Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

A generalised steel/reinforced concrete beam-column element

model for fire conditions
Jun Cai a, Ian Burgess b,∗, Roger Plank c
a
Fabsec Ltd, Brooklands Court, Tunstall Road, Leeds, LS11 5HL, UK
b
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sir Frederick Mappin Building, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD,
UK
c
School of Architectural Studies, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK

Received 2 July 2002; received in revised form 7 January 2003; accepted 7 January 2003

Abstract

A generalised beam-column element is presented for three-dimensional composite structures at ambient and high temperatures.
The element can model reinforced concrete and steel sections of different shapes. The element has been implemented in the software
VULCAN, and has then been validated by comparing with existing theoretical and experimental results. The formulation currently
includes both geometrical and material non-linearities and considers unloading for steel, cracking and crushing for concrete, and
thermal expansion and degradation of material for both with elevated temperatures. The cross-section is divided into an appropriate
number of segments so that non-uniform temperature profiles, variations of constitutive relationships and thermal strains across the
section can be represented accurately.
 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Finite elements; Steel; Reinforced concrete; Fire conditions; Material properties; Composite construction; Non-linear analysis

1. Introduction these steel beam elements to concrete slab elements. The

Computer models are used to simulate fire scenarios
in buildings, either in terms of fire development and heat
transfer to or in terms of thermo-structural analysis. At
the University of Sheffield, a finite element program
VULCAN has been developed to perform non-linear
analysis of three-dimensional frame and slab systems
subjected to fire conditions. Since Najjar [1] initially
extended the software from two to three dimensions, the
beam-column element has been further developed [2-3-
4]. The basic formulation of the beam-column element
models bi-symmetric I-sections as assemblies of 12 seg-
ments, the objective being to allow temperature vari-
ations in any direction, and consequently different ther-
mal strains and stress-strain characteristics, across the
section of any element. In order to model composite
floor systems [3,4] the usual method has been to connect
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-114-222-5060; fax: +44-114-
∗ allows non-I-shaped sections to be modelled, and also
222-5700.
E-mail address: ian.burgess@sheffield.ac.uk (I. Burgess).
beam-column element was designed to model bisym-
metric I-sections. It has subsequently been developed to
remove symmetry about one principal axis, but it is not
possible to model cross-sections other than steel I-sec-
tions [1], although it is now becoming necessary to rep-
resent hollow, concrete-filled and reinforced concrete
sections. The removal of one symmetry condition for I-
sections [4] was caused by the advent of a new slim-
floor system, which combines an asymmetric steel beam
(ASB) in a composite floor with deep-ribbed steel
decking, which has significant advantages for fire resist-
ance. The numerical model of the slab can simply
replace the normal uniform-thickness layered slab
element with an effective-stiffness slab model [5] to
approximate the effects of ribs. This method works well
for slabs with close-spaced shallow ribs, but is an inac-
curate model of deep-deck slabs of the kind used in
Slimdek construction. In this paper, a new generalised
beam element has therefore been developed which
allows the concrete ribs of Slimdek floor systems to be
modelled as reinforced concrete beams. Details of the

0141-0296/03/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0141-0296(03)00019-1
818 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

Nomenclature
A area of cross-section
At, Bt, nt temperature-dependent constants
[Ā] geometric description matrix
具B̄典 non-linear strain-displacement vector
具B0典, 具B̄L典 small- and large-displacement strain-displacement vectors
具B̄xz典, 具B̄yz典 non-linear shear strain-displacement vectors
[C] constitutive matrix
Et tangent modulus
fc,q, ft,q concrete compressive and tensile strengths at elevated temperatures
fx, fy shear forces parallel to x, y directions
G Shear modulus
Ixn, Iyn, Ixnyn (nth order) moments of area (Appendix B)
Iwn, Iwxn, Iwyn (nth order) sectorial properties for an element
J St. Venant torsion constant
K̄ Wagner coefficient
[kc] constant vector
[K0] linear small-displacement stiffness matrix
[KL] large-displacement stiffness matrix
[Ks] geometric matrix
[Kt] element tangent stiffness matrix in local coordinates
[KT] element tangent stiffness matrix in global coordinates
mx, my stress resultants for internal moments about the x and y axes (Appendix B)
mw stress resultant for warping bimoment
n stress resultant for internal axial force
[N] cubic shape function matrix
qi nodal displacement in local coordinates
{⌬q} vector of incremental nodal displacements corresponding to unbalanced forces in local coordinates
{Q} vector of external nodal forces in local coordinates
{QR} internal force vector in local coordinates
{⌬Q} vector of nodal unbalanced forces in local coordinates
{⌬r} vector of incremental nodal displacements corresponding to unbalanced forces in global coordinates
{R} vector of applied nodal loads in global coordinates
{RR} vector of internal nodal forces in global coordinates
{⌬R} vector of nodal unbalanced forces in global coordinates
Tw, Tsv twisting moments due to the warping stress and St. Venant shear stress
Ts Wagner effect
[T] transformation matrix
⌬T increment in temperature
u, v, w displacements of an arbitrary point A in axes z, y, x
u0, v0, w0 displacements of the reference axis in axes z, y, x
Vx, Vy stress resultant for internal axial force
W virtual work
x, y, z local co-ordinates
a reduction factor
w sectorial co-ordinate of the arbitrary point A
n Poisson’s ratio
ecr,q concrete tensile strain at peak stress
ecu,q concrete strain corresponding to fc,q
e0, eL axial strains under small and large displacements
ez axial strain at the arbitrary point A
ezt,ezm,ezth,ezr total, mechanical, thermally-induced and residual axial strains, respectively
 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833 819

qx, qy rotations of infinitesimal segment about axes x, y

qz twist angle about reference axis z
gxz, gyz shear stains
sz axial stress
txz, tyz shear stresses

main principles and formulation for this generalised element to model the non-linear behaviour of a member
beam element are given in this paper. Different material cross-section, which normally requires a number of solid
models have also been applied in the software, especially elements. Because one beam element consists of three
for tension in concrete which may significantly affect sub-elements the number of elements used along a beam
the results. Validation of this new beam model has been member can be greatly reduced.
carried out for single members and more complicated
structures. The results demonstrate its capability of mod-
elling a range of cross-sections at ambient temperature 2. Principles of the formulation
and in fire.
Other finite element analyses are also available to This generalised steel/reinforced concrete beam
study the behaviour of two- and three-dimensional struc- element is a two-noded line element, each node having
tures under ambient-temperature and fire conditions. The eight degrees of freedom in local coordinates which are
best-known is SAFIR, which has been developed at the represented as eleven global degrees of freedom, as
University of Liege, Belgium. In this software two kinds shown in Fig. 1 for a thin-walled open section. The fol-
of element, the truss element and the beam element, are lowing assumptions are first established:
used to model beams and columns. The truss element is
a two-noded line element for which each node has three 앫 The member is straight and prismatic.
translational degrees of freedom, and only one material 앫 Plane cross-sections remain plane under flexural
with uniform temperature and strain. The beam element deformations, and there is no slip between different
is a straight-line element with three nodes describing its
position (two nodes at the ends, and a third defining the
local y axis position) and another providing an additional
degree of freedom. The fibre model is used to divide the
cross section into small triangular and quadrilateral
fibres so that different materials and temperatures can
be assigned across the section. Two-point integration is
adopted in this software. The new VULCAN beam
element uses two-noded line elements with each node
having eight degrees of freedom in local coordinates. For
computational efficiency each element is comprised of
three sub-elements along its length. Four-point Gauss
quadrature is used to carry out the integration while
internal nodes are condensed out during this process,
giving a more accurate result. The mechanical properties
assumed in VULCAN include both the Eurocode defi-
nitions and also a smoothed Ramberg-Osgood model
which makes solution more stable. It is well known that
cracked concrete can still carry some tensile stress in
the direction normal to a crack, which is termed tension
stiffening. This phenomenon has been modelled in the
new beam element using two tension stiffening curves.
Several studies show that the behaviour of concrete
members is sensitive to the selected tension curve. The
VULCAN formulation differs from comparable com-
mercial software in that warping can be modelled using
the beam elements. In contrast to complex conventional
3D solid elements, the new beam element uses only one Fig. 1. Nodal degrees of freedom in local and global co-ordinates.
820 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

materials, for example the steel reinforcement and in which x and y are the co-ordinates of point A. The
surrounding concrete. reference axis for displacements is based on the unde-
앫 The twist (qz) of the beam member is relatively small, formed elements.
and there is no distortion of the cross-section. It can be seen from Fig. 2 that the slopes of the mem-
ber in the x and y-directions respectively are:
The equations of deformation of the generalised beam
dw0
element are based on a Total Lagrangian description, sinqx ⫽ ⫽ w⬘0 (3a)
with the displacements of any point within the element dz
specified in relation to its initial position. The displace- dv0
ments at any point on the reference axis between two sinqy ⫽ ⫽ v⬘0. (3b)
dz
end nodes can be expressed by
Although the derivatives could be represented by tan-
{u0} ⫽ [N]{q} (1) gents, the sine function gives a better representation for
where [N] is a cubic shape function matrix, as given in large-displacement problems. Eqs (3a) and (3b) also give
Appendix A, {q} is the nodal displacement vector in the implicit expressions for cosines as
local coordinates, and {u0}T = 具u0,v0,w0,qz典.
cosqx ⫽ 冑1⫺(w⬘0)2 (3c)
The derivatives can be expressed similarly as
{u⬘0} ⫽ [N⬘]{q} (1a) cosqy ⫽ 冑1⫺(v⬘0)2. (3d)
{u⬙0} ⫽ [N⬙]{q} (1b) The series expansions for sinqz and cosqz are well
where {u⬘0} = 具u⬘0,v⬘0,w⬘0,q⬘z典, {u⬙0} = 具u⬙0,v⬙0,w⬙0,q⬙z典. known. Since the twist angle qz is assumed to be small,
As shown in Fig. 2, the displacements of an arbitrary we can disregard all terms containing powers of qz and
point A on any cross-section can be expressed in terms therefore have
of the reference axis displacements by sinqz ⫽ qz and cosqz ⫽ 1. (3e)
u ⫽ u0⫺(ysinqy ⫹ xsinqx) (2a) Then Eq. (2) can therefore be rewritten as:
v ⫽ v0⫺y ⫹ (ycosqycosqz ⫹ xcosqxsinqz) (2b) u ⫽ u0⫺(yv⬘0 ⫹ xw⬘0) (4a)
w ⫽ w0⫺x ⫹ (xcosqxcosqz⫺ycosqysinqz) (2c)

Fig. 2. The deformations of the generalised beam element.

 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833 821

冉
v ⫽ v0⫺y ⫹ y冑1⫺(v⬘0)2 ⫹ xqz冑1⫺(w⬘0)2 冊 (4b)
1
ez ⫽ e0 ⫹ eL ⫽ 具B0典{q} ⫹ {u}T[H]T[H]{u}
2
(6c)

冉冑
w ⫽ w0⫺x ⫹ x 1⫺(w⬘0)2⫺yqz冑1⫺(v⬘0)2 . 冊 (4c)
where 具B0典 is the usual small-displacement strain–dis-
placement vector.
From Eq. (6c) it is implicit that eL = (1 /
Eq. (4a) is based on the Bernoulli assumption that 2){u}T[H]T[H]{u} and thereby we have
plane cross-sections remain plane after deformation so
that it only represents the axial deformation. It will be 1 1
deL ⫽ {du}T[H]T[H]{u} ⫹ {u}T[H]T[H]{du} (7)
satisfied for solid or hollow members of circular cross- 2 2
sections, since there is negligible effect from warping. ⫽ {u}T[H]T[H]{du} ⫽ 具B̄L典{dq}
However for thin-walled open-section beams, such as
steel I-sections, it is necessary to include the effect of so that
warping [6,7]. Adding the warping term (wq⬘z) to Eq.
dez ⫽ de0 ⫹ deL ⫽ 具B0典{dq} ⫹ 具B̄L典{dq} (8)
(4a), we have another equation for thin-walled open
beams: in which only 具B̄L典 depends on the displacements. 具B̄L典
may be rewritten, discarding higher-order derivatives
u ⫽ u0⫺yv⬘0⫺xw⬘0 ⫹ awq⬘z (4d)
and rearranging to produce 具B̄L典 = 具q典[BL], where [BL]
where w is the sectorial co-ordinate of the arbitrary point is symmetric and is displacement-independent.
A as illustrated in Fig. 2; and a is a reduction factor. It Defining the non-linear strain–displacement vector
is proposed that for thin-walled open-section members 具B̄典 = 具B0典 + 具B̄L典, which contains displacements, Eq.
a constant value a = 1 will be used, but for solid or (8) becomes
closed hollow-section members the value a = 0 should
be applied to eliminate the effect of warping. dez ⫽ 具B̄典{dq} (9)
Eq. (4) can be put into matrix form as follows: The non-linear shear strains at any arbitrary point of a
{u} ⫽ [Ā]{u0} ⫹ {kc} (5) beam element may be expressed [8] by
in which [Ā] is the geometric description matrix and con-
tains displacements, {kc} is a constant vector and {kc}T
gxz ⫽
∂u ∂w
∂x
⫹
∂z
⫹ 冉
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
· ⫹ · ⫹ ·
∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂z 冊 (10a)
= {0, ⫺y, ⫺x}T.
The general definition of axial strain at any arbitrary and
point of a beam element can be found by using large-
displacement equations (Green’s strain tensor) [8,9] as gyz ⫽
∂u ∂w
∂y
⫹
∂z
⫹ 冉
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂w ∂w
· ⫹ · ⫹ ·
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z 冊 (10b)
1
ez ⫽ u⬘ ⫹ {(u⬘)2 ⫹ (v⬘)2 ⫹ (w⬘)2} (6a) It is evident that, since zero distortion was assumed over
2 the cross-section the shear strain gxy is equal to zero.
Eq. (6a) can also be written in matrix form as: Eqs. (10a) and (10b) may be simplified by ignoring
higher order terms to give
1
ez ⫽ 具H1典{u} ⫹ {u}T[H]T[H]{u} (6b) gxz ⫽ v⬘0qz and gyz ⫽ ⫺w⬘0qz (10c)
2
in which and their infinitesimal increments are
∂ dgxz ⫽ 具B̄xz典{dq} ⫽ 具q典[Bxz]{dq} and dgyz ⫽ 具B̄yz典{dq} ⫽ 具q典[Byz]{dq}
0 0
∂z

冤 冥
(11)
[H] ⫽ 0
∂
∂z
0 具H1典 ⫽冓∂
∂z 冔
, 0, 0 and {u}T ⫽ 具u, v, w典. where [Bxz] and [Byz] are symmetric.The infinitesimal
generalised strain increments can be expressed as
∂
0 0 {de} ⫽ [B̄]{dq}
∂z (12)
It is noted that, because the beam element is a two- where
noded line element, the strains (ex, ey) in the x- and y-
{de}T ⫽ 具dez,dgxz,dgyz典 and [B̄]3x16 ⫽ [具B̄典具B̄xz典具B̄yz典]
directions, which are perpendicular to beam z-axis, are
free strains. In Eq. (6b) the first term on the right hand Based on the strain–displacement relationship, Eq.
side represents small linear-displacement strains and the (12), and applying the Principle of Virtual Work [8],

冕
remainder is caused by non-linear displacement. Thus
Eq. (6b) can be rewritten in terms of the infinitesimal dW ⫽ {de}T{s}dV⫺{dq}T{Q} ⫽ 0 (13)
and large-displacement components by V
822 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

where {s} = {sz,txz,tyz} and {e}T = 具ez,gxz,gyz典 in which

⫺{dq}T{Q} ⫽ 0.
ez represents the mechanical axial strain ezm = ezt⫺
ezth⫺ezr, in which ezt is the total axial strain, ezth is the Because of equilibrium
thermally-induced axial strain, and ezr is the residual
∂W
axial strain. Since the beam element is a two-noded line yi ⫽ ⫽0
element of isotropic material, the incremental stress– ∂qi
strain relationship will be where i has a range equal to N, the number of local
{ds} ⫽ [C]{de} (14) degrees of freedom for the beam element. Thus
where
{y} ⫽ 冕 冉冕 冊
[B̄]T{s}dA ⫹ 具Bt典TT dz⫺{Q} (18)

冤 冥
L A
Et 0 0
⫽ {0}.
[C] ⫽ 0 G 0
Eq. (18) may be rearranged as
0 0 G

in which
{y} ⫽ 冕 冉冕L A
({B0}sz ⫹ [BL]{q}sz

G⫽
E
2(1 ⫹ n)
⫹ [Bxz]{q}txz ⫹ [Byz]{q}tyz)dA ⫹ {Bt}T dz 冊 (19)

. ⫺{Q}
It may be observed from Eq. (13) that twisting is not
considered explicitly, but nevertheless the total internal where {y} represents the sum of the external loads and
twisting moment is defined [7] by the internal generalised forces.
Since Eq. (19) is highly non-linear it may be not satis-
T ⫽ Tw ⫹ Ts ⫹ Tsv (15a) fied exactly, and the Newton–Raphson method can be
in which, Tw is the twisting moment due to the warping employed to yield [8]:
shear stress and is given by Tw = M⬘w; Ts is known as ∂yi
the Wagner effect and Ts = K̄q⬘z; the Wagner coefficient ⌬yi ⫽ ⌬q ⫽ ⫺yi (20)
∂qj j
K̄ is given by K̄ = 冕A
sz(x2 + y2)dA; Tsv is the twisting where the repeated-index summation convention is used
and j also has a range of N, so that
moment due to St Venant shear stress and is given by
Tsv = GJq⬘z.
The first two terms on the right hand side of Eq. (15a)
are caused by warping deformation, and both are higher-
冉冕 冉冕
L A
{B0}Et{B0}TdA ⫹ {Bt}K{Bt}T dz 冊
order effects. These effects may be ignored, especially
for solid or closed sections for which warping is a very
minor effect. It should be noted that the twisting moment
⫹冕冕 L
({B0}Et{B̄L}T ⫹ {B̄L}Et{B0}T
A

is acting about the Shear Centre, and for bisymmetric ⫹ {B̄l}Et{B̄L}T ⫹ {B̄xz}G{B̄xz}T

冕冕
sections this coincides with the centroid. Eq. (15a) can
be rewritten in symbolic form as ⫹ {B̄yxz}G{B̄yxz}T)dAdz ⫹ ([BL]sz (21)
T ⫽ K具Bt典{q}
L A
(15b)
where the coefficient. K may be equal to GJ when solid
or closed sections are represented.
冊
⫹ [Bxz]txz ⫹ [Byz]tyz)dAdz ·{⌬q} ⫽ {Q}

If we now consider twisting effects, Eq. (13) becomes

冕冕
冕 冕
⫺ ({B0}szdA ⫹ {Bt}T ⫹ {B̄L}szdA
L A
dW ⫽ {de}T{s}dV ⫹ Tdq⬘zdz⫺{dq}T{Q} (16)
V L ⫹ {B̄xz}txzdA ⫹ {B̄yz}tyzdA)dz.
⫽ 0. In symbolic form we have
On substitution and rewriting Eq. (16) we have ([K0] ⫹ [KL] ⫹ [Ks])·{⌬q} ⫽ {Q}⫺{QR} or [Kt]{⌬q} ⫽ {⌬Q} (22)

dW ⫽ 冕 冉冕
L
{dq}T[B̄]T{s}dV ⫹ {dq}T具Bt典TT dz
A
冊 (17) in which [Kt] is known as the tangential stiffness matrix
for an element in local coordinates, defined by [Kt] =
 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833
[K0] + [KL] + [Ks]; and {QR} is the internal (resisting)
force vector, and {QR} = {QR0 } + {QRL}.
We can use the transformation matrix [T], which was
given in detail by Najjar [1], to transform the local equi-
librium equation into global coordinates,
[KT]{⌬r} ⫽ {⌬R} or [KT]{⌬r} ⫽ {R}⫺{RR} (23)
where,
[KT] ⫽ [T]T[Kt][T]
{RR} ⫽ [T]T{QR}
We also define {q} = [T]{r}.
Once Eq. (23) has been established for each structural
member, the structural equilibrium equations can be
obtained by assembling the stiffness matrices in global
coordinates. The unknown displacements are obtained
by solving these equations.
The reference axis of the concrete beam element is
normally defined as the neutral axis for elastic bending.
However, when the beam is composite with a concrete
slab its position is usually set at the mid-surface of the
concrete slab in order to coincide with the slab element
nodes. Studies have been carried out using different ref-
erence axis positions for the same simply supported
beam cases, including both concrete and steel beams.
These have confirmed that the assumed position of the
reference axis has no effect on the calculated deflections,
indicating that for simply supported beams the position
of the reference axis has been treated correctly.
3. Mechanical properties at elevated temperature
In the generalised beam model, the material properties
are considered to be temperature-dependent. Since any
element may include two different materials, two uniax-
ial material models are required.
3.1. Mathematical model of concrete
The mathematical material model used for concrete is
in accordance with EC4 Part 1.2 [10]. In this model, the
thermal elongation for normal-weight and lightweight
concrete differs, as shown in Fig. 3. The temperature-
dependent stress–strain relationships for concrete in
compression are shown in Fig. 4(a). Two stress–strain
curves, one suggested by Vecchio and Collins [11] and
another by Rots et al. [12], which has previously been
used by Huang [13] in concrete beam studies, have been
employed here for concrete in tension. Both curves have
the same linear ascending branch with an initial stiffness
equal to that in compression but different descending
branches, as shown in Fig. 4(b). Vecchio and Collins’s
curve simulates tensile strain-softening and is the stiffer
of the two. Tensile strain-softening is affected by the
823
amount of reinforcement; its appearance normally
accompanies higher reinforcement ratios. Since the
cross-section of the new beam element is divided into
individual either concrete or steel segments, the Rots’
curve is the more appropriate in this model. However,
Vecchio’s model makes the program solution process
more stable. The tensile strength is assumed to be ft,q
= 0.3321√fc,q and the corresponding strain is ecr,q = ft,q
/ Ec,q, both of these being temperature-dependent. At ten-
sile strains greater than this value of ecr,q the concrete is
assumed to follow the descending branch of the stress–
strain curve (Fig. 6). Once tensile strains exceed ecu,q
(which is normally between 10 and 25 times ecr,q; the
value of 15ecr,q is adopted in the program) the concrete
is ignored, although it is still assumed to be capable of
carrying compression. However, once the concrete has
crushed, it is assumed to have no residual strength in
either compression or tension. The EC4 model implicitly
takes account of the effect of high-temperature creep.
Both the physical loss of moisture and shrinkage at high
temperature cause a decrease in the coefficient of expan-
sion, but these effects have not been considered in the
present model. The model also does not attempt to model
spalling, the concrete cross-section being assumed to
remain intact.
3.2. Mathematical model of steel
The thermal expansion of steel has been modelled
according to EC3: Part 1.2 [14], and is shown in Fig. 3.
For the stress–strain relationship two temperature-depen-
dent constitutive models are available. The first one is
known as the Smoothed Ramberg–Osgood (SR–O)
model [15], which was based on a fit of experimental
results to a Ramberg–Osgood type of expression with
continuous functions for its temperature-dependent para-
meters (At and Bt), given by,
e⫽ 冉冊s
At
⫹
1 st
100 Bt 冉冊 nt
(24)
where, At, Bt and nt are temperature-dependent constants
shown in detail elsewhere [16].
The second is that defined in EC4: Part 1.2 [10] for
both cold-worked and hot-rolled reinforcing steel, the
differences being represented by different retention fac-
tors (Es/Es(20°C), sspr/fsy(20°C) and ssmax/fsy(20°C)). Properties
in tension and compression are assumed to be identical.
Both the constitutive models can model the unloading
of steel, as illustrated in Fig. 5 parts (a) and (b), respect-
ively.
3.3. Segmentation of the member
In order to represent variations of strain and stress,
the cross-section is divided into a grid of segments (n)
824 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

Fig. 3. Stress–strain relationships of concrete under compression at elevated temperatures: (a) concrete under compression (Note: fc(20°C) is com-
pressive strength at ambient temperature); (b) concrete under tension (Note: ft,θ is tensile strength and ecr,θ is tensile strain at peak stress).

as shown in Fig. 6. Each segment is considered to have

a central sampling point at which its displacement is
defined. As illustrated in Fig. 6 the temperatures, strains
and stresses within each segment are assumed to be uni-
form, but by using a sufficiently large number of seg-
ments non-uniform distributions of these parameters
through the cross-section can be approximated. Different
ambient-temperature material properties can also be
specified for different segments. To allow for more gen-
eral sections a new “null” segment, which allows free
strain but has no stress, has been developed. This null
segment enables modelling of almost any structural
cross-section. Fig. 6 also shows a typical section
division.
Fig. 4. Unrestrained thermal straining of concrete and steel.
 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833 825

4. Program development

The software VULCAN has been modified to incor-

porate the numerical model presented above. Since two
materials may exist in a single beam element, in order
to facilitate the programming the transformed-section
concept has been employed with the performance based
on one material at ambient temperature. Because the
model contains highly non-linear formulations, the New-
ton–Raphson solution procedure, which is considered to
be probably the most rapidly convergent solution pro-
cess, is used. The non-linear formulations also require
integration over the element length and this is achieved
by using four-point Gauss quadrature. To improve com-
putational efficiency, a beam element is subdivided
longitudinally into three sub-elements with the central
sub-element being 80% of the length of the element. A
static condensation scheme is then used to eliminate the
internal degrees of freedom. At each temperature or load
step the previous nodal displacements are used as the
initial trial displacements. After repeating several cycles,
the convergence criterion may be satisfied, defining the
unknown nodal displacements and internal forces. In this
procedure, structural failure is defined by the occurrence
of a zero or negative element on the leading diagonal of
the stiffness matrix.

5. Validations

Fig. 5. Modelling of unloading for steel: (a) smoothed Ramberg–

The modified version of VULCAN, incorporating the
Osgood model; (b) EC3 model.
generalised steel/reinforced concrete beam element, has
been validated for single structural members and more
complicated structures subjected to fire conditions.

5.1. Comparisons at ambient temperature

5.1.1. Large-deflection elastic validations

Since the original version of VULCAN has been well
validated [1,2,3] for thin-walled I-section steel beams,
it is convenient to compare the original and modified
formulations for such cases. A number of ambient-tem-
perature analyses were carried out at large deflections
and indicated that the two versions of the software gave
almost identical results. A simple example is a purely
elastic cantilever beam of 127×76×13UB cross-section
with a transverse point load which was gradually
increased to 1.5L2 / EI, applied at the free end. Both mod-
els used ten elements along the beam length whilst their
cross-sections were divided into twelve segments. The
results are shown in Fig. 7 parts (a) - (c) together with
the theoretical solutions for this classic problem [17] and
the previous formulation. It is clear that the two predic-
tions are very close and demonstrate excellent corre-
Fig. 6. Division of generalised element cross-section into segments. lation with the closed-form large-deflection curve, show-
826 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

pared in Fig. 8 parts (a) and (b), indicating both that the
new element is able to model hollow section beams very
accurately at ambient temperature, and that the solid sec-
tion agrees well with large-deflection theory even when
the cross-section is represented by 4×4 segments. The
sensitivity of results to the density of elements along the
beam length has also been checked [18]. In general four
elements give reasonable accuracy in modelling beams,
although in the studies reported here 20 elements have
been assigned to both hollow and solid-section square
beams.

5.2. Reinforced concrete beam at ambient

temperature:

The development was largely prompted by the need to

model reinforced concrete members, and so comparisons
have initially been made with theoretical solutions for a
simply supported reinforced concrete beam at ambient
temperature. The analyses covered both purely elastic
behaviour and also the full beam behaviour based on
more realistic material properties, and different assump-
tions for the treatment of concrete tension. Huang’s con-

Fig. 7. Deflections at free end of elastic cantilever beams: (a) vertical

deflection; (b) horizontal deflection; (c) rotation angle.

ing the importance of geometrically non-linear effects at

high deformations.
Since the new formulation allows closed sections to be
defined, a hollow box-section cantilever beam at ambient
temperature was analysed under transverse end-force.
The cross-section was 110 ×110 mm with a uniform wall
thickness of 13.73 mm, divided into 7×7 segments which
included a 5×5 zone of “null” elements at the core,
whilst twenty elements were used along the beam length.
The material was assumed to be perfectly elastic. The
comparison was repeated for a solid square cross-section
of the same outer dimensions and material. The cross- Fig. 8. Deflections at free end of elastic hollow and solid square-
section was divided successively into 2×2, 4×4 and section cantilever beams: (a) horizontal deflections; (b) vertical deflec-
10×10 segments. The results for the two cases are com- tions.
 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833 827

Fig. 9. Simply supported reinforced concrete beam under mid-span transverse point load.

crete slab model [3,5], which considers a slab element

as divided into a number of layers, was also used to
extend the comparisons. As an alternative method of
simulating this concrete beam, the slab model was used
to model the beam as a one-way spanning slab. The con-
crete beam was reinforced as illustrated in Fig. 9. The
beam had a cross-section of 200 ×150 mm and length
of 4500 mm, with a concentrated transverse load acting
at its centre. When using Huang’s layered slab model
the reinforcement was considered as a smeared steel
layer 0.252 mm thick, with 25 mm concrete cover. The
elastic moduli were assumed as Es=210 kN/mm2 and
Ec=18 kN/mm2. Material constitutive properties assumed Fig. 11. Comparison with layered slab model for mid-span vertical
the EC3 model for reinforcing steel (Fig. 5(b)), with a deflection of reinforced concrete beam at ambient temperature.
yield strength of 600 N/mm2, and the EC4 model for
concrete (Fig. 4(a)), with a compressive strength of 30 seven layers when using Huang’s model and 10×13 seg-
N/mm2. Closed-form elastic solutions for this simply ments using the new generalised beam element model.
supported reinforced concrete beam can be obtained by From Fig. 10, which shows purely-elastic large-deflec-
employing energy theorems (Castigliano’s second the- tion results including and neglecting concrete tension, it
orem being used here), based on the arrangement of Fig. can be seen that, for small deflections, the predictions
9. These results are compared with those from the new are identical. However, due to geometric non-linearity,
element and Huang’s layered slab model in Figs 10 and the solutions gradually diverge as the deflections
11. The reinforced concrete beam was subdivided into increase well beyond the practical range. In Fig. 11 the
differences between the theoretical and numerical results
are due to non-linearity in the material characteristics of
steel and concrete; geometric non-linearity is not sig-
nificant in this case because the deflections are much
smaller than those shown in Fig. 10.
Predictions 1 to 4 use the following different tension
assumptions for concrete:

1. The Vecchio and Collins tension curve;

2. The Rots tension curve;
3. Neglecting the descending part of the tension curve,
where tension stiffening normally occurs;
4. Totally neglecting tension.
Fig. 10. Large vertical deflection at the mid-span of purely elastic
reinforced concrete beam. The new element clearly correlates well with the exist-
828 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

ing layered slab modelling; it is shown in Fig. 11 that
“VULCAN#1” (the first assumption above) is very close
to the layered model, which also uses the Vecchio and
Collins tension curve for concrete. The other concrete
tension models show some differences. These results
show that the new element is capable of modelling
reinforced concrete beams at ambient temperature, but
that the analysis is very sensitive to the assumed tensile
behaviour of concrete. This is typical of validation stud-
ies which have been carried out on reinforced concrete
beams. In design analyses it may be necessary to make
use of assumptions 3 or 4, simply in order to achieve
the necessary degree of conservatism.
high intensity (SDHI) fire. These time-temperature
curves are shown in Fig. 13. Each beam was acted on
by six concentrated loads (P) on the central span and a
variable concentrated load, initially from P0 on the can-
tilever part. All the beams were of normal-weight con-
crete with Grade 60 deformed reinforcing bars. Three of
the beams (Nos 3, 5 and 6) were analysed using the new
element, and the results are shown in terms of the
maximum vertical deflections, in Fig. 16(a), (b) and
17(a). Other details used in the modelling of these beams
are given in Table 1.
In order to model the temperature distribution across
the cross-section, the two-dimensional thermal analysis

5.3. Comparison with fire test data

A series of fire tests carried out at the Construction

Technology Laboratory of the Portland Cement Associ-
ation, reported by Ellingwood and Lin [19], in which
concrete beams were subjected to ASTM E119 [20] and
SDHI fires, have been used to examine the element’s
modelling of reinforced concrete beams at high tempera-
tures. In these fire tests, six reinforced concrete beams
were cast according to ACI Standard 318 [21], each with
a 20-ft (6.1 m) span and a 6-ft (1.8 m) cantilever at one
end, as shown in Fig. 12. The central span of each beam
was exposed to fire on 3 sides (the bottom and the two
side surfaces) whilst the cantilevers were kept cool.
Beams 1–4 were tested using ASTM E119 fire exposure Fig. 13. Atmosphere time–temperature curves for SDHI and ASTM
and Beams 5 and 6 were exposed to a short-duration fires.

Fig. 12. Details of Ellingwood and Lin [19] fire tests on reinforced concrete beams (all dimensions in mm).
 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833 829

Table 1
Details of beam tests

Beam no. Reinforcement fy (MPa), ey (mm/mm) Concrete at Load P (kN) Load P0 (kN) Fire exposure Test duration
test (Mpa) (hr:min)

#3 #7 #8

3 fy=483.34 fy=481.27 fy=509.54 29.65 44.48 111.2 ASTM 4:03

5 ey=0.0028 ey=0.0025 ey=0.0028 33.72 44.48 115.65 SDHI 4:03
6 34.54 44.48 111.2 SDHI 4:03

program FPRCBC-T [22], which is capable of simulat-

ing non-linear temperature histories within reinforced
concrete members in fires, was used. This thermal model
is based on the theoretical heat and mass transfer in con-
crete, assuming that no heat flows along the third
(longitudinal) axis of the member. A mesh of triangular
and quadrilateral elements is used to represent a two-
dimensional cross-section. Some standard fire curves,
such as the ISO834 fire, the Short Duration High Inten-
sity fire and the ASTM-E119 fire curves, are available
as pre-set fire environments in the model, and both con-
vective and radiative heat transfer are considered at the
fire/structure boundaries. Because the thermal properties
of the materials and the fire boundary conditions vary,
the heat flow modelled by the model can be non-linear.
The effect of moisture has been taken into account, and
the thermal properties of concrete have been considered
as temperature- and moisture-dependent.
For the numerical modelling with the new element the
concrete beam was divided into 20 elements along its
length and 12×6 segments over all cross-sections. Steel
segments were used at the reinforcing bar positions. The
program FPRCBC-T was used to simulate the non-linear
temperature distributions across the cross-section
(including both the ASTM-E119 and SDHI fires shown
in Fig. 13). The temperatures along the span of the beam
were assumed to be uniform. Fig. 14(a) and (b) show
the predictions of the temperature histories at the Fig. 14. (a) Predicted temperatures for Beam 3 at reinforcement pos-
itions (ASTM fire); (b) predicted temperatures for Beam 5 at reinforce-
reinforcement positions, and Fig. 15(a) - (c) the tempera- ment positions (SDHI fire).
ture distributions include Ellingwood’s original analyses
and the test results.
It can be seen that the two fires (ASTM E119 and than the peak temperatures because of the relatively poor
SDHI) exhibit different behaviour. The SDHI fire thermal conduction of concrete. Since strain reversal in
reaches its peak value, above 900 °C, in approximately the cooling phase is well modelled by VULCAN, the
10 min, becomes practically uniform at this temperature deflections do not revert to the initial increasing path,
for a while, and then declines rapidly to 400 °C, in less reducing only slowly from the maximum deflections.
than 60 min. The ASTM E119 fire continues to grow Given the uncertainties about the detailed character-
after rising rapidly in temperature during the first 10 min, istics of the test, such as the furnace characteristics,
with no decay phase. These lead to quite different shielding of the ends of the heated zone, the composition
response behaviour; deflections of Beam 3 continuously of the concrete and its water content, it is impossible to
increase in the simulation using the ASTM E119 fire, be definitive about the temperature history of each seg-
while the deflections of Beams 5 and 6 under the SDHI ment of the different concrete cross-sections during the
fire slightly decrease after reaching a maximum. The course of each test. The comparisons shown in Fig.
maximum deflections in the latter cases occurred later 16(a), (b) and 17(a) show that the proposed model gives
830 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

Fig. 15. Predicted temperature distributions for concrete at 180 min fire duration: (a) Beam 1 under ASTM E119 fire; (b) Beam 5 under SDHI
fire; (c) Beam 6 under SDHI fire.

Fig. 16. Maximum deflections under SDHI fire: (a) Beam 5; (b) Fig. 17. (a) Maximum deflection of Beam 3 under ASTM E119 fire;
Beam 6. (b) predicted cracking patterns for Beam 3 under ASTM E119 fire at
the end of test (240 min).
 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833 831

as good agreement with the test results as it is reasonable
to expect for all three cases, and are in each case is closer
to the test performance than Ellingwood’s analysis. In
particular the predicted results for Beam 3 which is
exposed to the standard ASTM E119 fire follow a very
similar pattern to the test results throughout the heating
history. Fig. 17(b) illustrates the extent of cracking for
Beam 3 at the end of test (240 min), and it is interesting
to see that there is no crushing.
where 具0典 = 具0, 0, 0, 0典, and 具Na典 = 具N1, N2, N3, N4典
in which N1 = 1 / 4(z̄ + 2)(z̄⫺1)2, N2 = L / 8(z̄ + 1)(z̄⫺
1)2, N3 = 1 / 4(2⫺z̄)(z̄ + 1)2, N4 = L / 8(z̄⫺1)(z̄ + 1)2, L is
length of element, z̄ = 2z / L, ⫺1ⱕz̄ⱕ1.
Appendix B
Cross-section properties and stress resultants

The sectional and sectorial properties are defined, with

6. Conclusions reference to Fig. 18, by the following expressions:

冕 冘 冕 冘
n n

In this paper, the 3-dimensional finite element A⫽ dA ⫽ Ak, Ix ⫽ (x0 ⫹ xk)dA ⫽ bkhkxk,
A k⫽1 A k⫽1
software VULCAN has been extended to enable model-
ling of generalised composite beam sections in fire. Steel (B1)
or concrete members, or composite members such as
冕 冘 冕 冘
n n

reinforced concrete beams or concrete-filled columns, Iy ⫽ (y0 ⫹ yk)dA ⫽ bkhkyk, Ix2 ⫽ (x0 ⫹ xk)2dA ⫽ (Ix0 ⫹ bkhkx2k),
A k⫽1 A k⫽1
can be modelled. The cross-section is divided into a
matrix of segments, allowing variation of materials, tem-
冕 冘
n

peratures and stresses over the section, including the use Iy2 ⫽ (y0 ⫹ yk)2dA ⫽ (Iy0 ⫹ bkhky2k),
A k⫽1
of “null” segments which can be used to represent voids.
Thermal expansion and material degradation for both
冕 冘
n
concrete and steel are considered. Since the formulations Ixy ⫽ (x0 ⫹ xk)(y0 ⫹ yk)dA ⫽ bkhkxkyk,
are highly non-linear, an iterative numerical solution A k⫽1
procedure is required, and the Newton–Raphson method Iw
is used for this. Comparisons with results indicate that

冕 冘 冕 冘
n n
the modified beam–column element is clearly capable of
modelling composite elements in fire. However there is ⫽ wdA ⫽ wbkhk, Iwx ⫽ wxdA ⫽ bkhkwxk,
A k⫽1 A k⫽1
still a need for further investigations on more extensive
冕 冘 b h wy , I ⫽ 冕 w dA ⫽ 冘 w b h .
n n
structures, including for example Slim-floor systems in
Iwy ⫽ wydA ⫽ k k k w2
2 2
k k
which areas of thin uniform-thickness slab are made A k⫽1 A k⫽1

composite with wide-spaced deep concrete ribs.

The stress resultants can be defined by

冕 冘 s b h , m ⫽ 冕 s ydA ⫽ 冘 s b h y ,
n n

n⫽ szdA ⫽ zk k k x z zk k k k (B2)
A k⫽1 A k⫽1

Appendix A
冕 冘 s b h x , m ⫽ 冕 s wdA ⫽ 冘 s b h w,
n n

my ⫽ szxdA ⫽ zk k k k w z zk k k
A k⫽1 A k⫽1
Shape function matrix

The cubic shape function matrix is

[N]

冤 冥
具Na典 具0典 具0典 具0典 具N⬘a典 具0典 具0典 具0典
具0典 具Na典 具0典 具0典 具0典 具N⬘a典 具0典 具0典
⫽ , [N⬘] ⫽ [ ], and[N⬙]
具0典 具0典 具Na典 具0典 具0典 具0典 具N⬘a典 具0典
具0典 具0典 具0典 具Na典 具0典 具0典 具0典 具N⬘a典

冤 冥
具N⬙a典 具0典 具0典 具0典
具0典 具N⬙a典 具0典 具0典
⫽
具0典 具0典 具N⬙a典 具0典
具0典 具0典 具0典 具N⬙a典 Fig. 18. Co-ordinate system for segment matrix.
832 J. Cai et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 817–833

Fig. 19. Generalised forces.

Vx ⫽ 冕
A
txzdA ⫽ 冘t
n

k⫽1
b h , Vy ⫽
xzk k k 冕 A
tyzdA ⫽ 冘t
n

k⫽1
bh,
yzk k k
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