An Entangled World | 2018

Study Guide
The History of Diplomacy
Contents
Introductory Questions………………………………………………………………………………...1
Origins of Diplomacy…………………………………………………………………………………….4
The Instruments of Diplomacy…………………………………………………………………8
The Outcomes of Diplomacy……………………………………………………………………15
The Role of Diplomats………………………………………………………………………………..26
Selected Readings and Speeches………………………………………………………….37
Additional Cases & Questions………………………………………………………………….39

Many thanks go to the following people who researched for,

organised, and formatted this study guide:

Darren Tan Avan Fata Rodger Nyioh

Sarah Swea Emily Peng Stephanie Yeung
Victoria Sin Tan Jie Ying Suzu Kitamura
Charlie Isabelle Chloe Thi To Hien
Goldsworthy Supandji
Joshua Ng Karla Dursin
Jackalyn So Patrice Yang

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Introductory Questions

What is the purpose of diplomacy?

Essentially, the purpose of diplomacy is to resolve a conflict between two parties (or more)
who possess opposing views on a topic. The aim of diplomacy is to find a compromise that
satisfies all parties without fully conceding to the aims of one or completely ignoring those of
another.

How is diplomacy different than discussion?

Diplomacy is different from discussion in the fact that the former aims to arrive at an
agreement or resolution of sorts between the two (or more) parties. A discussion on the other
hand, only aims to share thoughts without necessarily reaching an agreed conclusion. In the
modern world however, with the inaction of the UN and other diplomatic bodies in major
world issues, diplomacy is beginning to look more like formalized discussions (opinion)

Does a diplomat always represent one party’s interests to another party?

While technically speaking that is the duty of a diplomat, sometimes personal interests can
also come into play. Generally speaking however, within diplomatic delegations such as the
UN, a diplomat focuses only on representing the interests/desires of their country.

How did modern diplomatic protocols come about—and do these protocols do

more to strengthen diplomacy or to limit it?
Like majority of most protocols, diplomatic protocols have been developed as history has
progressed, shifting to adjust to the situation within the world. The most recent diplomatic
protocol shake-up was the Vienna Accords on Diplomatic Relations. This 1961 document lays
down a framework for diplomacy between all countries and clearly outlines the role of
diplomats and their privileges. The effectiveness of these protocols have yet to be seen, as
even though more than 50 years have passed, a conclusive statement regarding their effect
cannot be said. What can be said however, is the fact that now diplomacy is far more formal
than it once was and that diplomats have a much easier job than before. Whereas once they
might’ve had to deal with death threats, bribery and other aggressive forms of manipulation,
now they can feel relatively secure when voicing the opinions of their country.

When two countries sign a treaty, what guarantees it will be upheld?

For many treaties, signing does not make them fully binding -- there is a process of ratification,
acceptance and approval that comes afterward. Treaty obligations are kept under the
international law principle of pacta sunt servanda -- Latin for “agreements are to be kept”.
However, this does not guarantee that they will be. Instead, the main reason why countries
adhere to its obligations in the treaty is because they would like to preserve their own
legitimacy -- if a country fails to abide by terms in a treaty, it cannot have the authority to tell
others to do so. Additionally, there will be less support (by other countries) for a country that
does not follow terms of a treaty. Moreover, if a country does not comply to a
treaty, there may be shaming from the public, sanctions may be imposed, and war
may break out.

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 Introductory Questions (cont.)

Is diplomacy inherently political? Are diplomats politicians?

Yes. Diplomats are by definition representatives of their home country, much like politicians
are representatives of the people in the district/state they represent.

What is the difference between an ambassador and a diplomat?

An ambassador is the head of a diplomatic mission, meaning an ambassador are the diplomats’
superior on diplomatic missions.

Does diplomacy need to look different in the 21st century?

Yes. In a time where everything in society is undergoing change at an impossibly fast rate,
diplomats need to learn how to adapt to these changes quickly. In other words, the act of
diplomacy should change as well.

How do countries come to diplomatic agreements—and what happens when

two nations cannot reach a diplomatic agreement?
To come to a diplomatic agreement, countries must hold negotiations. They need to agree on
the place and format on the negotiations. If the two countries are on bad terms, they may
choose a neutral ground. If two nations cannot reach a diplomatic agreement, they may try to
continue looking for an agreement, or ignore each other and treat each other with hostility.
They may also start a war.

What problems has international diplomacy helped to solve in recent years –

and what problems has it helped to create?
International diplomacy rose out of the carnage of WWII. The UN was founded with a mission
of global peacekeeping and they did mediate various crises such as the Indonesian National
Revolution, the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Korean War, the Rwandan crisis, and more recently
the Syrian and Libyan Civil Wars and the current Mediterranean refuge crisis stemming from
those conflicts.The UN's successes include facilitating the distribution of aid to conflict zones
and refugees, and the application of sanctions against “rogue regimes” (like Saddam’s Iraq and
Milosevic’s Serbia). However, they did have some failures. The deadlock in UN security was
caused by the rivalry between global superpowers US, Russia and China. The UN combined
with the US and EU still have tried and failed to mediate the Israel-Palestine conflict.

Is it ever appropriate for a diplomat to express disagreement with his or her

country’s leader?
Yes. While a diplomat technically should be in agreement with their leaders, they also have a
responsibility to represent everyone in their respective nations, including those who disagree
with their leader.

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Introductory Questions (cont.)

Should diplomats be granted special privileges when they are representing their
nations abroad?
Yes and no. Yes- because they must protect information of their own country. An attack on a
diplomat is basically an attack on the country itself. But also no because diplomats are citizens
of a country all the same, and the fact that they can get away with misbehaviour and
committing crimes may anger citizens of the country.

Do businesses and other non-governmental institutions need diplomats—and if

so, under what circumstances? How about revolutionary movements, or
terrorist organizations?
Yes, but only in situations where they need someone to represent them. For example, a
business setting up a branch in another country may require a diplomat to help them with
bureaucratic issues and the laws in said country. Diplomats representing a revolutionary
movement and/or terrorist organisations may be beneficial, as these diplomats may be more
skilled with negotiation compared to a random representative.

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 Origins of Diplomacy

Diplomacy actually wasn’t that different 100 years

Key Content ago. It still consisted of orderly and civilized
+ City-States of Ancient discussions between two or more opposing parties.
Greece However, the main way in which it differs now is that
+ Han Dynasty China there is a framework for diplomats to follow and
protocols that need to be carried out in specific
+ Byzantine Empire
situations.
+ Renaissance Italy Diplomacy 400 and even 300 years ago was a murky
+ Ancient India business, often compared to that of crime or even
treachery. Diplomats had the free rein to do whatever
Big Idea they needed to accomplish their goals, including
bribery, forgery and threats.
Explore the origins of
diplomacy in historical At the beginning of the 19th century, as diplomacy
civilizations. How became more formalized and new procedures put
different was it than into place, the life of a diplomat was much more
diplomacy today? peaceful and slightly less convoluted with crime and
other shady actions.
What does diplomacy even mean?
According to Merriam-Webster, diplomacy is defined as “the art and
practice of conducting negotiations between nations”.

City-States of Ancient Greece

+ Developed from Ancient Greek customs

+ Worked on an ad hoc basis, typically
travelling for one specific task.
+ Focused on resolving disputes between
city-states.
+ Foreign negotiation later made by some
city-states to Persia and Rome

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 Origins of Diplomacy

Han Dynasty China

+ 202 BC – AD 220
+ groundbreaking era in the history of Imperial China’s foreign relations
+ Diplomat Zhang Quian (under the long reign of Emperor Wu of Han):
+ His travels opened up China’s relations with different Asian territories for the first time.
+ Imprisoned by the Xiongnu for many years, but when rescued, brought information
about lands previously unknown to the Chinese.
+ Silk Road established after his travels

Consider: In what ways did Zhanq Qian’s travels impact society?

Byzantine Empire

Image: Britannica.com

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 Origins of Diplomacy

Renaissance Italy

The Renaissance was a cultural rebirth of classical ideas and values from
Ancient Rome and Greece.

Ancient India

A map showing the boundary of the

Mauryan Empire
Image: World Book map

Recap: How are the above civilisations different to modern-day diplomacy?

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 Origins of Diplomacy

Look into the evolution of modern diplomatic institutions, concluding (for now)
with the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961. Have the roles,
responsibilities, and privileges of diplomats changed significantly over time?
As has been discussed above, the role of diplomats and their privileges has
shifted over time to adapt to the roles and responsibilities they had. In Ancient
times, diplomats simply had the job of representing their state’s interests to
another state. Thus they had limited privileges and received limited diplomatic
immunity. Over the course of history, as diplomacy was not exactly a fair game,
espionage and coercion did not allow diplomats many safeties. After the Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961, it was clearly stated the
responsibilities of both the diplomat and the host country. In broad terms, the
document essentially gives rules and regulations on the boundaries of
diplomatic immunity, protecting not only the diplomat but also the families and
couriers. It also states that all conversations may be confidential, and that no
diplomatic bags can be opened at any time. It places quite a bit of responsibility
on the host country, but also gives them the option of declaring any diplomat a
persona non grata, meaning that the host country must recall them within a
suitable period of time. In conclusion, it can be said that the roles of diplomats
have increased but their privileges are noticeably less numerous than previously
in history.

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 The Instruments of Diplomacy

Diplomatic Institutions
Embassy
An embassy can either refer to the delegation of diplomats sent on a permanent diplomatic
mission or the building in which the diplomats do their work (Ex: the Embassy of the UK in
Washington, D.C). Commonwealth embassies in non-Commonwealth countries share a more
special relationship, as they are expected to serve all Commonwealth citizens who have no
embassies in said country. The same is expected of all EU embassies regarding its citizens.

Consulate
A consulate is similar to, but not the same as a diplomatic office as it focuses on dealing with
individuals and businesses. For example, an American consul may assist both American citizens
staying in Germany and vice versa with bureaucratic issues, while embassies are more focused
on the political side of diplomacy.

Mission
A diplomatic mission is a state representing itself officially in another state by sending a group
of people there, usually to the receiving nation’s capital.

Asylum
A diplomatic asylum was requested in diplomatic missions. However, it is not recognised by
international law:
 drafters of the 1961 Vienna Convention refused to introduce diplomatic asylum in spite of
a strong request by Latin American countries
 The International Court of Justice (ICJ) did not recognise diplomatic asylum as legal
concept in the 1950 Asylum Case
 however it does exist as regional law in Latin American countries

diplomatic immunity
Diplomatic immunity means all diplomats are only prosecuted under their home country’s
laws.

diplomatic bags
Bags of diplomats are not allowed to be checked by the host country to prevent espionage- so when
diplomats travel, scans and bag checks are exempted for them. However, this has been misused and
exploited by people for the purpose of piracy, stealing expensive items or transporting dangerous
goods.

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 The Instruments of Diplomacy

Rezidentura
 “resident spy” in espionage
 Russian parlance
 resident spies can be legal / illegal
o legal resident spy has advantage of diplomatic status but is known by host country
(harder to spy)
o illegal resident spy does not have diplomatic status to give them accessibility to info but
is not known by host country

Diplomatic Offices
Ambassador
The head of diplomatic missions. Depending on the ambassador’s country of origin, the
ambassador’s official title can be anything from nuncio (“envoy” in Latin) for a Vatican mission
and high commissioners for missions between Commonwealth countries. Until the mid-20th
century, most ambassadors were only sent between major countries until it was declared that
all nations should be seen as equals. In other words, ambassadors were sent to all countries
instead of just those considered superior to the rest.

Envoy
Usually referred to as a minister, an envoy is 2nd in rank to the ambassador and is authorised
to represent their government despite not representing their head of state. Diplomatic
missions headed by envoys are called legations instead of embassies.

Minister
A diplomat representing one government to another, usually the head of a government
department.

Consul
Unlike an ambassador, the consul does not represent their country’s head of state and only
serves as an official representative of the government. A country may also send more consuls
to a certain country but only appoint one ambassador for the same purpose. The highest rank a
consul can achieve is consul-general, with their office becoming a consulate-general.

Secretary
A diplomatic official of an embassy or legation who ranks below a counselor and is usually assigned as
first secretary, second secretary, or third secretary.

Counselor
A senior diplomatic title ranking just behind an ambassador and a minister. In many embassies there is
no minister, and the counselor is the number two man, i.e., the deputy chief of mission. (In a
very small embassy, the second may not have this rank)

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 The Instruments of Diplomacy

charge d'affaire
The charge d’affaire takes over the role of leadership in the absence of an ambassador, like if
the latter was recalled or if there’s a gap between an ambassador’s term of service and their
respective successors.

Source: Wikipedia

for more, visit

https://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/glossary.htm&sa=D&ust=1528324382
070000&usg=AFQjCNGGFyZ8UOOMiN9M4mTz2VVmRAZH3w

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 The Instruments of Diplomacy

Approaches to Diplomacy
Gunboat
 Refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of conspicuous displays of
naval power - implying direct threat of warfare
 Foreign policy that is supported by the threat of military force
o Also known as the Big Stick Ideology
o This term is often associated with the activities of the Great Powers in the
second half of the nineteenth century
 Most associated with Washington’s diplomatic and military
interventions
 Theodore Roosevelt wanted to make America the dominant power in
the circum-Caribbean and across the Pacific
 James Cable defined gunboat diplomacy as the use of threat of naval war, otherwise
than as an act of war in order to secure an advantage or avert a loss
o Four major uses of gunboat diplomacy
 Definitive Force
The use of gunboat diplomacy to create or remove a fait accompli
(meaning something that has happened and is unlikely to be reversed).
 Purposeful Force
Application of naval force to change the policy or character of the target
government
 Catalytic Force
A mechanism used to buy time/ breathing space. Prolongs decisions to
give policy makers more time to think of a plan
 Expressive Force
Use navies to send a political message
o Current examples I.e. President Xi JinPing’s demonstration of naval power in
the South China Sea // Construction of anthropogenic military islands in the
Spratyl islands

Coercive
 Otherwise known as Forceful Persuasion
 An attempt to get a target, a state, or a group within a state, or a non-state actor to
change its objectionable behaviour through the threat of force
o Essentially similar to gunboat diplomacy
o Does not only use boats to coerce groups
 Framework for coercive diplomacy
o Ultimatum
 Gives the stakeholder a choice between two options and two options
only and a mandatory compliance within a specific period of time
o Tacit Ultimatum
 Like an ultimatum just without an explicit timeframe given
o Try-and-See
 An immediate threat on the opponent
o Gradual Turning of the Screw
 Much like the “Try-and-See” method

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 The Instruments of Diplomacy

 Gradually, incremental increase of pressure rather than immediate

results
 Requirements for Success
o A threat of force to defeat the opponent
o A deadline for compliance
o An assurance to the adversary for future demands
o An offer of inducements for compliance
 Examples: John F.Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis

Preventive
 An action to prevent disputes from arising between parties
 To prevent disputes from escalating into conflicts of mass proportions
 Examples: UN peacekeeping mission in Macedonia

Appeasement
 A diplomatic policy of conceding (making concessions) to the coercions of aggressive
foreign powers
 Basically the on the receiving end of Gunboat/Coercive diplomacy
o i.e.Ramsay Baldwin, Stanley Baldwin and Neville Chamberlain conceding to the
Nazi Party and Fascist Italy
 Opponents of appeasement argue that it is the main reason as to what led Hitler and
the Nazi Party to rise to power

Paradiplomacy
 International relations conducted by subnational or regional governments on their own
with a view on promoting their interests

Soft power
 A persuasive and non-coercive approach to international relations.
o Approaches that do not involved threats or declarations of war

Hard power
 A coercive and forceful approach to international relations
o I.e. Gunboat Diplomacy/ Coercive Diplomacy

Nuclear
Nuclear diplomacy concerns the deadliest weapon known to humankind, nuclear weapons, and
their proliferation in peacetime as well as the prevention of their use in wartime. It mainly sets
down rules for nations as to their development of nuclear weapons and their ability to
proliferate (multiply) their arsenals.

Counterinsurgency
Counterinsurgency refers to the prevention of extremist, insurgent or other
terrorist actions. Counterinsurgency diplomacy is the use of negotiation between

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 The Instruments of Diplomacy

extremist factions and countries where they are active to avoid any hostile actions. This includes
concessions or formally recognizing the terrorist group. Not the greatest diplomatic field in the
21st century, with little in the way of efforts to stop groups like ISIS or Al-Qaeda.

Public
Public diplomacy focuses on manipulating the opinions/interests of the public within a foreign
country to support the interests of one’s own government. After all, without any backing or
support, you might as well toss in the towel when it comes to convincing the other side to agree
with your terms.

Dollar
Specific to the United States, Dollar Diplomacy was a term used during the term of President
William Howard Taft, wherein American foreign policy furthered its aims in Latin America by
guaranteeing loans to foreign countries.

Cyber
An evolution of Public Diplomacy, Cyber Diplomacy focuses on using the many widespread
communication devices of the 21st century to widen the voice a foreign power has on
manipulating the public of another country. This includes social media platforms such as Twitter
and Facebook or online news outlets. The aim is not so much to convince the other side to give
in to your terms, but to get more backing for your terms, pressuring the other side to eventually
give in.

Zero-sum
Zero-sum diplomacy focuses on creating terms or interests that entail a gain for one country or
party, but a corresponding loss for the other. One example of this can be found in the Treaty of
Versailles, wherein the Triple Entente gained money, while Germany suffered a loss of it.

third neighbor
The Third Neighbor diplomacy is a concept rooted in history. It traces back to when
Mongolian foreign policy meant developing relations with countries other than China
and the USSR, since these two superpowers possessed a sphere of influence on the
country. As such, help from other foreign powers was necessary should either China or
the USSR try to exploit Mongolia’s market on mineral extraction.

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The Instruments of Diplomacy

Additional Terms to Know

Proxenos
An arrangement whereby a citizen (chosen by the city) hosted foreign ambassadors at his own
expense, in return for honorary titles from the state

Paiza
A tablet carried by Mongol officials and envoys to signify certain privileges and authority

Plenipotentiary
A person who has full power over something

Peacekeeper
A soldier, military force, etc., deployed to maintain or restore peace

non-state actors
Individuals or organizations that hold significant political influence and are not in alliance with
a country or state. Some forms of non-state actors are liberation movements, non-
governmental organizations, large business magnates, religious groups, or paramilitary forces.

Alliance
A relationship between two or more people, groups or states (known as allies) that have joined
in an agreement that mutually benefits one another.

Summit
A meeting or conference between heads of state, especially to conduct diplomatic negotiations
and ease tensions between countries.

Embargo
An official ban on trade or commercial activity with a particular country.

Persona non grata

An unacceptable or unwelcome person. In diplomacy, this means a person whose entry and
residence or even communication with their state is prohibited. Often times, that person will
then be removed by force from the country, unless they are already off the state’s soil.

Extraterritoriality
A place where the inhabitants/citizens are immune to prosecution by local law,
usually given by a foreign nation. Places that are usually common with this status
are foreign embassies, military bases and UN offices.

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

Sanctions
Actions taken against foreign countries due to displeasure with diplomatic opinions or entirely
personal reasons. These can include Diplomatic Sanctions, where diplomatic ties are cut.
Economic Sanctions, where trade is limited to certain goods and amounts or stopped entirely.
Military sanctions, where an armed force intervenes and sport sanctions, where teams and
athletes from a foreign country are prohibited from participating in any international sporting
events.

Self-determination
Self-determination is the right for all peoples to freely determine their political status and
pursue any economic, cultural and social developments. It is often a clause outlined in diplomatic
agreements, treaties and even formation documents. The most notorious might be the Atlantic
Charter of 1940, which gave British dominions like Canada and Australia (but more famously
excluded India) the determination to break free from British rule.

Polarity
Any way in which power is distributed within the international stage. Be it superpowers such as
the USA and Russia, or with seemingly less powerful countries such as African or South
American ones.

Realpolitik
A system of politics and principles based on considerations of given circumstances and factors,
as opposed to considering ideological notions or moral and ethical frameworks. Most commonly
associated with Otto Von Bismarck, the “Iron Chancellor” of Germany who used this method to
declare war on other nations regardless of human consideration.

Ultimatum
A final demand or statement of terms by one party, the rejection of which will lead to
breakdowns in relations and retaliation. Usually associated with war, ultimatums are given as a
sort of “take it or leave it” declaration amped up to 11. If you were to take it, chances are the
terms are very much against your interests, if you were to leave it, well even harsher
consequences could arise.

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

Notable Pacts and Treaties (examples)

Amarna letters
 WHEN ~14th century
 WHO Ancient Near East and Egypt
 WHAT a body of 14th century correspondence between the rulers of the Ancient Near
East and Egypt- the earliest examples of international diplomacy (written on clay
tablets), mentioning diplomatic marriage, friendship statements and exchanged
materials

Treaty of Nerchinsk
 WHEN 25 May 1858
 WHO Russian Empire, Chinese Qing Dynasty
 WHAT A border treaty and peace settlement between Russia and the Manchu Chinese
empire- China stopped Russia’s expansion. By the treaty’s terms, Russia lost access to
large masses of land but gained the right of passage to Beijing for its trade caravans
 WHERE Nerchinsk, Russia

Peace of Westphalia
 WHEN 24 October 1648
 WHO 109 parties involved in the war in the Holy Roman Empire including France,
Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Venice, Sweden, Dutch Republic (Protestant and Catholic
Church)
 WHAT brought an end the Eighty Years' War between Spain, Netherlands and
Germany's 30 year involvement.
 WHERE Osnabrück and Münster, Westphalia, modern-day Germany
 WHY to seek peace within the Holy Roman Empire
 OTHER Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the
foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial
sovereignty

Abuja Treaty (also known as the African Economic Community Treaty)

 WHEN adopted in 1991 by the African Union (AU), enforced in 1994.
 WHO Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi
 WHAT established the African Economic Community (AEC), aimed to establish a single
African currency by 2023
 WHY cooperation and integration among African countries was becoming increasingly
important in economic, social and cultural aspects. This was indispensable to the
accelerated transformation and sustainable development of the African continent. It
also further aims to raise the standard of living for Africa’s people and increase
harmony amongst member states.

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

Treaty of Utrecht
 WHEN March and April, 1713
 WHO Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy, Dutch Republic
 WHAT A series of individual peace treaties signed by the forces of the War of the
Spanish succession, with the aim to preserve the power balance of Europe. It allowed
Philip to take the Spanish throne in exchange for dethroning the French throne
completely, along with ensuring France and Spain would not merge in the near future.
 WHERE the Dutch city of Utrecht

Treaty of Versailles
 WHEN end of WW1, 1919
 WHERE Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Palace, France
 WHO “Big Three”-
o Clemenceau: from France, which suffered the most war loses. He strongly
wished that Germany would be punished severely
o Lloyd-George: from the UK. He was more lenient on Germany as he wished for
economic revival so the two countries could trade. However he was insistent on
having the strongest navy in Europe, so he wanted terms in the treaty
restricting the size of Germany’s naval forces
o Wilson: president of the USA. Being a non-European state, Wilson had a more
optimistic and idealistic outlook, wanting the treaty to be based on his Fourteen
Points. He wished to be as lenient on Germany as possible.
 WHAT A Germany had little to say in the setup, and ended up paying high reparations,
territorial losses (Alsace-Lorraine, the Saar Basin, Eupen, Malmedy, and much more),
demilitarisation of the Rhineland, restrictions on the army and weapons, and getting
the blame for starting the war (Article 231, War Guilt Clause). A League of Nations was
set up to enforce and uphold this treaty.
 WHY to negotiate a “just” peace at the end of the first world war after Germany signed
the armistice and decided to seek peace
 One of the most important treaties in history that ended World War 1 on July 18,
1919.

Paris Peace Accords

 WHEN 27 January 1973
 WHERE Paris
 WHO North Vietnam, South Vietnam, United States of America, Provisional
Revolutionary Government
 WHAT reunification of Vietnam was to be carried out “step by step through peaceful
means”, and the USA would replace any of South Vietnam’s weapons used for defence
against Northern Vietnamese aggression
 WHY to establish peace in Vietnam at the end of the Vietnam War

Antarctic Treaty
 WHEN 1 December 1959
 WHERE Washington DC, United States
 WHO Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand,
Norway, South Africa, UK, US, USSR

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

 WHAT negotiated terms on the use of Antarctica as it is the only continent uninhabited
by humans. Seven countries got partial territorial claim out of this treaty.

Khitomer Accords
 WHEN 2293 (Star Trek)
 WHERE originally scheduled to be on Planet Earth, but changed to Camp Khitomer due
to the assassination of Chancellor Gorkon from Klingon
 WHO Klingon Empire / United Federation of Planets
 WHAT the first peace treaty between the Klingon Empire and United Federation of
Planets
 WHY the explosion of the Klingon moon Praxis caused severe ecological damage on
the Klingon homeworld

Treaty of Tordesillas
 WHEN 7 June 1494
 WHERE Tordesillas
 WHO Portugal and Castile
 WHAT divided trading and colonising rights for all newly discovered lands of the world
between Portugal and Castile to the exclusion of other European countries
 WHY to make trade fair
 OTHER the treaty was ignored by many countries

Paris Climate Agreement

 WHEN 22 April 2017
 WHERE New York
 WHO 175 countries out of 196
 WHAT it aimed to
o 1- keep warming "well below 2 degrees Celsius";
o 2- rich countries provide USD $100 billion by 2020 as a "floor";
o 3- specialisation where MEDCs take the lead in reducing GHGs;
o 4- aim for GHG emissions to peak ASAP, preferably by 2050;
o 5- burden sharing where countries help each other in terms of providing
finance;
o 6- review mechanism every 5 years;
o 7- averting, addressing, minimising losses from natural disasters
 WHY to attempt to reduce climate change
 OTHER (RESULT) 3 countries withdrew and/or refused to sign/

Sugauli Treaty
 WHEN 2 December 1815
 WHERE Sugauli, India
 WHO Gurkha Chiefs of Nepal and the British Indian government
 WHAT The treaty determined the boundary line of Nepal. Nepal claimed the territory
of Tarai (low lands)
 OTHER (RESULT): Nepal remained independent but received a British
ambassador.

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

 WHEN 1970; extended in 1995

 WHERE Moscow (Russia), London (UK), Washing DC (United States) in 1970; UN HQ
in NYC in 1995
 WHO 190 countries involved- all countries except India, Israel, North Korea, South
Sudan and Pakistan
 WHAT the treaty is uniquely unfair, telling non-nuclear states to forgo making nuclear
weapons while allowing nuclear countries to keep their weapons. There were three
pillars to the treaty: non-proliferation, disarmament and peaceful use of nuclear
energy.
 WHY to prevent the spread of nuclear technology and the production of nuclear
weapons in all countries but especially the stronger ones
 OTHER the treaty was extended indefinitely without condition in 1995 at UN
headquarters in New York

Douglas Treaties (aka Victoria Island Treaties / Fort Victoria Treaties)

 WHEN 1850-1854
 WHERE Colony of Vancouver Island
 WHO indigenous groups on Vancouver Islands and colonies of Vancouver Islands
(before they became a part of Canada)
 WHAT a person named Douglas bought land on Vancouver, Canada 14 times, and all
treaties signed each of the times became a part of the Douglas Treaties. Peopled sued
this because there were a lot of terms and conditions added after the signing
 OTHER (RESULT) Douglas became practically broke after buying 14 territories so he
stopped after that

The Outcomes of Diplomacy

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

Institutions of Accord (examples)

Congress of Vienna
 WHEN 1814-1815: After Napoleon’s defeat in 1814
 WHERE Vienna, Austria
 WHO Great Britain, Russia, Prussia (later known as Germany), Austria
 WHAT a meeting between national leaders in Europe talking about the
rearrangements of borders in Europe, as well as the discussion of human rights issues
(e.g. slavery, German Jews’ rights)
 WHY Following the defeat of Napoleon, the 4 greater powers in Europe (Great Britain,
Russia, Prussia, Austria) met together to talk about how to resolve the territorial
disputes arising from Napoleon’s defeat
 OTHER The Congress nearly tore apart and broke down over the splitting of Poland,
but through compromises, the nations managed to stay together

https://www.historytoday.com/stella-ghervas/what-was-congress-vienna
https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Vienna

Congress of Berlin
 WHEN Jun-Jul 1884
 WHERE Berlin, Germany (Prussia)
 WHO Russia, Great Britain, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Germany (Prussia), the
Ottoman Empire and Balkan states: Greece, Serbia, Romania and Montenegro
 WHAT Dealt with resolving the territorial outlines detailed in the Treaty of San
Stefano in the Balkan area
 WHY After the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), Russia made the Ottoman Empire sign
the Treaty of San Stefano, which violated promises Russia had previously made with
Britain, hence prompting Britain to get involved with this treaty and revise it by the
Congress of Berlin
 OTHER It can be said that the arrangements that came out of this Congress impacted
the Balkans deeply, as it did not consider their will to self-determination, possibly
leading on to the clashes in later years, sparking World War 1

https://www.britannica.com/event/Congress-of-Berlin
http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Treaty_of_San_Stefano
https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/turkish-and-ottoman-history/congress-berlin

Conference of Ambassadors
 WHEN Jan 1920 - 1931/35 (dates vary, as there is no official end date, its
presence simply became too low to detect since 1925 after the Locarno
Treaties of peace)

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

 WHO France, Great Britain, USA, Italy, Japan, Belgium (later)

 WHAT Organisation within the Allied powers’ to uphold the peace treaties and resolve
territorial conflicts between countries
 WHY Following WW1, it helped to discourage war (later grouped under LoN with
similar objective)
 CASE STUDY Corfu Incident 1923, dispute between Italy & Greece, showed failure of
the Conference of Ambassadors when they succumbed under Mussolini’s pressure
http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CConferenceofAmbassadors.htm
http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/14th-february-1947/14/the-corfu-incident

League of Nations
 WHEN 1920-1946 (but pretty much ignored since 1933 onwards)
 WHERE est. at Paris Peace Conference 1920
 WHO A total of 63 nations have joined LoN
o Council (has veto power)
 Great Britain
 France
 Italy (-1937, withdrew under Tripartite Pact pressure)
 Japan (-1933, withdrew after Lytton Report regarding Manchurian
Crisis)
 Germany (1926-33, only allowed to join after Locarno Treaties of peace,
withdrew under Hitler)
 USSR (1934-39, joined to help resist German expansionism, kicked out
for invading Poland)
 Some occasional countries that are selected for certain periods of time
to represent the nations
o Assembly
 The rest of the countries
 WHAT
o Constitution of peace aiming to resolve conflicts by peaceful means rather than
violence, condemning war whilst promoting global demilitarisation
o Also dealt with human rights issues and slavery
o Based on US President Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points
o Main flaws: no army, required total agreement on issues/decisions, council’s
veto power
 WHY Established as part of the Treaty of Versailles after WW1 to prevent a similar
war from sparking (obviously failed)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_the_League_of_Nations
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/aimsrev2.shtml
https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/zsf439q/revision
https://www.bbc.com/education/guides/z98xj6f/test (Test Yourself!)

United Nations
 WHEN 24 Oct 1945 - present
 WHERE NYC (HQ); Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi (Regional Offices)
 WHO 51 members (1945) → 193 members (2011)

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The Outcomes of Diplomacy

o If you bother to look and memorise all these countries, be my guest at

http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/growth-united-nations-
membership-1945-present/index.html
 WHAT International organisation aimed at promoting international cooperation and
peace, also promoted equality between nations, the principle of self-determination,
tackling human rights issues …
 WHY To replace the ineffective LoN, UN is basically LoN reincarnated after WW2,
with improved constitutional laws and structure after learning mistakes from the past
LoN
http://www.un.org/en/index.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/United-Nations

ASEAN
 Aka. Association of SouthEast Asian Nations
 WHEN 8 Aug 1967 - present
 WHERE est. at Bangkok; Jakarta (HQ)
 WHO Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar,
Brunei, Cambodia
 WHAT Organisation between 10 SE Asian nations seeking socio-economic cooperation
and collective security, holds yearly ASEAN Summit since 2001 between national
leaders discussing about their current issues
 WHY Initially established out of fear of communism in Vietnam and need for economic
development
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAnfj8v5acM
http://www.scmp.com/topics/asean

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

G20
 Aka. Group of Twenty
 WHEN 1999 - present
 WHERE Meeting venues hosted by G20 members, different each year
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_G20_summits
 WHO 20 representatives from different major global economies (19 countries + EU)
o Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, France, India, Indonesia,
Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey,
the United Kingdom and the United States
 WHAT International forum / annual meeting between 1) key economic leaders 2)
heads of states discussing matters regarding the economic development in nations
around the world, but in recent years, the topics covered during the G20 summit have
broadened, including aspects of climate change
 WHY G20 emerged as a result of the G7/8 summit realising the need to include heads
of states when discussing and deciding on global policies to help the world develop
 EXTENSION QUESTIONS
o What was the G7/8 Summit? How does it compare/contrast with the G20
Summit?
o Why just 20 representatives? Why not G195 to be inclusive? (195 countries in
the world)
https://www.g20.org/en/g20/what-is-the-g20
http://www.oecd.org/g20/
https://twitter.com/hashtag/g20?lang=en
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/0/what-is-the-g20-and-how-does-it-work/

NATO
 a.k.a. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
 WHAT: an intergovernmental military alliance around collective & mutual defence by
member states towards external aggressor(s)
 FIRST EST: 1949
 WHO: 29 North American and European countries
o Original 12 states: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK, the USA
o Additional 17: Greece, Turkey, West Germany, Spain, Czech Republic, Hungary,
Poland, Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Albania, Croatia, Montenegro
 WHY: devised to “keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down”
 OTHER:
o Precursored by the Treaty of Brussels

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

OPEC
 a.k.a. Organisation of Petroleum-Exporting Countries
 WHAT: an intergovernmental organisation accounting for 44% of global oil production
and 73% of known reserves
 FIRST EST: 1960
 WHO: 14 (West) Asian and African nations that export oil
o Original 5: Venezuela, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
o Additional 9: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya,
Nigeria, Qatar, UAE
o Ex-member: Indonesia
 WHY: to coordinate and unify petroleum policies and stabilise oil markets
 OTHER:
o Has been criticised of being an anti-competitive cartel

Arab League
 a.k.a. League of Arab States
 WHAT: a regional organisation of Arab states
 FIRST EST: 1945
 WHO: 22 Arab states in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and Arabia
o Original 6+1: Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan (now: Jordan),
Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria + Palestine (annexed)
o Additional 16: Algeria, Bahrain, the Comoros Islands, Djibouti, Kuwait, Libya,
Morocco, Mauritania, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Tunisia, UAE, Yemen
 WHY: to improve relationships between, develop, and coordinate collaboration
between Arab states
 OTHER:
o Syria’s membership is for now suspended
o Has an anti-extremism force & a common market

Commonwealth of Nations
 a.k.a. the British Commonwealth
 WHAT: an intergovernmental organisation of (mostly) former British Empire
territories, most of which has since gained independence
 FIRST EST: 1949
 WHO: 53 former British Empire territories
 WHY: dates back to decolonisation of the British Empire; member states are not
otherwise connected, but united by history, language, culture, values of democracy,
etc. under British rule
 OTHER:
o Member states have no legal obligation to each other

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 The Outcomes of Diplomacy

APEC
 a.k.a. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
 WHAT: an economic forum for member economies promoting free trade through the
Asia-Pacific Region
 FIRST EST: 1989
 WHO: 21 Pacific Rim member economies
o Original 13: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Korea,
Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, USA
o Additional 8: China, Vietnam, Russia, Peru, Hong Kong, Mexico, Thailand, Chile
 WHY: in response to other regional trade blocs; to establish new markets beyond
Europe
 OTHER:
o Meet once annually

African Union
 WHAT: continental union replacing the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
 FIRST EST: 2001
 WHO: 55 countries on African continent
 WHY: to socioeconomically develop, protect and defend, unite, democratise, and
promote cooperation of member states
 OTHER:
o Made up of the Assembly, Executive Council, Permanent Representatives
Committee, and Economic, Social, and Cultural Council

European Union
 WHAT: political and economic union that has developed an internal single market
 FIRST EST: 1993
 WHO: 28 member states primarily in Europe
o Original 6: Germany, Italy, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg
o Additional 22 -1: Poland, Spain, Romania, Sweden, Croatia, Bulgaria, Greece,
Republic of Ireland, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Finland, Kingdom of
Denmark, Portugal, Cyprus, Malta, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Latvia, Estonia,
- United Kingdom
o Leaving the EU: United Kingdom
 WHY: to maintain common policies on trade & commerce as well as regional
development across Europe; ensure free movement of people, goods, & capital
 OTHER:
o Originated from the European Coal and Steel Community
o Study: Brexit
 Who’s involved?
 When will it come into force?
 What are the implications -- not just for the UK but the rest of the EU?
 Ireland and Scotland
 Who will profit/lose?

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The Role of Diplomats

Famous Diplomats and Peacemakers

Niccolo Machiavelli
 BACKGROUND
o Born in Florence, 1469
o Regarded as one of the Fathers of Modern Political Sciences/Theory
o Famous works: The Prince, The Discourses on Livy
o Main theory: an effective leader is strict and pragmatic, where the ends justify
the means

Otto von Bismarck

 Background
o Born in Prussia, 1815; died in Germany, 1898
o Known as the “Iron Chancellor”
o Prime Minister of Prussia (1862-1871), Chancellor of Germany (1871-1890)
 Unification of Germany
o Bismarck led orchestrated battles against other European powers (e.g. Dutch,
Austria) to reclaim land of German-speaking people
o In the Franco-Prussian War, France was easily defeated by the Prussian forces
o The signing of the Treaty of Frankfurt at Versailles included the unification and
formation of a new Reich (Germany) under King Wilhelm I
 Question: How had the Treaty of Frankfurt differed from the ones signed by the
Dutch/Austrians? Did this lead to different consequence in later years (per say 1918)?

Henry Kissinger
 Background
o Born in Germany, 1923
o Escaped Nazi Germany with family under the persecution of the Jews
o Secretary of State to Richard Nixon, National Security Advisor to Gerald Ford
 Detente
o Eased tensions between the Cold War superpowers - USA & USSR
o Signing of SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty) I & II to restrain the arms
race going on between the 2 nations
o Eventually signed the ABM (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) System → regulated the
intercontinental missiles on both sides
 China
o Resumed communications and diplomatic relations between USA & China since
the takeover of the communists
o Made a secret trip to Beijing in 1971 following the success of the Ping-Pong
Diplomacy
 Vietnam War
The Role of Diplomats
o Helped Nixon carry out policy of Vietnamisation
o Helped negotiate a ceasefire between North and South Vietnam
o Awarded joint-Nobel Peace Prize after negotiation
 Shuttle Diplomacy
o Simply put, it’s like having a middle person transferring messages
between two people who have gotten into a big argument

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The Role of Diplomats

o Kissinger (USA) played the middle-man in the Arab-Israeli War

Eleanor Roosevelt
 BACKGROUND (1884-1962)
o Full name: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt
o Husband (and fifth uncle): Franklin D. Roosevelt
 WHO WAS SHE?
o Longest-serving First Lady of the USA (1933-1945)
o First US delegate to UN General Assembly
o First chair of UN Commission on Human Rights
o Often spoke for her husband (who was later in life paralysed)
 Publicly disagreed with him in politics often: it was this outspokenness
that made her unique (and controversial) at the time
o Advocate for women’s and civil rights
 CONTRIBUTIONS
o Pressured USA to join UN

K. R. Narayanan
 BACKGROUND (1921-2005)
o Full name: Kocheril Raman Narayanan
o Of the Dalit/Outsider caste: part of the “coconut-pluckers” according to the
caste system
 WHO WAS HE?
o Tenth President of India
o First Dalit President of India
o (pre-presidency) Ambassador to Japan, the UK, Thailand, Turkey, PRC, China,
USA
 CONTRIBUTIONS
o Set several new precedents (apart from first Dalit President)
 First President to vote while in office
 Married a woman of foreign origin
o Transparency in government
o Reminder of social and economic injustices

Thomas Jefferson
 BACKGROUND (1743-1826)
o American founding father
o Family: rich Southern farmers who owned many slaves
 WHO WAS HE?
o US Minister to France
o First Secretary of State
o 2nd Vice President of the United States
o 3rd President of the United States
 CONTRIBUTIONS
o Purchased the Louisiana Territory
o Authored the Declaration of Independence
o (Ineffective and unpopular) embargo on American shipping during
Napoleonic Wars

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 The Role of Diplomats

Kim Dae-jung
 Born on January 6 1924, died on August 18 2009
 Was the President of South Korea from 1998 to 2003
 Was the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize recipient, and the only Korean Nobel Prize recipient
in history. He is sometimes referred to as the, “Nelson Mandela of South Korea.”
 Kim was almost killed in August of 1973, when he was kidnapped from his hotel in
Tokyo by KCIA agents in response to his criticism of President Park’s yushin program;
that granted near-dictatorial powers.
 When he returned to South Korea, he was banned from politics and was
imprisoned in 1976. However, his political rights were restored in 1979.
 In 1980, Kim was arrested and sentenced to death as he was suspected to help
organize a coup by Chun Doo-hwan. Kim did not receive the death sentence, but was
instead exiled to the US, where he taught in Harvard University as a visiting professor.
 When Kim became President later in 1998, he pushed for economic reform and
restructuring. The economy pushed from 5.8% in 1998 to become 10.2% in 1999.
 Has head a policy of engagement with North Korea, now termed as the Sunshine
Policy. He worked for the reunification of North and South Korea.

Oscar Arias
 Born on September 13 1940
 Was the President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990
 Received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1897 for his efforts in ending the Central American
Crisis. He received it for his work towards signing the Esquipulas II Accords; a plan
intended to promote democracy and peace on the Central American isthmus during a
time of great turmoil.
 Was the recipient of the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism and a trustee of
Economists for Peace and Security.
 In 2003, was elected to become the Board Director of the international Criminal Court
Trust Fund for Victims.
 Arias was born into a higher upper-class family, descendants of Ferdinand III of Castile
and Henry II of England.
 Arias has received over 50 honorary degrees including doctorates from Ivy League
Schools.
 Arias promoted a neoliberal economic model and is often regarded as one, however he
is a member of a nominally social democratic party.
 Created the Central American Parliament in an attempt of integration in Central
America.
 Arias reintroduced standardized academic tests to primary and secondary schools in
Costa Rica.
 Costa Rican constitution has a clause forbidding former presidents to run again for
presidency, however, ignoring that clause, Oscar Arias ran for the second time.
 He switched Costa Rica’s diplomatic recognition from the Republic of China to
the People’s Republic of China.

Zhou Enlai
 Born on March 5 1898, died on January 8 1976

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 The Role of Diplomats

 Although he studied abroad, upon his visit to China, he participated in the May Fourth
Movement acknowledging communist policies.
 Enlai joined the China Communist Party (CCP) from abroad, and formed a team of
young communist expatriate Chinese students.
 Became a popular and influential CCP figure, where he organized a strike in
1926.
 Formed friendship and firm political allies with Mao Zedong. He participated in the
Long March of 1934, where afterwards emerged as a party leader alongside Mao.
 After the communist victory in 1949, Zhou became premier and foreign minister of the
People’s Republic of China.
 Supported Mao Zedong’s policies during the 1950s, including his policy regarding the
Great Leap Forward. Zhou Enlai continued to become a strong implementing role in
Mao’s economic reforms.
 Because Zhou Enlai was a skilled negotiator and an canny political operature, he was
able to negotiate visits to China by US leaders, Henry Kissinger and Richard Nixon.

Mikhail Gorbachev
 Born on March 2, 1931
 In 1921, he became a delegate to the Communist Party Congress.
 In 1985, he was elected general secretary.
 Recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990, and in the same year, became Soviet
Union’s very first president. While being the president, Gorbachev promoted a lot for
peaceful international relations; both with foreign powers and among the country.
 In 1991, Gorbachev founded the Gorbachev Foundation and he continues to remain
politically and socially active.

Samantha Power
 Born on September 21, 1970
 Is an Irish-born American academic, author, political critic and diplomat who served as
the United States Ambassador to the United Nations from 2013 to 2017
 She began her career as a journalist (war correspondent) covering the Yugoslav Wars.
 From 1998 to 2002, she served as the Founding Executive Director of the Carr Center
for Human Rights Policy, where she later became the first Anna Lindh Professor of
Practice of Global Leadership and Public Policy.
 She was the senior adviser to Senator Barack Obama until March of 2008, when she
resigned from his presidential campaign after referring to Hillary Clinton as “a
monster.”
 She rejoined his team, and Obama chose her to chair a newly formed Atrocities
Prevention Board. During her time in the office, she focused on issues such as United
Nations reform, women’s rights and LGBT rights, religious freedom and religious
minorities, refugees, human trafficking, human rights and democracy.
 She is viewed to be a key figure in Obama’s administration in persuading the
president to intervene militarily in Libya.
 Won a Pulitzer Prize in 2003 for her book, “A Problem from Hell: America
and the Age of Genocide.”

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 The Role of Diplomats

 She was also awarded the 2015 Barnard Medal of Distinction and the 2016 Henry A.
Kissinger Prize.

Ban Ki-Moon
 Born on June 13 1944
 Ban Ki-Moon is a South Korean diplomat who was the eighth Secretary-General of the
United Nations from January 2007 to December 2016
 Prior to becoming the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon served as a career diplomat
in South Korea’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations
 As the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon was responsible for major reforms on
peacekeeping and UN employment practices.
 Has strong views on Global Warming, pressing the issue repeatedly with U.S. President
George W. Bush. He has even helped persuade Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir to
allow peacekeeping troops to enter Sudan.
 He is considered to be One of the Most Powerful People ranking in 32nd - being the
highest ranking among South Koreans.
 Ban Ki-Moon was awarded Top 100 Global Thinkers for his achievement in making the
Paris Agreement, a legally binding treaty less than a year after it was adopted.

Dag Hammarskjöld
 Born on July 29 1905, died on September 18 1961
 Was a Swedish diplomat, economist and author who served as the second Secretary
General of the United Nations from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in
September 1961
 At his appointment as Secretary General for the UN, he was considered to be youngest
to have ever held the post (being that he was 47 years old).
 He is one of four people to have been awarded a posthumous (after death) Nobel Prize,
and was the only United Nations Secretary to have died while in office
 He was killed in a DC-6 plane crash, on his way to ceasefire negotiations during the
Congo Crisis
 There are many conspiracies surrounding his death, the first being that his
plane was shot down by either the CIA, MI6, Belgian Mining Company and/or
any mining companies that profited from the war he was trying to stop.
 Considered to be one of the best secretary-generals of all time in the UN, and was even
called, “the greatest statesmen of our century.”
 During his time in the office, he helped alleviate the economic problems post World
War II and was a delegate to the Paris Conference that established the Marshall Plan.
 He also tried to smoothen relationships between Israel and the Arab States.
 He visited China in 1955 to negotiate the release of 11 captured US pilots who
had served in the Korean War.
 In 1956 he established the United Nations Emergency Force.

U Thant
 Born on January 22 1909, died on 25 November 1974
 Was a Burmese diplomat and the third Secretary General of the United
Nations, serving from 1961 to 1971. U Thant refused to serve third term,
thus retiring in 1971.

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 The Role of Diplomats

 He was the first non-European to hold the positions, holding the office for a
record of 10 years and one month.
 During the political climate in Burma, U Thant held moderate views. He is known for his
calm and unassuming demeanor.
 He was appointed as Secretary General in 1961 when his predecessor, Dag
Hammarskjold died in an air crash.
 In his first term, he facilitated negotiations between U.S President John F. Kennedy and
Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis
 U Thant ordered for Operation Grandslam, which ended the secessionist insurgency in
Congo.
 In his second term, U Thant publicly criticized the American conduct during the
Vietnam War.
 Oversaw the entry of newly independent African and Asians states into the UN.

Ambassador Spock
 Star Trek character, extremely famous throughout the Sci-Fi universe.
 Ambassador for the Federation of United Planets and the Klingon Empire, helping to
ease strained relations between the two.
 Later on in the series, Spock became an ambassador to the Romulan Star Empire
 Involved in the unsuccessful attempt to save the capital planet of the empire (Romulus)
from being consumed by a Supernova.

Colin Powell
 1937 (81 years)
 A man of many jobs, all of which were in a way related to diplomacy and politics. These
were:
o US National Security Advisor (1987-1989)
o Commander of US Army Forces Command (1989)
o Chairman of the Joint Chief of Staffs (1989-1993).
o 65th Secretary of State, serving the George W. Bush administration from 2001
to 2005, becoming the first American African to serve in such a position
 During his time as the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff, Powell helped the United
States lead a coalition force against Iraqi troops who had invaded Kuwait in Operations
Desert Shield and Desert Storm.
 In his term as Secretary of State, Powell unsuccessfully tried to get another coalition to
combat reports of Iraqi weapons proliferation yet later revealed his sources were
inaccurate and likely untrue.
 One of his most notable legacies was the Powell Doctrine, a concept of warfare
wherein a nation utilizes overwhelming force to minimize casualties and maximize
success.

António Guterres
 Currently Secretary-General of the United Nations- formally elected by
the UN General Assembly in 2017
 Portuguese politician and diplomat
 Other previous titles include:

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 The Role of Diplomats

o Prime minister of Portugal

o United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
o President of the Socialist International
o Secretary-General of the Socialist Party
o Leader of the Opposition (Carnation Revolution)

How were diplomats (and diplomacy) involved in…

July Crisis
 Interrelated diplomatic and military escalations among the major European powers in
the summer of 1914
 Eventually led up to the breakout of the first World War
 Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) was assassinated by
Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian and Yugoslavic partisan
 Austro-Hungary viewed the South Slav irredentist movements promoted by Serbia as a
threat to the unity of the country
 On 5 July, Kaiser Wilhelm II issued his famous “blank cheque” to Austria-Hungary- they
could proceed as they saw fit, and Germany would back them if Russia intervened
 On 23 July, almost one month after the assassination, the Serbian government
received an ultimatum from Austria-Hungary. In it was a set of ten firmly worded
demands, plus a requirement for the Serbs to respond in agreement within 48 hours.
Winston Churchill, then in charge of Britain’s Royal Navy, called the ultimatum “the
most insolent document of its kind ever devised”.
 Serbia immediately sought the counsel of the Russians. Tsar Nicholas II and his
ministers offered to publicly condemn the ultimatum, but refused to offer any military
guarantees
 Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Josef declared war on Serbia on 28 July

Cuban Missile Crisis

 1962- tensions were high between the superpowers at the time, during the Cold War
 13-day political standoff over the installation of Soviet missiles just 90 miles from US
shores
 People thought that a nuclear war would break out
 Disaster was avoided when the U.S. agreed to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s offer
to remove the Cuban missiles in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba.
Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove U.S. missiles from Turkey.

Fashoda Incident
 The climax of imperial territorial disputes between Britain and France in Eastern Africa
in 1898
 A French expedition to Fashoda on the White Nile sought to gain control of the Upper
Nile river basin and thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan
 The French party and a British-Egyptian force met on friendly terms, but
back in Europe, it became a war scare
 The British held firm as both empires stood on the verge of war with
heated rhetoric on both sides

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 The Role of Diplomats

 Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the
area.
 The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states
acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant power in
Morocco.

Great Game
 Started in 1813
 A political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the nineteenth century
between the British Empire and the Russian Empire over Afghanistan and neighbouring
territories in Central and Southern Asia
 Existed for majority of the 19th century
 Began on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough, the President of the Board of
Control for India, tasked Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General, to establish a
new trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara
 Britain intended to gain control over the Emirate of Afghanistan and make it a
protectorate, and to use the Ottoman Empire, the Persian Empire, the Khanate of
Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires- this would
protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a
port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean
 Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone
 The end of the Great Game is considered to be on 10 September 1895 when the Pamir
Boundary Commision protocols were signed

One China Policy

 U.S. policy of diplomatic acknowledgment of China’s position that there is only ONE
Chinese government
 U.S. recognizes and has formal ties with China rather than the island of Taiwan
 China sees Taiwan as a breakaway province to be reunified with the mainland one day
 Fundamental bedrock of Chinese policy-making and diplomacy
 Distinct from One China principle → China insists Taiwan to be an inalienable part of
one China to be reunified one day
 Washington maintains a “robust unofficial” relationship with Taiwan
o Continued arms sales
 Taiwan’s government claims it is an independent country = “Republic of China”
 Any country that wants diplomatic relations with mainland China must break official
ties with Taipei → Taiwan’s diplomatic isolation from the international community
 End of Chinese civil war in 1949- Communists defeated Nationalists (Kuomintang)
o Nationalists retreated to Taiwan - created own government
o Communists began ruling mainland as People’s Republic of China
o Both sides said they represented all of China
 China and U.S. saw a mutual need to develop relations beginning in 1970s → U.S. and
other countries cutting ties with Taipei in favor of Beijing
 U.S. remains Taiwan’s most important security ally
 U.S. established formal diplomatic ties with Beijing in 1979 under President Jimmy
Carter → U.S. had to sever ties with Taiwan and closed its Taipei embassy
 U.S. can benefit from formal relations with China (biggest foreign lender
and top trade partner) while quietly continuing to maintain strong ties
with Taiwan

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 The Role of Diplomats

Middle East Qatari embargo

 Also known as the 2017-18 Qatar diplomatic crisis
 Several countries abruptly cut off diplomatic relations with Qatar om June 2017
o Saudi Arabia
o UAE
o Bahrain
o Egypt
 Imposed a “air, land and sea blockade” on Qatar
 Cited Qatar’s alleged support for terrorism
 Criticised Qatar’s relationship with Iran
 On 27 July 2017, Qatari foreign minister Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani told
reporters that Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Bahrain were showing
"stubbornness" to Qatar and had not taken any steps to solve the crisis
 Al Thani added that the Security Council, the General Assembly and "all the United
Nations mechanisms" could play a role in resolving the situation
 On 24 August 2017, Qatar announced that they would restore full diplomatic relations
with Iran

Zimmerman Telegram
 A message from the German foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German
ambassador to Mexico proposing a Mexican-German alliance in the case of war
between the U.S. and Germany
 Was intercepted and deciphered by British intelligence
 Zimmermann instructed the ambassador, Count Johann von Bernstorff, to offer
significant financial aid to Mexico if it agreed to enter any future U.S.-German conflict
as a German ally
 Germany also promised to restore to Mexico the lost territories of TX, NM, and AR
 U.S. President Woodrow Wilson learned of telegram’s contents on February 26
 Proposed to Congress that the U.S. should start arming its ships against possible
German attacks, authorized State Dept. to make public the Zimmermann Telegram
 Germany has already triggered America with its policy of unrestricted submarine
warfare and its continued attacks against American ships
 Public opinion in the U.S. now swung firmly toward American entrance into WWI

South China Sea disputes

 ⅓ of global maritime traffic, $5 trillion in annual trade, 6 claimant nations
 The geographic commons of SE Asia’s navigable rimland- 3.5 million square km of
underlying bedrock contain oil and natural gas deposits
 The territorially disputed region may be the most strategically important waterway of
the 21st century- lucrative fisheries and supply routes that carry 80% of China’s crude
imports
 Sea is bound to the north by China → 95% of the region cite ancient maritime records
 Waters have been vital to the economic survival of neighboring Vietnam, Malaysia,
Brunei, and the Philippines
 South China Sea shipping lanes provide access to trade-intensive waters of
the Indian Ocean
 Many nations have urged Beijing to abide by the UN Convention on the
Law of the Sea- maritime zones of control based on coastlines

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The Role of Diplomats

o U.S. often relies on the international agreement to settle territorial disputes

o China has refrained, invoking intertemporal laws based on deep historical
record
o China views UN-backed codes of maritime governance as incompatible with
domestic laws → instruments of Western hegemony designed to undercut its
expanding influence as a world power
 Low-level skirmishes between Chinese naval patrols and civilian fishing fleets from
neighboring countries could spark international conflict
 Waterway promises remain a fulcrum upon which the geopolitics of international trade
pivots

XYZ Affair
 A diplomatic incident between France and America in the late 18th century that led to
an undeclared war at sea
 France went to war with Great Britain while America remained neutral
 U.S. and Britain signed the Jay Treaty- resolved several longstanding issues between
the two nations
 French were infuriated by Jay’s Treaty- violated earlier treaties between the U.S. and
France → seized a substantial number of American merchant ships
 President George Washington sent Charles Pinckney as the U.S. minister to France-
government refused to receive him
 President John Adams dispatched a three-member delegation to Paris later in an effort
to restore peace between the two countries
 American diplomats tried to meet with France’s foreign minister, Charles de Talleyrand
 Talleyrand put them off and eventually had three agents inform the U.S. commissioners
that in order to see them they first would have to pay him a bribe and provide France
with a large loan
 Caused an uproar in the U.S. and prompted calls for war
 Adams handed members of Congress over with names of French agents replaced with
the letters X, Y, and Z
 Congress authorized American ships to attack French vessels → undeclared naval war
that came to be referred to as the Quasi-War, settled w/ Convention of 1800 (Treaty of
Mortefontaine)

U-2 Incident
 Occurred during the Cold War in 1960
 A United States U-2 spy plane was shot down in Soviet airspace
 The aircraft, flown by pilot Francis Gary Powers, was performing photographic aerial
reconnaissance when it was hit by an S-75 Dvina (SA-2 Guideline) surface-to-air missile
and crashed near Sverdlovsk
 Initially the United States government lied about the plane's purpose and mission, but
was forced to admit to spying when the Soviet government revealed the captured pilot
and remains of the U-2 including spying technology and photos of military bases in the
Soviet Union taken by the aircraft.
 This incident was a great embarrassment to the United States, and proved yet again
that the Soviet-American relationship was deteriorating

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 The Role of Diplomats

Christmas Truce
 Christmas Day 1914 during WWI
 Holiday celebrations that took place in the trenches and included gestures of goodwill
between enemies
 Pope Benedict XV suggested a temporary hiatus of the war for the celebration of
Christmas
 Soldiers in the trenches declared their own unofficial truce
 Many German and British troops sang Christmas carols to each other across the lines
 Allied soldiers even heard brass bands joining the Germans in their joyous singing
 German soldiers emerged from their trenches and approached the Allied lines across
no-man’s-land → called out “Merry Christmas” in enemies’ native tongues
 Allied soldiers feared it was a trick, but saw Germans unarmed → climbed out of their
trenches and shook hands with the enemy soldiers
 Men exchanged presents of cigarettes and plum puddings and sang carols and songs
 Documented case of soldiers from opposing sides playing a game of soccer
 Used time to retrieve bodies of fellow combatants who had fallen within the no-man’s-
land between the lines
 One of the last examples of the outdated notion of chivalry between enemies in
warfare
 Never repeated but served as heartening proof that the soldiers’ essential humanity
endured

Pig and Potato War

 Between the UK and the US
 1859 confrontation over their borders in the San Juan islands between Vancouver
Island and the mainland
 Was triggered by the shooting of a pig
 This dispute was a bloodless conflict

the Falkland Islands

 April 1982: troops from Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, which were under
British colonisation
 Argentina had long claimed internationally that these islands were their territory, but
Britain would not let go of their colony
 Margaret Thatcher, British prime minister, sent a fleet of 127 ships with a landing force
8000 miles to protect the islands
 The war ended with Argentine forces surrendering at Port Stanley

Partition of India
 The division of British India in 1947
 Accompanied the creation of Pakistan and India, two independent dominions
 Today:
o Dominion of India: Republic of India
o Dominion of Pakistan: Islamic Republic of Pakistan and People’s
Republic of Bangladesh
o Displaced over 14 million people along religious lines

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Selected Readings & Speeches

The Practice of Diplomacy (“The Art of Negotiation” to “Courage” p. 7-29) |

Francois de Callieres
It was in this book that the first known principles of diplomatic conduct and procedure
were listed. Mainly the art of negotiation and the power a diplomat must have to defy
the interests of other nations. It is still looked back on as one of the key cornerstones of
diplomacy and how it should be done.

Remarks on Russia | Samantha Power

Samantha Power, a former US Ambassador to the UN, gave this speech in her final
tenure in January of 2017. In the speech, Power denotes that Russian and US interests
have been aligned for much of history, referring to the recent Syrian conflict and World
Wars as evidence. However, her speech then turns to harsh criticism of how the
modern-day Russia, under Vladimir Putin’s leadership, has deteriorated and drifted
away from the alliances with the US the country once had. She calls Russia as a threat to
the US Government and politics and urges all member nations of the UN to stand with
America against the Eastern European country. A rather rousing speech, as it is so rarely
seen in history (at least since 1950) that a politician outright slanders another country
on public television. Now we must see how Putin’s administration will address her
remarks.

Blood and Iron (excerpt) | Otto von Bismarck

Delivered by the iron chancellor himself, the Blood and Iron (Blut und Eisen) speech by
Otto Von Bismarck was delivered on the 30th of September 1962. It came in response
to the Prussian House of Representatives (essentially the congress at the time) refused
a bid for increased military spending submitted by King Wilhelm I. Bismarck appeared
in front of the House’s Budget Committee and stressed the need for military readiness
to solve the German Question (a debate throughout the 19th century regarding how
best to unify the separate German states). It was during the end of his speech that he
earned his nickname as the Iron Chancellor. Here it is: "The position of Prussia in
Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power [...] Prussia must
concentrate its strength and hold it for the favorable moment, which has already come
and gone several times. Since the treaties of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed
for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great
questions of the day be decided—that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849—but by
iron and blood."(During 1848 and 1849 there were multiple unsuccessful German
revolutions in uniting the area). Thus the Prussian states were then united in their goal
for a unified Germany. It would be shortly after this speech that Bismarck
began to go about reclaiming “Prussian” territories from other nations, by
declaring war on them. This included Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark and
Alsace-Lorraine from the French.

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 Selected Readings & Speeches

An Independent Diplomat | Carne Ross

In the world of international politics, some developing and small countries have no say
in votes or other matters, their say considered insignificant or their inability to produce
diplomats overwhelming. This is where Carne Ross comes in, a former British Foreign
Office worker, he now runs a nonprofit organization called the Independent Diplomat.
The Independent Diplomat offers freelance diplomatic representation to small,
developing and unrecognized nations in the confusing tangle of international
negotiations.

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 Additional Cases & Questions

 Should schools teach be required to teach courses in diplomacy and conflict

resolution?
 If you were a diplomat working on behalf of your school, where would you be sent
and what would you be asked to do?
 In first inaugural address, American president Thomas Jefferson called for "honest
friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none" - a doctrine that guided
the foreign policy of the United States for many years. Discuss with your team:
what are entangling alliances, and is it good for nations to avoid them? To what
degree does the United States follow this doctrine today? How about your own
country?
 Want to try diplomacy firsthand? Try playing this online version of a famous
diplomatic board game, one ostensibly beloved by figures such as John F. Kennedy
and Henry Kissinger. What can we learn from it?
 How do different cultural expectations affect negotiations between countries?
Consider the case of Chen Guangcheng, which required some tricky diplomacy
between two countries with very different approaches to directness.
 To thrive in today’s economy, nations must participate in regional and global trade
agreements. Research some of these agreements—including those that are up for
renegotiation, and those that failed. What is the difference between a bilateral and
multilateral trade agreement, and why might one be more difficult to negotiate
than the other?
 As you explore how nations attempt to influence one another, consider the
difference between "hard power" and "soft power". Under what circumstances
would you recommend a nation employ one or the other, or are they always best
used in tandem? Discuss with your team: do we have the equivalents of hard and
soft power in our everyday interactions and entanglements?
 Amidst all of the bloodshed of World War I, there was one Christmas day when
thousands of soldiers on either side temporarily banded together for the sake of
festivity. Are there any lessons we can take from this brief moment of harmony to
apply in diplomatic efforts today—and if so, are they also applicable to
interpersonal situations?
 Sometimes, the little ball moves the big ball. Explore how "ping pong" may have
paved the way to improved relations (and, arguably, economic interdependence)
between the United States and China. Discuss with your team: are there lessons to
be learned from this case for other difficult international relationships in the world
today?
 Consider this iconic image of the Yalta Conference toward the end of World War II,
then (after researching the details of the conference) discuss with your team: was
this one of diplomacy's finest hours?
 Learn about the diplomatic maneuvering behind the signing of the Iran Nuclear
Deal. Is it indeed a triumph of diplomacy, and could similar arrangements be made
with other nations?

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 Consider the practice of "panda diplomacy" by the People's Republic of China.
Discuss with your team: what makes panda diplomacy so effective, and do other
countries use similar tactics? Is it fair to the pandas?

YOUR TURN: Complete the additional cases and answer the questions.

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