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Review: Nutrient density and nutritional value of meat products and non-
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DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.04.016

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 Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: http://www.journals.elsevier.com/trends-in-food-science-
and-technology

Review

Review: Nutrient density and nutritional value of meat products and

non-meat foods high in protein
Benjamin M. Bohrer
Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, N1G 2W1, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: Dietary protein, particularly essential amino acids, is important in the adult diet to help the
Received 5 January 2017 body repair and regenerate cells and is important in the diet of children and adolescents for growth and
Received in revised form development. In recent years, consumers are becoming more diverse when choosing foods to consume.
7 March 2017
Specifically, there is an increase around the world in the population of people who choose to consume a
Accepted 30 April 2017
Available online 6 May 2017
non-meat diet, and eat non-meat foods as their source of protein.
Scope and Approach: This review focused on comparing nutrient density and nutritional value (based
on US dollars) of meat products and non-meat foods high in protein. Twenty-five meat products (beef,
Keywords:
Protein
pork, lamb, and poultry), six fish products, and eighteen non-meat foods were compared for nutrient
Nutrient density composition. Nutrient composition information was used to assign value based on nutrient density.
Nutritional value Nutrient cost was expressed in nutrients available per US dollar and prices were assessed from the USDA
Meat products economic research service and the USDA agricultural marketing service when available, and with a
Non-meat foods marketplace assessment when information was unavailable otherwise.
Key Findings and Conclusions: Consideration needs to be made when replacing meat in the diet with non-
meat foods, because most non-meat foods contain only 20e60% protein density of meat. Additionally,
when protein cost was evaluated, meat and non-meat foods had a similar cost when expressed as grams
of protein/US dollar. While the total amount of zinc and iron was similar in meat and some non-meat
foods, more investigation of digestibility and availability of nutrients is warranted.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In most places in the world, the consumption of meat is held in
high esteem and is widely regarded as a food product with high
nutritional value (Bender, 1992, p. 91; Pellett & Young, 1990;
Williams, 2007). Specifically, meat and meat products are consid-
ered an excellent source of zinc, heme-iron, bioavailable B vitamins,
and essential amino acids (Biesalski, 2005; McAfee et al., 2010;
Pereira & Vicente, 2013; Williams, 2007). The percentage of in-
dividuals choosing not to consume meat is a relative small per-
centage of people (estimated 2e10% in developed nations; The
Vegetarian/Vegan Society of Queensland, 2010; The Local, 2014;
Corrin & Papadopoulos, 2017). However, this small percentage of
people still makes up a significant population of people around the
world, and this demographic of people have a significant influence
on the food marketplace. This is further validated by the 2014
internet chatter measurements (number of mentions on the
E-mail address: bbohrer@uoguelph.ca.
internet) that ranked the dietary trend vegan as number one (591%
growth) and dietary trend vegetarian as number three (152%
growth) of all dietary trends evaluated (Best, 2015). There have
been many studies that evaluate and discuss the health benefits
and challenges of a well-planned vegetarian or vegan diet
(Biesalski, 2005; Craig & Mangels, 2009; Key, Appleby, & Rosell,
2006; McAfee et al., 2010; McEvoy, Temple, & Woodside, 2012).
However, it is important to consider and review the nutritional
content of the food products making up a well-planned vegetarian
or vegan diet when compared with the food products making up a
more traditional meat-consuming diet.
Several scientific reviews have independently summarized the
nutritional content of meat products (Ferna
ndez-Gine
s, Ferna

ndez-

pez, Sayas-Barbera
Lo
, & Pe
rez-Alvarez, 2005; Pereira & Vicente,
2013; Williams, 2007; Wood et al., 2008), seafood (Ackman, 1988;
Sikorski, 2012), and crop or legume products (Endres, 2001;
Erdman & Fordyce, 1989; Iqbal, Khalil, Ateeq, & Khan, 2006;
Multari et al., 2016). Yet, this literature is scattered and a compre-
hensive review is necessary to fully compare nutritional content of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2017.04.016
0924-2244/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
104 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112
meat products with non-meat products deemed high in protein.
Additionally, there is no current review of the relative cost or value
per unit of nutrient of meat products compared with non-meat
products deemed high in protein. Thus, the objective of this re-
view was to investigate the nutrient density, nutritional value, and
cost of nutrients in meat products and non-meat products high in
protein.
2. Foods high in protein
2.1. Meat and meat products
Meat is defined by the American Meat Science Association
(2016) as:
“Skeletal muscle and its associated tissues (including nerves,
connective tissues, blood vessels, skin, fat, and bones) and edible
offal derived from mammals, avian, and aquatic species deemed
as safe and suitable for human consumption. Terrestrial and
aquatic species intended for human consumption, are also
included.”
While this definition includes aquatic species, many preceding
definitions of meat have separated fish and other seafood as its own
entity and for the purpose of this review it will be discussed
separately. Meat quality is an indistinct term that is typically
thought of as a singularity or combination of eating quality (fresh
meat appearance and palatability), shelf-life (color stability, lipid
oxidation, and retention of initial quality), composition (lean-to-fat
ratio and intramuscular fat), ease of processing (water-holding
ability, pump uptake retention, and ability to work into an emul-
sion), convenience (method and ease of preparation), and micro-
biological safety (Apple & Yancey, 2016; Grunert, Bredahl, &
Brunsø, 2004; Valous, Zheng, Sun, & Tan, 2016). Less consider-
ation of meat quality is often given to nutritional density, nutri-
tional value, and nutritional benefit to meat in the human diet.
These considerations will be the focal point of this review.
Meat as a component of the human diet provides a source of
nutritional protein, essential amino acids, and in most cases an
above average source of vitamin B12, zinc, phosphorus, iron, and
zinc (Biesalski, 2005; McAfee et al., 2010; Williams, 2007). Meat is
low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. While
many things that influence product quality may vary between
meats, the protein content, vitamins, and minerals available from
meats are generally consistent (Biesalski, 2005; Kerry, Kerry, &
Ledward, 2002). There has been a significant amount of research
dedicated linking meat consumption, and particularly red meat
consumption, with adverse health effects (Aune, Ursin, & Veierød,
2009; Cross et al., 2007; Micha, Wallace, & Mozaffarian, 2010).
Discussing this relationship or lack of relationship is not the pur-
pose of this review; however, health concerns is undoubtedly a
factor in the rise of individuals choosing not to consume meat (Fox,
2013; Janssen, Busch, Ro € diger, & Hamm, 2016).
2.2. Fish
Fish and other seafood represent an integral part of the human
diet throughout the history of mankind (Lands, 1986; Tacon &
Metian, 2013). Fish and other types of seafood are an excellent
source of protein, minerals, and vitamins (Bender, 1997; Friedman,
1996; Sikorski, 2012). A recent statistic reported fish and other
seafood accounted for 17 percent of the intake of animal protein
globally, with many countries far exceeding this figure (Thilsted,
James, Toppe, Subasinghe, & Karunasagar, 2014). The nutritional
composition of fats in fish and seafood are considerably different
(contains less saturated fats) than in red meat and poultry, and
from a health perspective may offer added benefits for consumers
wishing to limit or monitor their intake of saturated fats, but may
also not contain the same abundance of nutrients found in red
meats; such as, iron and zinc (Ackman, 1988; Kaushik et al., 2009;
Mozaffarian, 2005).
2.3. Non-meat foods high in protein
It is difficult to provide an accurate estimation of the world
population that does not consume meat, poultry, or seafood
products; however, it is assumed to that between 2 and 10% of the
world population are vegetarian or vegan with the greatest per-
centage in India where it is estimated over 30% of people are
vegetarian or vegan for religious and other non-nutrition related
reasons (Alexandratos & Bruinsma, 2012; Cummins, Widmar,
Croney, & Fulton, 2015; Leitzmann, 2014). While a diet that does
not include meat, poultry, or seafood products may have some
health benefits (McEvoy et al., 2012; Pilis, Stec, Zych, & Pilis, 2014;
Slavin & Lloyd, 2012), it is also important to consider the nutrients
not available from non-meat foods that are readily available in
meat, poultry, and seafood. According to recent American dietary
guidelines, a healthy and well-planned vegetarian diet replaces
meats, poultry, or seafood with legumes (beans and peas), soy
products, nuts and seeds, and whole grains (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2016). The purpose of this review
will be to evaluate density of nutrients that may not be as readily
available in non-meat protein foods and provide an estimation of
cost associated with those nutrients.
3. Estimated average dietary requirements and calculations
of nutrient density and cost of nutrients
Dietary reference intake provided by the Food and Nutrition
Board, Institute of Medicine (2016) for protein, vitamin B12,
phosphorus, iron, and zinc were presented in Table 1. These values
were intended to be used as an indicator of recommended levels for
individuals of unique life groups, ages, and weights (in the case of
protein). Nutrient composition information was collected from the
USDA Food Composition Database (2016) and used to assign value
based on nutrient density. Nutrient composition information was
summarized in Table 2, and this table is referenced throughout the
review when specific values for nutrients were discussed. Nutrient
cost was expressed in nutrients available per US dollar. Nutrients
were assessed based on the information from Table 2 and prices
were assessed from the USDA economic research service and the
USDA agricultural marketing service when available, and with a
marketplace assessment when information was unavailable
otherwise (Table 3).
4. Nutrient density
4.1. Energy
A healthy diet satisfies an individual's need for energy and
essential nutrients (Caballero, 2012). The recommended level of
dietary energy requirements often fluctuates depending on an in-
dividual's body size, lifestyle, and level of activity (Westerterp,
2014). The main sources of dietary energy are fats and carbohy-
drates, yet proteins are capable of providing dietary energy (O'Neil,
Keast, Fulgoni, & Nicklas, 2012). It is uncommon for people in
developed and even underdeveloped nations to have deficiencies in
energy intake, and most people in developed nations are actually
more concerned with monitoring their intake of dietary energy.
Excess intake of dietary energy is stored in the body as fat, which
 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112 105

Table 1
Dietary reference intake (DRIs): Estimated average requirements (source: Food and nutrition board, institute of medicine, national Academics).

Life Group Stage Protein (g/kg/d) Vitamin B12 (mcg/d) P (mg/d) Fe (mg/d) Zn (mg/d)

Infants
0e6 months e e e e
6e12 months 1.00 e e 6.9 2.5
Children
1e3 years 0.87 0.7 380 3.0 2.5
4e8 years 0.76 1.0 405 4.1 4.0
Males
9e13 years 0.76 1.5 1055 5.9 7.0
14e18 years 0.73 2.0 1055 7.7 8.5
19e30 years 0.66 2.0 580 6.0 9.4
31e50 years 0.66 2.0 580 6.0 9.4
51e70 years 0.66 2.0 580 6.0 9.4
greater than 70 years 0.66 2.0 580 6.0 9.4
Females
9e13 years 0.76 1.5 1055 5.7 7.0
14e18 years 0.71 2.0 1055 7.9 7.3
19e30 years 0.66 2.0 580 8.1 6.8
31e50 years 0.66 2.0 580 8.1 6.8
51e70 years 0.66 2.0 580 5.0 6.8
greater than 70 years 0.66 2.0 580 5.0 6.8
Pregnancy
14e18 years 0.88 2.2 1055 23.0 10.5
19e30 years 0.88 2.2 580 22.0 9.5
31e50 years 0.88 2.2 580 22.0 9.5
Lactation
14e18 years 1.05 2.4 1055 7.0 10.9
19e30 years 1.05 2.4 580 6.5 10.4
31e50 years 1.05 2.4 580 6.5 10.4

Information and table were previously summarized by Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies (2016) using various sources cited within the
document.

causes obesity and a host of related health problems (Drewnowski,
2004; Hill, Wyatt, & Peters, 2012). Therefore, dietary energy, typi-
cally in the form of calories is monitored by health conscious in-
dividuals (Blaydes & Kayser, 2011).
Dietary energy content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and
poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 166 kcal/
100 g serving (turkey thigh) to 310 kcal/100 g serving (lamb loin).
The dietary energy content of cured, unprepared pork bacon was
slightly higher at 417 kcal/100 g serving. Comparatively, raw, un-
prepared fish products evaluated in this review were lower in en-
ergy content and ranged from 91 kcal (halibut, Atlantic) to 142 kcal/
100 g serving (salmon, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were
evaluated in this review, because they are typically associated with
a high protein content, were highly variable in energy content.
Chicken eggs (143 kcal/100 g serving), Greek non-fat yogurt (59
kcal/100 g serving), vegetable products (23 kcale106 kcal/100 g
serving), certain types of beans (pinto beans, lima beans, and kid-
ney beans; 29 kcale113 kcal/100 g serving), soy-based tofu prod-
ucts (61 kcale78 kcal/100 g serving), and hummus (166 kcal/100 g
serving) were relatively low in energy content. However, nuts
(553 kcale579 kcal/100 g serving) and certain types of beans (black
and great northern beans; 339 kcale341 kcal/100 g serving) were
very high in energy content.
4.2. Protein
Adequate dietary protein is important for individuals during all
stages of life, and in particular it is critical to meet the requirements
for essential or indispensable amino acids (phenylalanine, valine,
threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, leucine,
and lysine; Reeds, 2000; Elango, Ball, & Pencharz, 2009; Henley,
Taylor, & Obukosia, 2010; Moughan, 2012). When the re-
quirements for individual essential amino acids is not met, many
physical and biochemical issues can occur (Recommended Dietary
Allowances, 1989; Reeds & Hutchens, 1994). While this review only
examines total protein content, it will be important and is war-
ranted to further examine individual amino acids of different foods
that are high in protein. Traditionally, animal derived proteins
(meat, seafood, eggs, and dairy products) are coined as “high
quality” proteins, because they contain large amounts of essential
amino acids (Milton, 1999). In comparison, plant derived proteins
usually have large amounts of some to most essential amino acids,
but have little or no amounts of some essential amino acids (Young
& Pellett, 1994). The amino acid composition and protein di-
gestibility of various sources of plant proteins were further outlined
in a review by Day (2013) and Jones (2016). The goals of the work
outlined in these reviews were to investigate the use of plant
proteins as meat analogs. Both reviews mentioned that to achieve
an amino acid profile similar to meat products, it was best to mix
plant proteins (certain grains and legumes) to provide the neces-
sary diversity of indispensable amino acids.
Dietary protein content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and
poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 16.32 g/
100 g serving (lamb loin) to 23.27 g/100 g serving (beef eye of
round). The dietary protein content of cured, unprepared pork ba-
con was slightly lower at 12.62 g/100 g serving. Comparatively, raw,
unprepared fish products evaluated in this review were similar in
protein content and ranged from 16.38 g (catfish, wild channel) to
24.40 g/100 g serving (tuna, yellowfin). Non-meat products that
were evaluated in this review were highly variable in protein
content. Nuts (18.22 ge25.80 g/100 g serving) and certain types of
beans (black and great northern beans; 21.60 ge21.86 g/100 g
serving) were comparable in their protein content to meat and
seafood products. Chicken eggs (12.56 g/100 g serving) and Greek
non-fat yogurt (10.19 g/100 g serving) were considerably lower in
their protein content compared with meat and seafood products.
While vegetable products (2.86 ge8.96 g/100 g serving), certain
types of beans (pinto beans, lima beans, and kidney beans;
106 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112

Table 2
Nutritional composition of different food products (Source: USDA Food Composition Database).

Producta Energy value Protein Fat Saturated fat Cholesterol Vitamin B12 Na P Fe Zn
(kcal) (g) (g) (g) (mg) (mcg) (mg) (mg) (mg) (mg)

Meat, raw/unprepared unless noted otherwise

Beef ribeye (longissimus thoracis) 166 17.51 22.07 9.000 68 3.11 56.00 168 1.87 3.85
Beef strip loin (longissimus lumborum) 228 20.61 15.49 6.251 81 1.06 52.00 186 1.47 3.53
Beef tenderloin (psoas major) 247 19.61 18.16 8.410 85 1.01 50.00 180 1.42 2.90
Beef top sirloin (gluteus medius et al.) 201 20.30 12.71 5.127 75 1.05 52.00 187 1.48 3.55
Beef tri-tip (m. tensor fasciae latae) 142 21.26 5.63 1.729 61 1.04 54.00 198 1.54 3.85
Beef eye of round (semitendinosus) 124 23.27 3.44 1.276 60 1.83 53.00 221 1.45 3.40
Beef brisket (deep pectoral et al.) 132 21.47 5.11 1.844 67 1.81 83.00 222 2.06 5.21
Beef flank (rectus abdominis) 155 21.22 7.17 2.978 65 1.09 54.00 195 1.55 3.70
Beef, ground 80% lean, 20% fat 254 17.17 20.00 7.581 71 2.14 66.00 158 1.94 4.18
Beef, ground 90% lean, 10% fat 176 20.00 10.00 3.927 65 2.21 66.00 184 2.24 4.79
Beef, ground 93% lean, 7% fat 152 20.85 7.00 2.878 63 2.23 66.00 192 2.33 4.97
Beef, ground 97% lean, 3% fat 121 21.98 3.00 1.480 60 2.26 66.00 203 2.44 5.21
Pork loin (longissimus lumborum) 198 19.74 12.58 4.360 63 0.53 50.00 197 0.79 1.74
Pork ham (biceps femoris et al.) 245 17.43 18.87 6.540 73 0.63 47.00 199 0.85 1.93
Pork, ground 84% lean, 16% fat 218 17.99 16.00 4.930 68 0.73 68.00 161 0.88 1.91
Pork, ground 96% lean, 4% fat 121 21.10 4.00 1.420 59 0.64 67.00 190 0.86 1.93
Lamb loin (longissimus lumborum) 310 16.32 26.63 11.760 74 2.04 56.00 152 1.61 2.53
Lamb leg (biceps femoris et al) 230 17.91 17.07 7.430 69 2.50 56.00 170 1.66 3.32
Lamb, ground 85% lean, 15% fat 255 17.14 20.71 9.926 73 e 77.00 e 1.41 e
Chicken breast (pectoralis major) 120 22.50 2.62 0.563 73 0.21 45.00 213 0.37 0.68
Chicken thigh (iliotibialis et al.) 221 16.52 16.61 4.524 98 0.62 81.00 157 0.68 1.29
Turkey breast (pectoralis major) 157 21.89 7.02 1.910 65 0.42 59.00 186 1.20 1.57
Turkey thigh (iliotibialis et al.) 116 20.60 3.69 0.782 78 2.17 75.00 177 1.42 2.95
Turkey, ground, 93% lean, 15% fat 150 18.73 8.34 2.170 74 1.20 69.00 193 1.17 2.53
Pork bacon, cured, unprepared 417 12.62 39.69 13.296 66 0.50 662.00 144 0.41 1.18
Fish, raw/unprepared
Tuna, yellowfin 109 24.40 0.49 0.172 39 2.08 45.00 278 0.77 0.37
Salmon, Atlantic 142 19.84 6.34 0.981 55 3.18 44.00 200 0.80 0.64
Pollock, Atlantic 92 19.44 0.98 0.135 71 3.19 86.00 221 0.46 0.47
Halibut, Atlantic 91 18.56 1.33 0.292 49 1.10 68.00 236 0.16 0.36
Tilapia 96 20.08 1.70 0.585 50 1.58 52.00 170 0.56 0.33
Catfish, wild channel 95 16.38 2.82 0.722 58 2.23 43.00 209 0.30 0.51
Non-meat, raw/unprepared
Chicken eggs, whole 143 12.56 9.51 3.126 372 0.89 142.00 198 1.75 1.29
Yogurt, Greek non-fat 59 10.19 0.39 0.117 5 0.75 36.00 135 0.07 0.52
Kale 49 4.28 0.93 0.091 0 0.00 38.00 92 1.47 0.56
Lentils, sprouted 106 8.96 0.55 0.057 0 0.00 11.00 173 3.21 1.51
Broccoli, heads 34 2.82 0.37 0.039 0 0.00 33.00 66 0.73 0.41
Green peas 81 5.42 0.40 0.071 0 0.00 5.00 108 1.47 1.24
Spinach 23 2.86 0.39 0.063 0 0.00 79.00 49 2.71 0.53
Black beans, mature 341 21.60 1.42 0.366 0 0.00 5.00 352 5.02 3.65
Pinto beans, mature 62 5.25 0.90 0.109 0 0.00 153.00 94 1.97 0.50
Lima beans, immature 113 6.84 0.86 0.198 0 0.00 0.78 136 3.14 0.78
Kidney beans, mature 29 4.20 0.50 0.720 0 0.00 6.00 37 0.81 0.40
Great northern beans, mature 339 21.86 1.14 0.356 0 0.00 14.00 447 5.47 2.31
Tofu, firm, prepared with CaSO4 and 78 9.04 4.17 0.793 0 0.00 12.00 121 1.61 0.83
MgCl2
Tofu, soft, prepared with CaSO4 and MgCl2 61 7.17 3.69 0.533 0 0.00 8.00 92 1.11 0.64
Hummus 166 7.90 9.60 1.437 0 0.00 379.00 176 2.44 1.83
Peanuts 567 25.80 49.24 6.279 0 0.00 18.00 376 4.58 3.27
Almonds 579 21.15 49.93 3.802 0 0.00 1.00 481 3.71 3.12
Cashews 553 18.22 43.85 7.783 0 0.00 12.00 593 6.68 5.78
a
All products are standardized to a 100 g serving.

4.20 ge6.84 g/100 g serving), soy-based tofu products
(7.17 ge9.04 g/100 g serving), and hummus (7.90 g/100 g serving)
were much lower and not really comparable in their protein con-
tent when compared with meat and seafood products.
4.3. Fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol
In recent years, consumers are becoming more informed and
more critical of the food they eat, and of these concerns consumers
are most critical of the quality and quantity of fat in their diet
(Webb and O'Neill, 2008). The correlation between fats in animal-
derived products and health complications, namely cardiovascu-
lar disease, has been studied and recommendations include
limiting fats from animal-derived products (Lawrence, 2013; Webb
and O'Neill, 2008; Willett, 2012). When evaluating the quality of
fats in the diet, the two most characteristic effects of fats in animal-
derived products is the increased amount of saturated fats and the
presence of cholesterol compared to fats in plant-derived products
(Woodgate & van der Veen, 2014).
Dietary fat content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and poultry
products evaluated in this review ranged from 2.62 g/100 g serving
(chicken breast) to 26.63 g/100 g serving (lamb loin). The fat con-
tent of cured, unprepared pork bacon was higher than raw meat
products at 39.69 g/100 g serving. Comparatively, raw, unprepared
fish products evaluated in this review were overall much lower in
fat content and ranged from 0.49 g (tuna, yellowfin) to 6.34 g/100 g
serving (salmon, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were evaluated
in this review were much lower in their fat content as well, with the
 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112 107

Table 3
Estimated costs of nutrients (Various sources of estimation).

Producta Retail Cost/100 g Source of Energy value (kcal/ Protein (g/ Vitamin B12 (mcg/ P (mg/ Fe (mg/ Zn (mg/
(US$) estimationb US$) US$) US$) US$) US$) US$)

Meat, raw/unprepared unless noted otherwise

Beef ribeye (longissimus thoracis) 1.8100 USDA, AMS, 2016 91.71 9.67 1.72 92.82 1.03 2.13
Beef strip loin (longissimus 1.7262 USDA, AMS, 2016 132.08 11.94 0.61 107.75 0.85 2.04
lumborum)
Beef tenderloin (psoas major) 2.4449 USDA, AMS, 2016 101.03 8.02 0.41 73.62 0.58 1.19
Beef top sirloin (gluteus medius 1.1244 USDA, AMS, 2016 178.77 18.05 0.93 166.32 1.32 3.16
et al.)
Beef tri-tip (m. tensor fasciae latae) 1.1861 USDA, AMS, 2016 119.72 17.92 0.88 166.94 1.30 3.25
Beef eye of round (semitendinosus) 1.0141 USDA, AMS, 2016 122.27 22.95 1.80 217.92 1.43 3.35
Beef brisket (deep pectoral et al.) 0.8995 USDA, AMS, 2016 146.75 23.87 2.01 246.81 2.29 5.79
Beef flank (rectus abdominis) 1.6998 USDA, AMS, 2016 91.19 12.48 0.64 114.72 0.91 2.18
Beef, ground 80% lean, 20% fat 0.7319 USDA, AMS, 2016 347.03 23.46 2.92 215.87 2.65 5.71
Beef, ground 90% lean, 10% fat 1.0362 USDA, AMS, 2016 169.86 19.30 2.13 177.58 2.16 4.62
Beef, ground 93% lean, 7% fat 1.0362 USDA, AMS, 2016 146.69 20.12 2.15 185.30 2.25 4.80
Beef, ground 97% lean, 3% fat 1.0362 USDA, AMS, 2016 116.78 21.21 2.18 195.91 2.35 5.03
Pork loin (longissimus lumborum) 0.4123 USDA, AMS, 2016 480.27 47.88 1.29 477.85 1.92 4.22
Pork ham (biceps femoris et al.) 0.7055 USDA, AMS, 2016 347.28 24.71 0.89 282.08 1.20 2.74
Pork bacon, cured, unprepared 4.7289 USDA, AMS, 2016 88.18 2.67 0.11 30.45 0.09 0.25
Pork, ground 84% lean, 16% fat 0.5930 USDA, AMS, 2016 367.60 30.34 1.23 271.48 1.48 3.22
Pork, ground 96% lean, 4% fat 0.5930 USDA, AMS, 2016 204.03 35.58 1.08 320.38 1.45 3.25
Lamb loin (longissimus lumborum) 1.7857 USDA, AMS, 2016 173.60 9.14 1.14 85.12 0.90 1.42
Lamb leg (biceps femoris et al) 1.7615 USDA, AMS, 2016 130.57 10.17 1.42 96.51 0.94 1.88
Lamb, ground 85% lean, 15% fat 1.2412 USDA, AMS, 2016 205.45 13.81 e e 1.14 e
Chicken breast (pectoralis major) 0.7011 USDA, AMS, 2016 171.17 32.09 0.30 303.82 0.53 0.97
Chicken thigh (iliotibialis et al.) 0.2844 USDA, AMS, 2016 777.09 58.09 2.18 552.05 2.39 4.54
Turkey breast (pectoralis major) 0.5930 USDA, AMS, 2016 264.74 36.91 0.71 313.64 2.02 2.65
Turkey thigh (iliotibialis et al.) 0.6614 USDA, AMS, 2016 175.39 31.15 3.28 267.62 2.15 4.46
Turkey, ground, 93% lean, 15% fat 0.7848 USDA, AMS, 2016 191.12 23.86 1.53 245.91 1.49 3.22
Fish, raw/unprepared
Tuna, yellowfin 5.0182 Marketplace 21.72 4.86 0.41 55.40 0.15 0.07
assessment
Salmon, Atlantic 4.5406 Marketplace 31.27 4.37 0.70 44.05 0.18 0.14
assessment
Pollock, Atlantic 0.8143 Marketplace 112.98 23.87 3.92 271.40 0.56 0.58
assessment
Halibut, Atlantic 7.3052 Marketplace 12.46 2.54 0.15 32.31 0.02 0.05
assessment
Tilapia 2.0022 Marketplace 47.95 10.03 0.79 84.91 0.28 0.16
assessment
Catfish, wild channel 2.3625 Marketplace 40.21 6.93 0.94 88.47 0.13 0.22
assessment
Non-meat, raw/unprepared
Chicken eggs, whole 0.1833 USDA, AMS, 2016 780.00 68.51 4.85 1080.00 9.55 7.04
Yogurt, Greek non-fat 0.8642 USDA, AMS, 2016 68.27 11.79 0.87 156.21 0.08 0.60
Kale 0.6195 USDA, ERS, 2013 79.10 6.91 0.00 148.51 2.37 0.90
Lentils, sprouted 0.3064 USDA, ERS, 2013 345.91 29.24 0.00 564.54 10.48 4.93
Broccoli, heads 0.3616 USDA, ERS, 2013 94.04 7.80 0.00 182.54 2.02 1.13
Green peas 0.3638 USDA, ERS, 2013 222.67 14.90 0.00 296.90 4.04 3.41
Spinach 0.8444 USDA, ERS, 2013 27.24 3.39 0.00 58.03 3.21 0.63
Black beans, mature 0.32849 USDA, ERS, 2013 1038.09 65.76 0.00 1071.58 15.28 11.11
Pinto beans, mature 0.26455 USDA, ERS, 2013 234.36 19.84 0.00 355.31 7.45 1.89
Lima beans, immature 0.38140 USDA, ERS, 2013 296.28 17.93 0.00 356.58 8.23 2.05
Kidney beans, mature 0.3682 USDA, ERS, 2013 78.77 11.41 0.00 100.50 2.20 1.09
Great northern beans, mature 0.3373 USDA, ERS, 2013 1005.02 64.81 0.00 1325.20 16.22 6.85
Tofu, firm, prepared with CaSO4 and 0.9771 Marketplace 79.83 9.25 0.00 123.84 1.65 0.85
MgCl2 assessment
Tofu, soft, prepared with CaSO4 and 0.4450 Marketplace 137.08 16.11 0.00 206.74 2.49 1.44
MgCl2 assessment
Hummus 0.9250 Marketplace 179.46 8.54 0.00 190.27 2.64 1.98
assessment
Peanuts 0.8796 Marketplace 644.58 29.33 0.00 427.45 5.21 3.72
assessment
Almonds 1.9820 Marketplace 292.14 10.67 0.00 242.69 1.87 1.57
assessment
Cashews 2.2024 Marketplace 251.09 8.27 0.00 269.25 3.03 2.62
assessment
a
All products are standardized to a 100 g serving.
b
Sources of estimation: USDA, AMS, 2016: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service. (2016). Retail reports. Retrieved 2016 December from https://
www.ams.usda.gov/market-news/retail.; USDA, ERS, 2013: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (2013). Fruit and vegetable prices. Retrieved 2016
December from https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/fruit-and-vegetable-prices.aspx.; Fish marketplace assessment was conducted at seafoodonline.ca on 13-Dec-2016;
Tofu and hummus marketplace assessment was conducted at http://www.naturesbasket.co.in/index.aspx on 13-Dec-2016; Peanut, almond, and cashew marketplace
assessment was conducted at http://www.thenutbox.com/Nuts-s/1.htm on 13-Dec-2016.
108 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112
exception of chicken eggs and nuts. Chicken eggs had an interme-
diate amount of fat content at 9.51 g/100 g serving and nuts had
much greater fat content compared to all other foods evaluated,
ranging from 43.85 g/100 g serving (cashews) to 49.93 g/100 g
serving (almonds). Greek non-fat yogurt (0.39 g/100 g serving),
vegetable products (0.39 g/100 ge0.93 g/100 g serving), and beans
(0.50e1.42 g/100 g serving) were very low in fat content. Soy-based
tofu products (3.69 ge4.17 g/100 g serving) and hummus (9.60 g/
100 g serving) were low to intermediate in fat content.
Saturated fat content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and poultry
products evaluated in this review was highly variable and ranged
from 0.563 g/100 g serving (chicken breast) to 11.76 g/100 g serving
(lamb loin). The saturated fat content of cured, unprepared pork
bacon was higher than raw meat products at 13.30 g/100 g serving.
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this
review were overall much lower in saturated fat content and
ranged from 0.172 g (tuna, yellowfin) to 0.981 g/100 g serving
(salmon, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were evaluated in this
review were much lower in their saturated fat content as well, with
the exception of chicken eggs and nuts. Chicken eggs (3.126 g/100 g
serving) and nuts (3.802 ge7.783 g/100 g serving) had an inter-
mediate amount of saturated fat content compared to the meat
products evaluated. Greek non-fat yogurt (0.117 g/100 g serving),
vegetable products (all were less than 0.100 g/100 g serving), beans
(0.109e0.720 g/100 g serving), soy-based tofu products
(0.533 ge0.793 g/100 g serving), and hummus (1.437 g/100 g
serving) were very low in saturated fat content.
Cholesterol content of beef, pork, and poultry products evalu-
ated in this review ranged from 63 mg/100 g serving (pork loin) to
98 mg/100 g serving (chicken thigh). Comparatively, raw, unpre-
pared fish products evaluated in this review were similar to meat
products in cholesterol content ranging from 39 mg (tuna, yel-
lowfin) to 71 mg/100 g serving (pollock, Atlantic). Eggs were much
higher than meat and seafood products with a cholesterol content
of 372 mg/100 g serving. Greek non-fat yogurt had a cholesterol
content of 5 mg/100 g serving. Non-animal derived products do not
contain dietary cholesterol, therefore vegetable products, beans,
soy-based tofu products, hummus, and nuts do not contain
cholesterol.
4.4. Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 is an important water-soluble vitamin required for
proper red blood cell formation, neurological function, and DNA
synthesis (Herbert, 1996; Stabler & Allen, 2004; U.S.D.A, National
Agricultural Library, 2016). Vitamin B12 has two unique features
discussed in the review by Stabler and Allen (2004) “One is the
unique human autoimmune disease pernicious anemia (PA), and
the other is the virtual restriction of B12 to foods of animal origin.”
It goes without saying, individuals not consuming animal-derived
foods are at risk of vitamin B12 deficiency. The Food and
Nutrition Board (2016) recommends adults consume 2.0 mcg/d of
vitamin B12. It is possible for individuals not consuming animal-
derived foods to eat foods with fortified vitamin B12, or to
consume dietary vitamin B12 supplements in an over-the-counter
pharmaceutical form (Allen, 2009).
Vitamin B12 content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and poultry
products evaluated in this review ranged from 0.53 mcg/100 g
serving (pork loin) to 2.50 mcg/100 g serving (lamb leg). The
vitamin B12 content of cured, unprepared pork bacon was slightly
lower than raw meat products at 0.50 mcg/100 g serving.
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this
review were similar to slightly higher than meat products in
vitamin B12 content ranging from 1.10 mcg (halibut, Atlantic) to
3.19 mcg/100 g serving (pollock, Atlantic). Eggs (0.89 mcg/100 g
serving) and Greek non-fat yogurt (0.75 mcg/100 g serving) were
slightly lower than meat and seafood products in vitamin B12
content. Non-animal derived products do not contain dietary
vitamin B12, therefore vegetable products, beans, soy-based tofu
products, hummus, and nuts do not contain vitamin B12.
4.5. Sodium
Sodium is essential in the diet and plays vital roles in regulation
of blood pressure, water transport into and out of cells, tissue
osmolality, and transmission of nerve cell impulses (Guinee, 2004).
However, excessive intake of sodium has been linked to hyper-
tension and an increase in chronic diseases and U.S. consumer's
sodium intake exceeds nutritional recommendations (Ruusunen &
Puolanne, 2005). The U.S. Dietary Guidelines reports the average
American consumes approximately 3300 mg of sodium per day, yet
it is recommended adults consume less than 2300 mg of sodium
per day (CDC, 2012). The U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services (2010) established 2300 mg of sodium a day as an upper
limit and 1500 mg of sodium a day as an adequate limit. Engstrom,
Tobelmann, and Albertson (1997) reported meat and meat products
contribute for 21% of the average American's sodium intake. Fresh
meat contains small amounts of sodium; however, sodium is
typically added during processing of meat such as cured and
smoked products (Ruusunen & Puolanne, 2005).
Dietary sodium content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and
poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 45 mg/100 g
serving (chicken breast) to 83 mg/100 g serving (beef brisket). The
sodium content of cured, unprepared pork bacon was obviously
higher than raw meat products at 662 mg/100 g serving. Compar-
atively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this review were
similar to raw, unprepared meat products in sodium content and
ranged from 43 mg (catfish, wild channel) to 86 mg/100 g serving
(pollock, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were evaluated in this
review were highly variable in their sodium content. Chicken eggs
had a higher amount of sodium content compared with meat
products at 142 mg/100 g serving. Greek non-fat yogurt had a
slightly lower sodium content compared with meat products at 36
mg/100 g serving. Vegetable products ranged in sodium content
from 5 mg (green peas) to 79 mg/100 g serving (spinach). Beans
ranged in sodium content from 0.78 mg (lima beans) to 153 mg/
100 g serving (pinto beans). Soy-based tofu ranged in sodium
content from 8 mg to 12 mg/100 g serving. Hummus was very high
in sodium content at 379 mg/100 g serving. Nuts ranged in sodium
content from 1 mg (almonds) to 18 mg/100 g serving (peanuts).
Overall, all foods evaluated in this review with the exception of the
two products that are more prepared-type products (cured bacon
and hummus) were relatively low in sodium content.
4.6. Phosphorus
Phosphorus is a mineral that is rarely discussed in human
nutrition. There are essentially only two dietary recommendations
for phosphorus, of which are for children to consume enough foods
containing phosphorus to optimize bone formation and for chil-
dren and adults to consume enough foods containing phosphorus
to have adequate amounts of concentration of phosphorus in the
blood (Greene, Hambidge, Schanler, & Tsang, 1988). Phosphorus
was evaluated and added in this review because many sources
(Biesalski, 2005; McAfee et al., 2010; Pereira & Vicente, 2013;
Williams, 2007) consider meat to be a good source of dietary
 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112
phosphorus.
Dietary phosphorus content of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and
poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 152 mg/
100 g serving (lamb loin) to 222 mg/100 g serving (beef brisket).
The phosphorus content of cured, unprepared pork bacon was
slightly lower than raw meat products at 144 mg/100 g serving.
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this
review were similar to raw, unprepared meat products in phos-
phorus content and ranged from 170 mg (tilapia) to 278 mg/100 g
serving (tuna, yellowfin). Non-meat products that were evaluated
in this review were highly variable in their phosphorus content.
Chicken eggs had a phosphorus content of 198 mg/100 g serving.
Greek non-fat yogurt had a slightly lower phosphorus content
compared with meat products at 135 mg/100 g serving. Vegetable
products ranged in phosphorus content from 49 mg (spinach) to
173 mg/100 g serving (lentils). Beans ranged in phosphorus content
from 37 mg (kidney beans) to 447 mg/100 g serving (great northern
beans). Soy-based tofu ranged in phosphorus content from 92 mg
to 121 mg/100 g serving. Hummus was intermediate in phosphorus
content at 176 mg/100 g serving. Nuts were relatively high in
phosphorus ranging from 376 mg (peanuts) to 593 mg/100 g
serving (cashews).
4.7. Iron
Iron has multiple functions in the human body including help-
ing our muscles store and use oxygen, playing a role in protein and
enzyme function, and supporting metabolism (Forth & Rummel,
1973). Dietary iron can be in two different forms (heme or
nonheme), with heme being the more bioavailable form (Monsen,
1988). Plant-derived foods and iron-fortified foods contain iron
only in the nonheme form, whereas animal-derived foods contain
iron in both the heme and nonheme form (Aggett, 2012). This re-
view only reports total iron in food products; however, future
research investigating heme and nonheme iron of high-protein
foods is warranted.
Much attention has been garnered to iron deficiency and iron
deficiency anemia around the world (Looker, Dallman, Carroll,
Gunter, & Johnson, 1997; World Health Organization, 2001).
Looker et al. (1997) reported that 9 percent of toddlers (1e2 years
old) in the United States and 9 to 11 percent of adolescent girls and
women of childbearing age in the United States were iron deficient.
At-risk individuals for iron deficiency can eat foods with fortified
iron or consume dietary iron supplements in an over-the-counter
pharmaceutical form; but because animal-derived products often
contain iron in the heme form, it is often recommended that in-
dividuals at risk of iron deficiency consume more animal-derived
products.
Dietary iron content of beef, pork, and poultry products evalu-
ated in this review ranged from 0.37 mg/100 g serving (chicken
breast) to 2.44 mg/100 g serving (high lean ground beef).
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this
review were slightly lower compared with raw, unprepared meat
products in iron content and ranged from 0.16 mg (halibut, Atlantic)
to 0.80 mg/100 g serving (salmon, Atlantic). Non-meat products
that were evaluated in this review were highly variable in their iron
content. Chicken eggs had an iron content of 1.75 mg/100 g serving.
Greek non-fat yogurt had a very lower iron content compared with
meat products at 0.07 mg/100 g serving. Vegetable products ranged
in iron content from 0.73 mg (broccoli) to 3.21 mg/100 g serving
(lentils). Beans ranged in iron content from 0.81 mg (kidney beans)
to 5.47 mg/100 g serving (great northern beans). Soy-based tofu
ranged in iron content from 1.11 mg to 1.61 mg/100 g serving.
Hummus was high in iron content at 2.44 mg/100 g serving. Nuts
were very high in iron ranging from 3.71 mg (almonds) to 6.68 mg/
109
100 g serving (cashews).
4.8. Zinc
Zinc is found in cells throughout the body and is needed for the
body's immune system to function properly (Haase & Rink, 2014;
Rink, 2011). Additionally, zinc plays a role in cell division, cell
growth, wound healing, and the breakdown of carbohydrates
(Haase & Rink, 2014; Rink, 2011). Individuals who consuming
animal-derived products should have high levels of bioavailable
zinc in their diet (McAfee et al., 2010; Pereira & Vicente, 2013).
However, individuals who do not consume animal-derived prod-
ucts, may have challenges, as alternative protein sources often have
lower levels of bioavailable zinc. Further, phytates consumed in
some legumes and whole grains may bind zinc and inhibit its ab-
sorption (Hunt, 2003; Sandstro €m, Almgren, Kivisto
€ , & Cederblad,
1989). This review will not factor the bioavailability or absorp-
tion; however, previous research (Hunt, 2003; Sandstro € m et al.,
1989) certainly indicates there are differences in zinc bioavail-
ability and absorption among high-protein foods.
Dietary zinc content of beef, pork, and poultry products evalu-
ated in this review ranged from 0.68 mg/100 g serving (chicken
breast) to 5.21 mg/100 g serving (beef brisket and high lean beef).
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this
review were lower in zinc content when compared with raw, un-
prepared meat products ranging from 0.33 mg (tilapia) to 0.64 mg/
100 g serving (salmon, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were
evaluated in this review were highly variable in their zinc content.
Chicken eggs had a zinc content of 1.29 mg/100 g serving. Greek
non-fat yogurt had a slightly lower zinc content compared with
meat products at 0.52 mg/100 g serving. Vegetable products ranged
in zinc content from 0.41 mg (broccoli) to 1.51 mg/100 g serving
(lentils). Beans ranged in zinc content from 0.40 mg (kidney beans)
to 3.65 mg/100 g serving (black beans). Soy-based tofu ranged in
zinc content from 0.64 mg to 0.83 mg/100 g serving. Hummus was
intermediate in zinc content at 1.83 mg/100 g serving. Nuts were
relatively high in zinc ranging from 3.12 mg (almonds) to 5.78 mg/
100 g serving (cashews).
5. Cost of nutrients
Cost of nutrients was evaluated on a basis of nutrients per US
dollar. Nutrients were sourced from the USDA food composition
database (2016). Estimated retail costs were sourced from the
USDA agricultural marketing service (2016), the USDA economic
revenue services (2013), and current marketplace assessment,
when there were no values reported by the USDA.
5.1. Energy
Dietary energy density per cost of raw, unprepared beef, pork,
and poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 91.19
kcal/US$ (beef flank) to 777.09 kcal/US$ (turkey thigh). The dietary
energy density per cost of cured, unprepared pork bacon was
slightly lower compared with raw meat products at 88.18 kcal/US$.
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products, with the exception
of pollock, Atlantic (112.98 kcal/US$), evaluated in this review were
much lower in energy density per cost and ranged from 12.46 kcal
(halibut, Atlantic) to 47.95 kcal/US$ (tilapia). Non-meat products
that were evaluated in this review were highly variable in energy
density per cost. Peanuts (644.58 kcal/US$), chicken eggs (780.00
kcal/US$), great northern beans (1005.02 kcal/US$), and black
beans (1038.09 kcal/US$) were very high in the energy density per
cost. Spinach (27.24 kcal/US$), Greek non-fat yogurt (68.27 kcal/
US$), kidney beans (78.77 kcal/US$), kale (79.10 kcal/US$), and soy-
110 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112
based tofu, firm (79.83 kcal/US$) were very low in the energy
density per cost.
5.2. Protein
Dietary protein density per cost of raw, unprepared beef, pork,
and poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 8.02 g/
US$ (beef tenderloin) to 58.09 g/US$ (turkey thigh). The dietary
protein density per cost of cured, unprepared pork bacon was much
lower compared with raw meat products at 2.67 g/US$. Compara-
tively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this review were
similar in protein density per cost and ranged from 2.54 g (halibut,
Atlantic) to 23.87 g/US$ (pollock, Atlantic). Non-meat products that
were evaluated in this review were highly variable in protein
density per cost. Great northern beans (64.81 g/US$), black beans
(65.76 g/US$), and chicken eggs (68.51 g/US$) were very high in the
protein density per cost. Spinach (3.39 g/US$), kale (6.91 g/US$),
and broccoli (7.80 g/US$) were very low in the protein density per
cost.
5.3. Vitamin B12
Dietary vitamin B12 density per cost of raw, unprepared beef,
pork, and poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from
0.30 mcg/US$ (chicken breast) to 3.28 mcg/US$ (turkey thigh). The
dietary vitamin B12 density per cost of cured, unprepared pork
bacon was much lower compared with raw meat products at 0.11
mcg/US$. Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated
in this review were similar in vitamin B12 density per cost and
ranged from 0.15 mcg (halibut, Atlantic) to 3.92 mcg/US$ (pollock,
Atlantic). Products that are not derived from animals do not contain
vitamin B12, therefore, those were not applicable for a density per
cost. Greek non-fat yogurt had a vitamin B12 density per cost of
0.87 mcg/US$ and chicken eggs had a vitamin B12 density per cost
of 4.85 mcg/US$.
5.4. Phosphorus
Dietary phosphorus density per cost of raw, unprepared beef,
pork, and poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from
73.62 mg/US$ (beef tenderloin) to 552.05 mg/US$ (chicken thigh).
The dietary phosphorus density per cost of cured, unprepared pork
bacon was much lower compared with raw meat products at 30.45
mg/US$. Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in
this review were similar in phosphorus density per cost compared
with meat products and ranged from 32.31 mg (halibut, Atlantic) to
271.40 mg/US$ (pollock, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were
evaluated in this review were highly variable in phosphorus density
per cost. Black beans (1071.58 mg/US$), chicken eggs (1080.00 mg/
US$), and great northern beans (1325.20 mg/US$) were very high in
the phosphorus density per cost. While other non-meat products
fell within the same range for phosphorus density per cost as meat
products.
5.5. Iron
Dietary iron density per cost of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and
poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 0.53 mg/US$
(chicken breast) to 2.65 mg/US$ (80/20 ground beef). The dietary
iron density per cost of cured, unprepared pork bacon was much
lower compared with raw meat products at 0.09 mg/US$.
Comparatively, raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this
review were slightly lower in iron density per cost compared with
raw, unprepared meat products and ranged from 0.02 mg (halibut,
Atlantic) to 0.56 mg/US$ (pollock, Atlantic). Non-meat products
that were evaluated in this review were highly variable in iron
density per cost. Pinto beans (7.45 mg/US$), lima beans (8.23 mg/
US$), chicken eggs (9.55 mg/US$), lentils (10.48 mg/US$), black
beans (15.28 mg/US$), and great northern beans (16.22 mg/US$)
were very high in the iron density per cost. Greek non-fat yogurt
(0.08 mg/US$) was very low in the iron density per cost.
5.6. Zinc
Dietary zinc density per cost of raw, unprepared beef, pork, and
poultry products evaluated in this review ranged from 0.97 mg/US$
(chicken breast) to 5.79 mg/US$ (ground lamb). The dietary zinc
density per cost of cured, unprepared pork bacon was much lower
compared with raw meat products at 0.25 mg/US$. Comparatively,
raw, unprepared fish products evaluated in this review were
slightly lower in zinc density per cost compared with raw, unpre-
pared meat products and ranged from 0.05 mg (halibut, Atlantic) to
0.58 mg/US$ (pollock, Atlantic). Non-meat products that were
evaluated in this review were highly variable in zinc density per
cost. Great northern beans (6.85 mg/US$), chicken eggs (7.04 mg/
US$), and, black beans (11.11 mg/US$) were very high in the zinc
density per cost. Greek non-fat yogurt (0.60 mg/US$), spinach (0.63
mg/US$), soy-based tofu, firm (0.85 mg/US$), and kale (0.90 mg/
US$) were very low in the zinc density per cost.
6. Digestibility and availability of nutrients
6.1. Protein
Total amount of nutrients in food products are typically used to
assess nutritional value; however, total digestibility of protein may
be a better and more realistic indicator of nutritional value of high
protein foods. Several reviews (Day, 2013; Jones, 2016) have
calculated the digestibility of selected grains, seeds, legumes, and
dairy products, yet a more comprehensive review comparing total
amino acid composition and protein digestibility of meats and non-
meat products is warranted. In general, plant proteins struggle to
provide the necessary diversity of indispensable amino acids when
compared with meat products. Specifically, plant proteins are
limited in sulfur-containing amino acids (methionine, cysteine, and
tryptophan) when compared with meat (Neacsu, McBey, &
Johnstone, 2017). Another aspect to consider with plant proteins
is the inactivation of nutritional components with cooking, and
other preparation techniques. Proteases, inhibitors, lectins, and
other naturally occurring components of plant can affect the
structural components of plant proteins, and these can often be
exacerbated with heat.
6.2. Minerals
When discussing the importance of high-protein foods in terms
of the amount of minerals provided, the two most important to
discuss would be iron and zinc. The chemical form of iron has a
major impact on its absorption. The heme form of iron is better
absorbed (approximately 15e40%) when compared with the non-
heme form of iron (approximately 1e15%; Hunt, 2003). The
chemical form of iron in meat and fish is up to 40% heme, while
non-meat foods contain only non-heme iron (Hunt, 2003). The total
amount of zinc in meat and non-meat diets can be similar with a
well-planned plant based diet; however, it is likely that absorption
of zinc in plant based diets would be lower because of anti-
nutritional components in plant based foods (Hunt, 2003). Anti-
nutritional components of plant based foods can affect the di-
gestibility and availability of minerals. Specifically, research has
reported components such as oxalates, tannins, polyphenols, and
 B.M. Bohrer / Trends in Food Science & Technology 65 (2017) 103e112
phytic acid present in many plant foods are known to have adverse
effects on human nutrition by inhibiting absorption of iron and zinc
(Hailu & Addis, 2016; Hunt, 2003).
7. Conclusions
The focal point of this review was to present readers with
nutritional information of high-protein foods and assess density of
nutrients when factoring in retail purchase prices. Meat is a
consistent source of protein, while non-meat foods that are typi-
cally known as high-protein replacements for meat; such as, kale,
lentils, broccoli, green peas, spinach, and soy-based tofu contain
only 20e60% of the protein on an equal serving size basis. Yet these
products provide much less saturated fats, are free of dietary
cholesterol, and often provide adequate amounts of minerals
(measured as total content) phosphorus, iron, and zinc when
compared with meat products. Meat, seafood, and non-meat
products are highly variable in terms of protein, vitamin, and
mineral density per cost; however, meat is not necessarily cheaper
in terms of nutrient density per cost. Further investigation into
specific amino acid content and bioavailability of minerals is war-
ranted to fully explain protein density and cost of nutrients.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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Web References
Fish marketplace assessment was retrieved on 13-Dec-2016 at https://
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2016 at http://www.thenutbox.com/Nuts-s/1.htm.
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www.naturesbasket.co.in/index.aspx.