load and
the resultant deflection at any point on a structure, even where the point of
interest for the deflection is not coincident with the load. They can solve
problems which have multiple applied loads and where loads are applied
to a structure of unusual shape. The method can provide solutions for stat-
ically indeterminate structures, that is, multiple supports, and can accom-
modate the rate of application of load, that is, steadily or suddenly applied.
The energy method is based on the relationship between the work
done by the applied load and the strain energy in a deformed structure.
Strain energy stored in a structure may be considered as the “poten-
tial to do work”; it would of course be possible to extract work from a
deformed structure.
Both strain energy and work done have the same units being
“Newton*metres.”
The calculation of the stresses from strains in a loaded structure,
which are typically used to predict failure, is not part of the energy method
and is not necessarily covered in this text.

1.1 Free Body

The work done by a force is the product of the force and the distance
­travelled by that force.
For a mass “m” falling under gravity, Figure 1.1, the force is the
­product of its mass and gravity, and then the work done through the
­distance “y”:

Work _ done _[ Nm] = (mg ) × y = Py

2  •   Energy Methods in Stress Analysis

Figure 1.1.  Illustration of work

done by a falling object.

In this example, the object is free falling from rest so work done is
by gravity acting on the sphere. The result of this work done is initially to
accelerate the sphere to its final velocity. Subsequently when the sphere
is at its terminal velocity the work done overcomes the air resistance and
the end result is that the work done will cause the temperature of the air
to rise.
Work done in this example is equal to the loss of potential energy of
the sphere, if there were no air resistance then the potential energy would
be converted completely to kinetic energy and the sphere work accelerate
forever and never reach a terminal velocity.

1.2  Loads on a Structure

Figure 1.2 shows a rod loaded in tension, drawn horizontally to remove

inclusion of gravitational force. As in the free falling sphere example, this
presents a load scenario changing with time.
Consider that the rod can be loaded by two separate loading profiles,
in which the load is changing with time. Both loading profiles run from
zero to the final predetermined load, reaching static equilibrium only at
the end of the test. In order for the load to move with respect to time and
elongate the specimen then it must be greater than the reaction of the spec-
imen at any point in time. The applied load is only equal to the reaction
of the specimen at static equilibrium. To illustrate this Figure 1.3 shows
three curves:

• The reaction exerted by the rod through its elongation range.

• The curve “Load profile 1” is the applied load slowly increasing.
The load increases such that it always slightly greater than the reac-
tion up to the final point of static equilibrium where they are equal.
• The curve “Load profile 2” is an applied load being equal to the
final value of “Load profile 1” and constant through the elongation
of the specimen.
 Introduction   •  3

Figure 1.2.  Diagrammatic rod in tension.

Force v. Elongation
Force

Reaction by specimen
Load profile 1
Load profile 2

Elongation

Figure 1.3.  Graph showing Load v. Elongation for load profiles and
the reaction of the rod.

Both load profiles reach final static equilibrium at the same elonga-
tion of the specimen as the final load is the same. The work done is by
definition the product of force and distance moved and for a varying load
is equal to the area below each load profile in Figure 1.3. It can be seen
that the work done by each load profile is very different.
Where the force is constant at the maximum then the work done is
simply:

Work done = force × distance

For load profile 1 the force increases with elongation and the area
under the curve must be measured graphically or a relationship between
the force and its displacement is required.
Now consider the hypothetical case in which the applied force is
increasing with elongation and is greater than the reaction of the specimen
at any point, but only by an infinitesimally small amount. For this hypo-
thetical case the curve of “force v. elongation” is identical to that shown
for the “reaction of the rod v. elongation” in Figure 1.3 and it may be
argued that this represents the minimum work done required to elongate
the specimen.
4  •   Energy Methods in Stress Analysis

The minimum work done required to elongate the specimen is

assumed synonymous with the strain energy stored in the specimen, as
work done and strain energy are interchangeable.
By contrast neither total work done by load profile 1 nor load profile
2 will be equal to the strain energy stored in the rod.
The difference between the total work done by the load and the min-
imum work done required to elongate the specimen will affect the rate
of extension, hysteresis around the final elongation at rest and possibly
heating of the rod or its surroundings.
The distinction between the total work done by the load and the strain
energy in the specimen is fundamental in understanding the application
of energy methods. It is the relationship between the two, or more spe-
cifically their rates of change, which leads to the practical use of energy
methods in structural analysis.
 Index
A C
Anhedral bars, 70–71
Applied displacement, static
equilibrium, 14–15, 18
Automated procedure, in FEM,
53
B Columns, nonlinear deflections,
Beam element, 53–57
Beam, nonlinear deflections,
73–76
Bending
cantilever beam, 17–18
under lateral loads, 87–88
plates, 87–88
simplification of calculation,
29–30
staticaly indeterminate problems,
25–27
strain energy, 7–8
in two dimensions, 84–86
Bending moments, 84–86
Buckling
long slender strut, 77–81
one edge fixed and one edge free,
95–98
panels, 111–113
in plane compression, 89–94
plates, 89–99
stiffener with cap, 99
transverse strain alleviation,
94–95
Cantilever beam, 17–18
maximum dynamic deflection, 18
static equilibrium with applied
displacement, 18
static equilibrium with constant
load, 17–18
73–76
Curvature, plasticity in, 107–109
D
Deflections
initial, 12
with no load, 24
nonlinear, 73–76
Dihedral bars, 69–70
Direct loads, 83–84
Direct strain plasticity, 109
Direct tension/compression, 5–6
E
Elastic supports, strain energy,
36–37
Euler buckling equation, 78, 80
Evenly distributed loads, 35–36
F
FEM. See Finite element method
Finite element method (FEM)
automated procedure, 53
beam element, 53–57
116   •   Index
global stiffness matrix, 63–68
local to global coordinate system
transformation, 59–63
simple lap joint, 43–46
tapered beam element, 57–59
trestle frame, 46–53
Flange in tension problems,
31–33
Frame
simple, 39–41
trestle, 41–42, 46–53
Free body, 1–2
Free body diagram, 31
G Plates
Global stiffness matrix, 63–68
I in shear loading, 101–105
Initial deflection, 12
In plane compression, buckling,
89–94
L Simple frame, 39–41
Linear relationship, load v.
elongation, 21
Load(s)
deflection without, 24
evenly distributed, 35–36
multiple, 23–24
and strain energy, work done
relationship, 11–15
on structure, 2–4
Load v. elongation
direct tension/compression, 5–6
linear relationship, 21
for load profiles and reaction of
the rod, 2–3
Long slender strut, buckling of,
77–81
M as function of stress, 9
Maximum dynamic deflection, 18
Multiple loads, 23–24
N
Nonlinear deflections, 73–76
Nonlinear structures
anhedral bars, 70–71
dihedral bars, 69–70
P
Panels
buckling, 111–113
stiffened, 111–112
Plasticity
in curvature, 107–109
direct strain, 109
modification, 107–109
bending, 87–88
buckling, 89–99
S
Shear loading, in plates, 101–105
Shear, stiffness of specimen, 8–9
Simple lap joint, 43–46
Staticaly indeterminate problems,
25–27
Static equilibrium
applied displacement, 14–15, 18
constant load, 12–14, 17–18
Stiffened panel, 111–112
Stiffener with cap, 99
Strain energy
in bending, 7–8
bending moments, 84–86
cantilever, 23–24
direct loads, 83–84
elastic supports, 36–37
evenly distributed loads, 35–36
as function of applied load, 9
as function of displacement, 9
loads/moments in two
dimensions, 83–86
 Index   •   117

T Trestle frame, 41–42, 46–53

Tapered beam element, 57–59
Tension, flange in, 31–33
Transformation, local to global
coordinate system, 59–63
Transverse strain alleviation,
94–95
W
Work done
illustration of, 1–2
load and strain energy, 11–15
loads on structure, 2–4