Dimensions of Personality

Dimensions of Personality - Hans Eysenck

Introversion
▪ The introvert’s brain is more excitable, making them more vulnerable
to moods and having intense inner lives.
▪ As a result of this inner sensory overload, as a form of self-protection
they naturally avoid too much social interaction, which they find
mentally taxing. Or, because they have such a rich inner life, they
simply do not need a lot of social interaction.
▪ Because they seem to experience things more intensely, introverts
have a deeper and more anguished response to life.
▪ They are generally more reserved and serious, pessimistic, and can
have issues with self-esteem and guilt.

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eMails

eMails

Hi Hemerson,

All your sources don't have to be "academic". It's fine to use other things,
but I think you are taking the best approach by trying a variety of
techniques. I'm glad the NLP is going well, I'm looking forward to reading
about it!

When you write up your report you need to make sure that you deal with
charisma and persuasion as separate goals. Also, there is literature on
techniques for persuading / influencing people, so it may be useful for you
to refer to this (see Cheryl's notes on Learn if you weren't at the lecture).

How to get a Good (Superb) Grade!!!!!

The actual report (3000 words bit)

Aside from the appendices and references and the most important DIARY,
(which together don't count in the word length), the 3000 report needs to
be sufficient to stand alone - i.e. though you will refer to and cite
from your appendices and diary, don't over rely on them such that your
report lacks substance and content. This is rather a balancing act on
your behalf....you need to use and illustrate from your diary in such a
way that it is clear, but you don't want to find yourself quoting large
chunks out of it which eat away at your word limit. Be selective in your
use of diary quotes and keep them short in the report and maybe highlight
longer ones in the actual diary and refer to them if necessary.

Make sure you number your appendices and have dates or page numbers in
your diary for ease of reference when citing them in your report.
And make sure everything is named.

The report is really in 3 parts:

1) The introduction and the part which shows how you have obtained
awareness of self.....this is where you refer to what kind of person you
are and how you know this from a whole host of
experiences/techniques/measures/tools etc. Some of these will be theory
based (e.g. MBTI/Twenty Statements/Johari Window/Social Mirror
/self assessment questionnaires/pictorial activity etc)...others will be more
anecdotal in nature e.g. work placements
feedback/social feedback from family and friends/school reports etc.
Again, you need to strike the right balance here. You need to cite names

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and dates etc where appropriate and illustrate where you can. Tell us a
story but written with academic flair! You need to show that you have a
good understanding of the concepts and tools we have used but without
having to write all the theory out again for us here. You may wish to do
some of this `working out' in the diary or appendix, but hopefully your
depth of understanding should be evident in your application.

We are suggesting you try to limit yourself to approx a 1000 of these

words here so that you dont neglect the other two essential parts of the
report.

2) The goal setting section.....this section is where you outline which

three areas you have chosen to work on and why...ideally this should be
evident from what you have written in section 1. Here you need to present
three goals at the centre of which is a clear goal statement/group of sentances each
that shows evidence and understanding of goal setting theory. I know that many of
you may have used SMART (which we think is limited in its application
by the way as it doesnt use visualisation etc!) to think about these goals, but to
ensure a better mark we want to see that you have used the classic goal setting
and self regulation stuff of Locke and Latham for example. Again, you won't want
to spends lots of your word `account' on outlining this in too much
detail in the actual report, but it should be evident from the quality of
your goals, that you have used it..and you may want to include your
`workings out' in the diary or appendix. Each goal should outline the broad goal
area that you are working in, the more specifically, what the goal is aiming to do
and the thing that you are trying to work on, which situations you are going to try it,
what you are exactly going to try and how you are going to measure it (for example,
what happened, how did you react/feel, what were the outcomes that may be
different from what usually happens in these situations, and how did other people
react.)

Then, in this section, you need to show which theories/tools/techniques

etc tc you have used per area - i.e. if it is the area of stress - which, if
any, theory of stress/coping etc do you feel explains your issues with
stress, and which ideas/approaches etc are you going to try out to cope
better? Though we expect a clear goal statement at the start, these may
well change over the course of the module as you have tried different
things out and have developed. This is normal. This also happens when it
becomes clear from your diary reflection/learning that the initial issue
you chose to work on wasn't actually the real issue at all, and that
maybe you were only dealing with the symptom not the cause. I suppose
what we are saying is that, this whole process is by its nature
developmental/evolutionary and somewhat unpredictable in many ways.
That's part of it's charm!!!

You should try to work on yoru goals for as long as you can - up to the end...but it
might be that some goals are more specifically geared to someone/something e.g.

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a member of yur family over the Easter break - and this is ok too.

Again, so that you dont neglect the third part, we suggest spending 1000
of your words on this section.

3) The reflection section....final 1000 ish words.....ok, so this is the

part where you reflect on the whole experience and using your diaries and
links back to theory and techniques you used, set out to show what
happened. Remember, we have already said that we are not assessing
whether or not you were successful in your goals - some may have been too
hard in the time set, others' success may not be evident in reality til
some time later in the future. But we ARE assessing your ability to
(using theory etc) embark on enhanced self awareness, set appropriate
goals, put these into practice, reflect on this experience in an ongoing
way (via the diary), then provide an overview of this. This overview,
which is in effect this section, needs to explore each goal in turn, what
was useful and less useful, what happened and why do you think it did,
drawing upon the diary to illustrate, critique theories/techniques where
appropriate, and also to make some suggestions of how this may work into
the future - what will you take away from this? You can reflect on mood diary
change too here and also any other questionnaires/measures we are going to give
you at the end of the goal setting period.

Diary

Ideally what we want to see is, regular, i.e. daily or at least a couple
of times a week diary entries which are not just descriptive (though they
may well have started off this way at the beginning!). That these explore
your attempts at goals, and your reflections on how those went, your
feelings and emotions towards it, reactions of others maybe, what you
learnt, how you adapted or adjusted your behaviour and goals etc. If you
are not sure about this please refer to the handout/chapter on reflection
you were given earlier in the course which gives other insights. Overall
we will want to see developments in the way you use your diary for
reflection and learning. But it may also be a download too!

It doesn't matter whether the diary is type written or hand written as

long as it can be read. I have had allsorts over the years. Some people
use pictures, put photos in etc and drawings and doodles....these are
great and often it is really nice to be able to see some of the people
you talk about. Please remember that aside from a selection that will go
confidentially to the external examiner to check the marking levels (who
you will never meet and is to be trusted), no one else will see these
apart from me and maybe Ruth.

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Appendices

Ideally we would like to see all of the tests that you have completed -
even though you may not have necessarilly referred to them all in your
report.
Just to remind to which ones WE think you have had.

Your MBTI profile

Social Mirror
Twenty statements test
Johari window if you did one
Health and stress questionnaires
Mood scales completed every week
Regulatory Index
Emotional Intelligence
Optimism etc and other online ones
Listening skills
Influencing styles
Managing conflict
Pictorial activity and others we may give you before the end of the course.

Think that covers it - plus anything else you think is relevant - any of
your own inventories etc you may have found!

PLEASE DONT SPEND ANY MONEY ON GETTING OTHER THINGS DONE

ONLINE ETC...THIS WILL BE ENOUGH!!!!

*****The most important thing with all of this is that it is clearly

labelled and tied together in some way so that bits and pieces dont go
missing.*****

Phew! Hope all of that makes sense. Its lovely to get to chat to you all on a one to
one, however time consuming it is, and we really appreciate how hard you are
working. We know that this is well worth your while and you will feel the benefits in
the immediate months and also in years to come.

Please don't be alone though if this work brings up any tough topics for you - it does
happen and we want to make sure that you feel that you can come and talk about
that if you need to.

At this moment in time you should all be busy gathering evidence regarding who
you are and what makes you tick so that you can set your goals. This evidence will
come from many sources: the Twenty Statements Test, MBTI etc and other aspects
of self-disclosure, also you may reflecting on what the social mirror has reflected
back at you over your life to date - you may look at old school reports, placement

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feedback, any other anecdotal material from family, friends etc. All of your life
experiences may shed some light on who you are and how others see you. Some
of you may have been carrying out activities with the Johari Window and have
asked others to feedback how they see you. This is a brave thing to do...and it's
best to pick people you trust that you know will be honest but not blunt or hurtful.

Hello Cheryl,

I have a few questions about the goal setting part of the coursework.

1 - Should I write what I planned to do when I set the goals or what I actually have
done? For example, should I write "I plan to go to the gym three days a week..." or
"To achieve this goal I planned to go to the gym, but..." ?

In the second part of the piece where you are setting out your goals you are writing
in the present tense…so I am going to……etc etc…when you do the final part which
is reflection you are writing in the past tense mainly……my diary shows that I……
etc etc

2 - You said that we need to show which theories/techniques we have used per
area. However, I used too many things. For example, for one goal I read two books,
listened to two audio programs and I even recorded myself. I do have organised
notes about all of that (I think it helps to say that I'm a INTJ!) that I planned to include
in the appendices, but it would be impossible to explain all in 1000 words. When I
decided on my goals, I planned to do all that, but I don't know if it would make
sense to write in the coursework "For this goal I will read X and Y and do Z...". I think
this relates to the first question.

Bless ya..such an INTJ!!! In the main coursework just keep it tight and focussed and
mention that you tried lots of different methods but that you focussed on this and
that etc etc….you can then make sure that you show all of the ones you used in the
appendices. It gets difficult doesnt it deciding what to include and what to just leave
in the appendix. Also when you are talking about what you have read in the second
part yopu will maybe write it like this….”from reading the books *** I found a
technique called **** and so I will be trying this out in order to manage my stress in
these particular situations etc etc…..ʼ can you see the use of the past and future
tense there?

3 - I'm writing my diary in my computer. I was thinking about highlighting some parts
that I talked about in the coursework. Is that ok?

That sounds great..and very helpful.

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Fried & Slowik

Fried & Slowik

Theorists argue that, to maximize employees’ efforts and subsequent

performance, performance goals should be challenging rather than easy, but
they should also be achievable.

The theory also states that goals should be specific (e.g., increase
productivity by 5 percent in the next year), rather than general (i.e., “do your
best”). However, in complex jobs, “do your best” goals are likely to be more
effective (Latham & Seijts, 1999; Locke, 1996). The theory further asserts
that people’s commitment is important to maximize the relationship
between goal and performance. Moreover, commitment can be enhanced by
two categories of factors that (1) make the goal attainment important and (2)
enhance individuals’ belief that they can attain the goal (high self-efficacy).
Finally, the theory asserts that consistent and timely feedback is needed for
successful pursuit of goals (e.g., Locke & Latham, 1990, 2002).

Deadlines

The basic idea of the theory is that deadlines serve as a tool of time control
and increase the motivational effect of goals. Thus, when the available time
to com- plete a task is longer than needed, the work pace slows to fill the
available time. In con- trast, when deadlines are closer in time, peo- ple
work faster to complete the job. However, after a certain point, shortening
deadlines re- duces performance, which is especially true in complex jobs
(e.g., Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988; Locke, 1996). Research has supported this
no- tion of the contingent effect of deadlines such that deadlines with
insufficient time tend to lead to less effective performance (Bluedorn &
Denhardt, 1998; Locke, 1996).

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Gifts Differing

Gifts Differing - Isabel Briggs Myers

Generally, a child who prefers the feeling mode is likely to become some-
one good at interpersonal relations, while a child who prefers the thinking
mode will become good at collating, using, and organizing facts and ideas.

NT people are also focused on possibilities, but draw on their powers of

rational analysis to achieve outcomes. They are likely to be found in
professions that require ingenious solving of problems, particularly of a
technical nature, such as science, computing, mathematics, or finance.

Extraverts tend to move quickly and try to influence situations directly, while
introverts give themselves time to develop their insights before exposing
them to the world. Extraverts are happy making decisions in the thick of
events, while introverts want to reflect before taking action. Neither
preference necessarily makes better decisions than the other; it simply
represents the style that each is comfortable with.

Dominant and auxiliary processes

Although we each favor certain ways of being, one will dominate above
the others. Consider NT types. Although possessed of both intuitive and
thinking preferences, if they find thinking more attractive this becomes their
dominant process. They may intuit something as being right, but this must
be confirmed by objective thinking. As thinking is a process of judgment, the
final element in this person’s type is “Judgment.” They are ENTJs. Other
people’s final letter is P for “Perception,” indicating their strong desire to
understand better.
The need for a dominant process to bring cohesion to the self is
perfectly understandable, but Jung went further to suggest that each person
also needs an “auxiliary” process. Introverts have extraversion as their
auxiliary so they can “put on a public face” when necessary. Extraverts use
introversion as their auxiliary to take care of their inner lives. In both cases,
if the auxiliary is little used, the person lives in one extreme and their life
suffers accordingly. Briggs Myers noted that in our extravert-oriented
society, there is a greater penalty for introverts who do not develop their
auxiliary than for extraverts who fail to take account of inner things.
The aim of personality typing is to acquire greater powers of perception
and judgment, which are both assisted by the use of the auxiliary. Briggs
Myers observes: “Perception without judgment is spineless; judgment with

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Gifts Differing

no perception is blind. Introversion lacking any extraversion is impractical;

extraversion with no introversion is superficial.”

She noted that introverts often gain the most from doing the test. As three
out of every four people are extraverted, and for every intuitive there are
three sensing types, we therefore live in an “extravert’s world.” As a less
common type, introverts may, not surprisingly, feel some pressure to be
something they are not, and the MBTI allows them, perhaps for the first time,
to feel it is OK to be who they are.

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 virtue
Hot buttons Debate, argument, or sustained disagreement

I'm Not
crazy ch Crazy
2 2/11/97 5:19 AM Page 45
INFJ

Introverted Intuition With Extraverted Feeling

Prejudices Fostering human growth begins with an inner vision

Preconceptions
I'm Not CrazyDetails get in the way of working with ideas 45
Hot buttons Loss of private space, incomplete issues in interactions

TABLE 4 (CONTINUED)
INTJ
DESCRIPTORS FOR THE SIXTEEN TYPES
Introverted Intuition With Extraverted Thinking
INTROVERTED INTUITIVE TYPES
Prejudices Analytical decisions provide useful information for action
Preconceptions Introspection promotes theory and encourages thorough
analysis TYPE

Hot buttons
DOMINANT/LEAD
Loss of autonomy throughAUXILIARY/SUPPORTER
structure, undervaluing intellec-
FUNCTION DESCRIPTORS
tual development FUNCTION DESCRIPTORS
Most aware of . . . Fully functioning but less aware of . . .

INTJ

Introverted Intuition Extraverted Thinking

values knowledge action-oriented thinker
for its own sake resourceful
introspective proactive and systematic
scholarly critical
likes ideas and theories has a basic formula about
evaluates
crazy ch 2 6/24/97 7:40motives
AM Page 35 the world
sees to the heart energetic, likes a rapid pace
of important problems reasonable and analytical
appreciative, formal expressive, fluent
values intellectual matters mentally versatile
high aspirations 35
Under stress may become
retiring, dreamy, TABLE 3 (CONTINUED)
arrogant and condescending, reckless
hardheaded, reserved and aggressive, opportunistic
EXPRESSIONS OF THE ATTITUDES AND FUNCTIONS
INFJ
INTROVERTED INTUITION
Introverted Intuition Extraverted Feeling
(Dominant for INFJ, INTJ; Auxiliary
values knowledge for ENFJ, ENTJ)
action-oriented
values knowledge prefers
for its own sake for its own sake
cooperation
introspective introspective
sympathetic
scholarly scholarly
sociable and friendly
likes ideas and theorieslikes ideas and theory warm
affiliative,
evaluates motives evaluates motives
wants inclusion
sees to the heart of important
sees to the heart outgoing,problems
gregarious
of important problems appreciativeidealistic
appreciative, formal formal
values intellectual matters
values intellectual matters

Under
Under stress
stress may
may become
become
withdrawn,
retiring, dreamy retiring, dreamy, impulsive,
hardheaded, reserved
hasty, sentimental,
hardheaded, reserved fussy, self-dramatizing
Introverted Intuition is pulled toward the future and toward possibilities. This
function is like an inner eye focused on what could be, rather than what is. As a
consequence, individuals with this preference often seem scholarly or studious,
as if looking toward the center of a problem. This tendency may show up as, for
example, a knack for summarizing a long conversation in one sentence.
Interpersonally, individuals who prefer Introverted Intuition are seen by others
as calm and capable of concentrated attention.

EXTRAVERTED INTUITION

(Dominant for ENTP, ENFP; Auxiliary for INTP, INFP)

action-oriented innovator
adaptable
verbally fluent
resourceful Page 11 of 37
active, enthusiastic
friendly, jolly
 rebellious and nonconforming, restless, self-centered, and defensive
Introverted Thinking is a pattern often experienced by others as a detached
curiosity. This curiosity leads those who prefer it toward active but quiet analy-
I'm Not Crazy sis of nearly everything. Reveling in the complexity required to deal with the
world, they are frequently seen as independent minded (their model of how 133
things work may be very different from mainstream thought, but INTPs have
their reasons). Interpersonally, they may express skeptical acceptance of the
TABLE 16
world around them.
TYPE PATTERNS IN CLARIFYING COMMUNICATIONS
EXTRAVERTED THINKING

(Dominant for ESTJ, ENTJ; ISTJ Auxiliary for INTJ, ISTJ)

action-oriented thinker
Introverted Sensing With
critical, Extraverted Thinking
resourceful
proactive and systematic
General style Usually so quiet and reserved it is difficult to know how infor-
has a basic formula
mation personally aboutshare
affects them; the world
logical, factual perspec-
tives inenergetic, prefers
an unhurried a rapidmanner
and careful pace
Clarification reasonable and
Attempt understanding analytical
by gathering facts and asking questions
Reframing expressive, fluent
May need to identify themes and share personal reactions
mentally versatile
high ISFJ
aspirations

IntrovertedUnder stress
Sensing may
With become Feeling
Extraverted
arrogant and condescending, reckless and aggressive, opportunistic
General style Empathetic with those around, warm and thoughtful about
Extraverted Thinking
others,iscareful
a mental
andpattern
studiedofcomments
actively analyzing experience
about people and
and situ-
information, and expressing
ations thisreliable
which are analysisstatements
in an energetic
of anyfashion. Individuals
current situation
with this preference are often seen as having a plan, or model, to help adapt to
Clarification Calmly go about doing what they think helpful, rarely assert
and manage the world around them. Resourceful with ideas and suggestions,
own needs, often test ideas with facts
Extraverted Thinkers are often fluent critics and have ideas on how to improve
Reframing Mayput
just about anything need to ask
before about larger issues than those in the present,
them.
share critiques

INTJ
crazy ch 5 2/11/97 5:32 AM Page 90
Introverted Intuition With Extraverted Thinking

General style Often collect theories and ideas, can react to most any situa-
tion competently, systematic in gathering information, often
seem critical and questioning; drive for independence and
autonomy seems cool and detached
90 I’M NOT CRAZY, I’M JUST NOT YOU
Clarification Want interactions to make sense in the big picture, and so ask
tougher and more comprehensive questions
Reframing May need toTABLE
share 12 (CONTINUED)
thoughtful personal reactions in seeking to
be friendly and to test theories with facts
TYPE PATTERNS IN ADULT DEVELOPMENT
INFJ
INTJ
Introverted Intuition With Extraverted Feeling
Introverted Intuition With Extraverted Thinking
General style Appreciative in comments, find that interactions suggest the
motives
When developed Play and values of conversants,
out conversations valuelike
in their heads, information about
planned changes,
people
likefor
newits challenges,
own sake and thereforeindependent,
reflective, seem somewhat see schol-
the big
arly—reserved, idealistic,
picture, oriented to formal
the future, determined, purposeful,
Clarification Seekresourceful,
to understandask why, and
motives hard-driving, relentlessfor
personal frameworks about preci-
decisions
sion, use principles for decision making
Reframing May need to ask about verifiable facts and realistic choices

For efficacy Commit regularly to a social help volunteer organization,

seek out others who share many of your qualities but have
achieved success in very different ways from you, engage in
group training programs with a physical component (such
as rafting) to drive focus on the moment

INFJ

Introverted Intuition With Extraverted Feeling

When developed Quiet problem solvers, global perspective, avoid conflict,

like many points of view, enjoy generating options, work
with complex people problems, establish enduring friend-
ships, decisive, attentive to other people

For efficacy Identify physical and social activities which challenge your
world view and require you to live explicitly in the moment,
attend training programs on giving and receiving feedback
and promptly implement the training, develop a regular
time for selected activities
Page 12 of 37

In a sense, type development is the process of moving up a

Locke & Latham

Locke & Latham

High goals lead to greater effort than low goals.

Feedback / Measurement

For goals to be effective, people need summary feedback that reveals

progress in relation to their goals. If they do not know how they are doing, it
is difficult or impossible for them to adjust the level or direction of their
effort or to adjust their performance strategies to match what the goal
requires.

Page 14 of 37
Misc

Misc

To paraphrase La Fontaine, the 17th-century French poet, every person is

three people: the person they think they are, the person others think they
are and the one they really are.

Indivituation

most people never achieve what Jung called an individuation, where

functional strengths are amplified and functional weakness are
complimented

For Jung, the goal of life was the “individuation” of this self, a sort of uniting
of a person’s conscious and unconscious minds so that their original unique
promise might be fulfilled.
Individuation simply means becoming what you always were in poten- tia,
fulfilling your unique promise.

The result is an individual in the real sense of the word, a whole and
indestructible self that can no longer be hijacked by splintered aspects or
complexes.
But this reintegration does not happen by thinking about it rationally. It is a
journey with unexpected twists and turns. Many myths show how we need to
follow a path that transcends reason in order to fulfill ourselves in life.

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On Becoming a Person

On Becoming a Person - Carl Rogers

There was in fact just one problem with all the people he saw: They
were desperate to become their real selves, to be allowed to drop the false
roles or masks with which they had approached life to date. They were
usually very concerned with what others thought of them and what they
ought to be doing in given situations. Therapy brought them back to their
immediate experience of life and situations. They became a person, not just
a reflection of society.
One aspect of this transformation was that people began to “own” all
aspects of their selves, to allow totally contradictory feelings (one client
admit- ted that she both loved and hated her parents). Rogers’ dictum was
“the facts are always friendly” when it comes to sorting out one’s emotions
and feelings; the real danger is in denying what we feel. As each feeling we
are ashamed of comes to the surface, we realize it will not kill us to allow it
to exist.

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Passages

Passages - Gail Sheehy

Sheehy was influenced by psychologist Erik Erikson’s idea that at certain

turning points we can either move in the direction of personal growth, or
stay with the security of what we know. Either way we experience change;
the choice is whether we have more control and awareness over the process,
or allow it to happen to us.

The twenties
In our 20s we have to work out our path in life, discovering the ways of being or
doing that give us a sense of aliveness and hope. We are likely to go one of two
ways: to do what we “should” in terms of family and peer expectations; or to pursue
adventure and “find ourselves.” We either seek security and com- mitments, or we
avoid commitment altogether.
A man in his 20s feels that he has to do well in his work or be ridiculed. His
greatest love is his career. While men in their 20s feel they can do anything, women
often lose the confidence they had as adolescents.

At each point we have the chance either to define ourselves further, or to succumb
to the ideas of the group and its expectations. We have two selves: the one that
wants to merge with others and things, and the one that seeks creative
independence and freedom. Throughout our lives we may alternate between one
and the other, or they compete within us at the same time.

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Please Understand Me

Please Understand Me - David Keirsey

Gallen named the Rationals the "Phlegmatics." The word 'phlegmatic' has
come to mean disinterested, bland, distant, seemingly detached from social
environment. This conclusion is correct in the sense that when the Rationals
are concentrating on some complex problem they do detach themselves
from their social context and remain distant until they solve the problem. At
that moment they are not interested in others, but that does not mean they
do not care about others.

Adickes spoke of Plato's Rationals as "Agnostics," for these people have their
doubts about everything complicated. Despite all their rigorous logic, their
studied contemplation, and particularly their probing empiricism, this type
maintains a hint of uncertainty. With certitude so hard to come by, Rationals
think it best to speak only of the possible and the probable. So it was
Adickes who first touched upon one of the more puzzling features of the
Rational character, their doubting nature.

Myers contributed to the study of the Rational personality by naming them

the "Intuitive Thinking" types-"NTs"-and saying of them that they are
"abstract," "analytical," "competent," "complex," "curious," "ef- ficient,"
"exacting," "impersonal," "intellectual," "independent," "inven- tive," "logical,"
"scientific," "theoretical," "research-oriented," and "systematic."

In conversation Rationals try to avoid the irrelevant, the trivial, and the
redundant. They will not waste words, and while they understand that some
redundancy is necessary they still are reluctant to state the obvious, or to
repeat themselves on a point, limiting their explanations and definitions
because they assume that what is obvious to them is obvious to others. NTs
assume that if they did state the obvious their listeners or readers would
surely be bored, if not offended. Their tacit assumption is that what is
obvious to them is obvious to others, and the overly terse and compact style
of speech that results is hard for others to follow. Because of this Rationals
sometimes lose their audience and wonder why.

Above all else Rationals want to be coherent in their arguments, and so they
try to make certain that each phrase and clause advances the argument,
introducing nothing that doesn't logically belong, and leaving out nothing
that is logically required. This style produces carefully crafted

Page 20 of 37
Please Understand Me

communications, NTs tending to qualify their statements with modifiers such

as 'likely,' 'probably,' 'usually,' 'occasionally,' and 'in some degree.'

Rationals prefer to appear unemotional when they communicate (and they

can seem rather stiff), trying to minimize body-language, facial expression,
and other non-verbal qualifiers as much as possible.

Utlitarians

Rationals are utilitarian in going after what they want, which means that
they consider the usefulness of their tools as more important than their
social acceptability-whether they should be used, are moral, are legal, are
legitimate.
If not socially or politically correct, neither are Rationals at all snobbish
in their utilitarianism. Indeed, they will listen to anybody who has something
useful to offer regarding their choice of ways and means, but they will also
disregard anyone who does not. Status, prestige, authority, degree, licence,
credential, badge of office, reputation, manners-all of these marks of social
approval mean nothing to the NTs when the issue is the utility of goal-
directed action. They will heed the demons if their ideas are fruitful, and
ignore the saints if theirs are not.

The Strategic Intellect

They're problem solvers, one and all.

Rationals, like Idealists, are abstract in word usage and do considerable

introspection, so it is not difficult for them to identify with others and to talk
in a diplomatic way.

Today, the largely clerical curriculum in most elementary and secondary

schools is boring to NTs, simply because the curriculum is wrong for them.
What arouses their inherent curiosity is the work of science-logical
investigation, critical experimentation, mathematical description-and it can
engage and absorb them in lifelong study.
The Rationals' desire to know how nature works never really ends for
them. Even when in their nineties, if fortunate enough to reach them, NTs
are still studying their books, still observing the world's patterns, still
designing their experiments, still learning what there is to learn about

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Please Understand Me

whatever sciences captured their attention and interest in youth.

Famous Rationals

Two widely different pioneers in electricity, Nikola Tesla and Thomas

Edison, were both Rationals, and both preoccupied with technology all their
lives, although Tesla was more interested in prototyping and Edison in
product development. Then there was Abraham Lincoln, one of our eight
Rational Presidents, who constantly tinkered with mechanical objects,
(including his son's toys, which he occasionally wrecked in the process), and
who had an invention registered in the U. S. Patent Office. Then, when the
Civil War erupted, Lincoln gathered information on how to conduct military
campaigns, and he took special pleasure in trying out new weapons in the
course of examining the latest technology of warfare. Another of our
Rational Presidents, Thomas Jefferson, was more preoccupied than most
others of his time with the technological aspects of 18th century science-
astronomy, botany, optics, zoology, and more-keeping up with them to his
dying day.

Pragmatics

The Rationals instead construe their immediate surroundings from a

pragmatic perspective. Pragmatism consists in having one eye on what John
Dewey called "the relationship between means and ends," and the other eye
on what William James called "the practical consequences" of achieving one's
ends. Now, one of the most important things to know about the Rationals is
that they are pragmatic to the core, and so must look to the efficiency of
their means and must anticipate the practical consequences of their intended
actions before they act. Thus they go for what might be called "mini-max"
solutions, those that bring about maximum results for minimum effort.
Minimum effort, not because they are lazy-this they could never be-but
because wasted effort bothers them so much. To NTs, the other types, the
SPs, SJs, and NFs, seem relatively unclear about ends, and all but incapable
of coming up with effective means, so they feel it incumbent upon
themselves to select if available, or to devise if not, the most efficient tools,
materials, and actions possible to make sure that the goal is reached.
Efficiency is always the issue with Rationals. They are efficiency-mongers at
all times, everywhere they go, no matter what they do, no matter with whom
they interact.
Rationals regard social custom neither respectfully nor sentimentally,
but, again, pragmatically, as something useful for deciphering the lessons of
history, and thus for avoiding errors. (NTs heed the warning that "Those who

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Please Understand Me

are ignorant of the lessons of history are doomed to repeat them," and they
have a horror of repeating an error.) All too often, however, Rationals find
that the actions of others are based on mere prejudice or convention, both
of which they brush aside, unless some use can be found for them.
Unfortunately, other types, especially Guardian~ and Idealists, believe
that everyone should observe-and respect-social conventions, and so are
likely to believe that Rationals are uncaring, and this can lead to
interpersonal problems. Rationals, though seemingly indifferent to conven-
tion in their single-minded pursuit of pragmatic ways and means, are just as
caring as others, but are reluctant to communicate such feelings.

Skeptics

Rationals are strikingly different in their anticipations: they are

skeptical, and thus expect all human endeavors, even their own, to be shot
through with error. To an NT, nothing can be assumed to be correct; all is
uncertain and vulnerable to mistakes--all evidence of the senses, all
procedures and products, means and ends, observations and inferences--
and thus all must be doubted. That's what skepticism is, an attitude of doubt
about whether appearances or beliefs are to be trusted.
The only thing that cannot be doubted is the act of rational doubt, and
this first principle Descartes expressed in his famous formula: "I think,
therefore I am. Of nothing else can I be certain."

Relativistic

To Rationals, events aren't of themselves good or bad, favorable or

unfavorable. It's all in the way one looks at things, they say-all is relative to
one's frame of reference. Reality, like truth and beauty, is in the eye of the
beholder. And bear in mind that Einstein, on presenting his theory of
relativity, saw the real as subjective-"Reality," he said, "is a joint
phenomenon of the observer and the observed."
Rationals believe that others, even those who care about us, cannot
really share our consciousness, cannot know our minds, cannot feel our
desires and emotions, much as they might wish to. Each of us is alone in an
envelope of consciousness, marooned, as it were, on the earth as its sole
inhabitant. All is subjective; we live in our mind's eye and can only imagine
the world about us. All is relative to our point-of-view; we make up our
world and only then find it outside of us. "Physical concepts," Einstein
reminds us, "are free creations of the human mind anC!i are not, however it
may seem, uniquely determined by the external world."

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 tionals Artisans Guardians Idealists

Please
genious Understand
Artistic Me
Dependable Empathic
utonomous Audacious Beneficent Benevolent
solute Adaptable Respectable Authentic

ls, to feel good about themselves, must look upon

en by others, as ingenious, autonomous, and resolute,
aring, say, dependable and beneficent,
The Self-Image attributes so
of Rationals
s, contributes little to their sense of well-being.
nomy, and re- •
nforcing, then The Self-Image of Rabonals
Rationals is tri-

A
bases interde-
by the figure
if they are not
till deserve in-
hat we can un- Resolute • • Autonomous
ls are alike in

Self-Esteem in Ingenuity

Rationals pride themselves on their ingenuity in accomplishing the

many and varied tasks they set their minds to. Indeed, so important is
ingenuity to the Rationals' self-esteem that artistry, dependability, and
empathy, so important to the other character types, pale into insignificance
for them. It doesn't matter whether the task be to design a machine or an
experiment, to develop a theory or a long-range plan, to build a computer or
a business. The degree of inventiveness which they bring to these tasks is
the measure of their ingenuity and therefore the measure of their pride in
themselves. Rationals aren't comfortable bragging on themselves.
And yet Rationals do not confine their ingenuity to business or profes-
sional matters; they apply it to almost anything they set out to master. For
example, Rationals play not so much to have fun but to exercise their
ingenuity in acquiring game skills. Fun for NTs means figuring out how to
get better at some skill, not merely exercising the skills they already have,
and so for the Rational the field of play is invariably a laboratory for
increasing their proficiency. In tennis or golf, for example, each game or
round must be the occasion for pondering the physics of the most effective
swing, and for trying out new strokes that seem to fit the paradigm.
They can be quite unhappy with themselves when they fail to eliminate
errors. When an NT plays sports, or even cards and board games, there must
be continuous improvement, with no backsliding.
In other words, just as ingenuity is the NTs' pride, so lack of it is their
shame, and when they see themselves as slow or second-rate in any activity
they are merciless in their self- condemnation, calling themselves "klutz,"
"idiot," "numbskull," "turkey," and other pejoratives. Such self-recriminations
are not mere critiques of their performance, but are also likely to be scathing
self-denunciations, with each term indicating the unforgivable crime of
stupidity.
Rationals are easily the most self-critical of all the temperaments re-
garding their abilities, rooting out and condemning their errors quite ruth-
lessly. But others beware. NTs allow no one else to criticize them without

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Please Understand Me

warrant-and even with warrant, the critic is advised to be cautious and

accurate. Just as NTs hold themselves to be precise, so they require those
who remark on their errors to be precise as well, at the risk of learning the
precise value they put upon such criticisms.

Self-Respect in Autonomy

As much as possible, at times even regardless of the consequences,

Rationals desire to live according to their own laws, to see the world by their
own lights, and they respect themselves in the degree that they act
independently, free of all coercion. Individualists all, NTs resist any effort to
impose arbitrary rules on them. Indeed, they prefer to ignore any law,
regulation, or convention that does not make sense to them, though they are
willing to obey those that do. Little wonder that the Declaration of
Independence, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights were
largely the work of Rationals such as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin,
and James Madison.
Rationals want to govern themselves, and also to think for themselves.
From an early age Rationals will not accept anyone else's ideas without first
scrutinizing them for error. It doesn't matter whether the person is a widely
accepted authority or not; the fact that an "expert" proclaims something
leaves the Rational indifferent. Title, reputation, and credentials do not
matter. Ideas must stand on their own merits, and NTs simply do not trust
anyone else to have done the necessary research and applied the rules of
logic adequately.
Instinctively taking autonomy to be the greatest virtue, Rationals regard
dependence on others as the greatest vice. Whether or not they agree
entirely with Ayn Rand's political and economic theories, Rationals are hard
pressed, after careful consideration, not to join in her contempt for
interpersonal dependency: "All that which proceeds from man's independent
ego is good," she wrote in The Fountainhead, "All that which proceeds from
man's dependence upon men is evil." Self-respecting Rationals want to be
self-directed and self-determined, and their own occasional lapse into
dependency is their only source of guilt.

Self-Confidence in Resolution

Once Rationals resolve to do something they have in a sense made a

contract with themselves, a contract they dare not go back on. Indeed,
-J their worst fear is that their determination might weaken, their will
power might falter, and that they will fail in their resolve. Why is this? Why
are NTs so fearful of their will power weakening? It is because they can never
take will power for granted, however strong it has proved itself in the past.
They know, perhaps better than others, that they are not in charge of their

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Please Understand Me

will, but that their will is in charge of them. Einstein was fond of quoting
Schopenhauer's words: "Man can do what he wants, but he cannot will what
he wills." Rationals know, for instance, that they cannot will themselves to
control involuntary functions, such as speech, sexual desire, digestion,
warding off infection, and so on. Mter all, the involuntary is by definition
not subject to the will, but must occur spontaneously.

The Values of Rationals

Being Calm

The preferred mood of Rationals, as Galen suggested, is one of calm.

Indeed, because they are reluctant to express emotions or desires, NTs
are often criticized for being unfeeling and cold. However, what is taken for
indifference is not indifference at all, but the thoughtful, absorbed
concentration of the contemplative investigator. Just as effective investiga-
tors carefully hold their feelings in check and gauge their actions so that
they do not disturb their inquiry or contaminate their results, so Rationals
are prone to examine and control themselves in the same deliberate manner,
being careful to avoid reading their own desires, emotions, and expectations
into their observations.

Trusting Reason

The only thing Rationals trust unconditionally is reason-all else they

trust only under certain conditions. Thus they trust their intuition only now
and then, their impulses even less often, and they completely distrust titular
authority. Of all these only reason, NTs say, is universal and timeless, and
only its laws beyond dispute. Thus Rationals take it for granted that "if men
would but reason together," even the most difficult of problems might be
solved. When the Rational Thomas Jefferson wrote the charter for the
University of Virginia, he insisted that here education "will be based upon the
illimitable freedom of the human mind, for here we are not afraid to follow
truth wherever it may lead, nor tolerate error so long as reason is left free to
combat it."
More than the other temperaments, NTs listen carefully to new ideas as
long as they make sense-as long as they are logical. But they have little or
no patience for ideas that don't make sense, and they will not be swayed by
any argument that fails to meet their criterion of logical coherence.

Yearning for Achievement

Because their hunger for achievement presses them constantly,

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Please Understand Me

Rationals live through their work. For them, work is work and play is work.
Con- demning an NT to idleness would be the worst sort of punishment.
Rationals work with a single-minded desire to achieve their objectives;
indeed, once involved in a project, they tend to be reluctant, if not unable, to
limit their commitment of time and energy. Unfortunately, at this point they
can be unreasonably demanding of both themselves and others, setting their
standards too high and becoming quite tense under stress. No wonder that
NTs frequently achieve notable success in their chosen field.
Rationals demand so much achievement from themselves that they
often have trouble measuring up to their own standards. NTs typically
believe that what they do is not good enough, and are frequently haunted by
a sense of teetering on the edge of failure. This time their achievement will
not be adequate. This time their skill will not be great enough. This time, in
all probability, failure is at hand.
Making matters worse, Rationals tend to ratchet up their standards of
achIevement, settmg the bar at the level of their greatest success so that
anything less than their best is judged as mediocre. The hard-won 'triumph
becomes the new standard of what is merely acceptable, and ordinary
achIevements are now VIewed as falling short of the mark. NTs never give
themselves a brea~fro~this escalating level of achievement, and so constant
self-doubt and a niggling sense of impending failure are their lot.

Seeking Knowledge

Problem-solving for the Rationals is a twenty-four hour occupation, and

if they don't have a problem to work on they will actually set one for
themselves as a way of exercising their skills. They are especially drawn to
problems that tax their knowledge base, since practice with such problems
adds to their knowledge and naturally expands their repertoire of useful
models.
The Rationals have a good many should-knows itemized in massive lists
inside their heads. And though they can concentrate fully on one thing at a
time, they are inclined to accumulate more and more useful knowledge,
rarely deleting or forgetting any, and to work continually on solutions to the
many problems that intrigue them.
So intent are Rationals in their pursuit of knowledge, that they might be
thought of as the "Knowledge-Seeking Personality." Of all the traits of
character that set the Rationals apart-and at the same time group them
together-it is their life-long search for knowledge.

The Social Roles Rationals Play

The Mindmate

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Please Understand Me

Rationals usually approach mate selection as a difficult and even threat-

ening problem, one requiring careful empirical study and calm but rigorous
introspection. After all, they say to themselves, there is no room for error in
this choice since mating is for life. Those who do err in this are likely, owing
to their rather stringent code of ethics, to honor the contract they made and
do their best to minimize the underlying conflict of values. Even in marriage
NTs are pragmatic.

The Mastermind [INTJ]

Good Summary: Like all the Rationals, they are abstract in their
communication and utilitarian in how they im- plement their goals. They
choose to study science, are preoccupied with technology, and work well
with systems. Their point of view is pragmatic, skeptical, relativistic, focused
on spatial intersections and intervals of time. They base their self-image on
being ingenious, autonomous, and resolute. They would i f possible be calm,
they trust reason, are hungry for achievement, seek knowledge, prize
deference, and aspire to be wizards of science and technology. Intellectually,
they are prone to practice strategy far more than diplomacy, tactics, and
especially logistics. Further, with their schedule- minded nature, they tend to
choose the Coordinator's directive role over the probing Engineer's
informative role. And because they are reserved around others they seem
more comfortable in the role variant of Mastermind than Fieldmarshal.
Although they are highly capable leaders, INTJs are not at all eager to
take command, preferring to stay in the background until others
demonstrate their inability to lead. Once in charge, however, they are
thoroughgoing pragmatists, seeing reality as nothing more than a chess
board for working out and refining their strategies. When planning, the
Mastermind is completely open-minded and will entertain any idea holding
promise of utility. Fruitful theories are quickly applied, all else discarded.
Masterminds tend to be much more self-confident than other Rationals,
having usually developed a very strong will. Decisions come easily to them;
indeed, they can hardly rest until they have things settled and decided. They
have a drive to completion, always with an eye to long-term conse- quences.
Ideas seem to carry their own force for them, although they subject every
idea to the test of usefulness. Difficulties are highly stimulating to INTJs, who
love responding to a problem that requires a creative solution. These traits
of character lead them to occupations where theoretical models can be
translated into actuality. They build data and human systems wherever they
work, if given the slightest opportunity. They can be outstanding in scientific
research and as executives in businesses.
These seclusive Coordinators usually rise to positions of responsibility,

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Please Understand Me

for they work long and hard and are steady in their pursuit of goals, sparing
neither their own time and effort nor that of their colleagues andemployees.
They tend, ordinarily, to verbalize the positive and to eschew comments of a
negative nature; they are more interested in moving an organization forward
than dwelling on mistakes of the past. However, they can become single-
minded at times, which can be a weakness in their careers, for by focusing
so tightly on their own pursuits they can ignore the points of view and
wishes of others.
Colleagues may describe INTJs as unemotional and, at times, cold and
dispassionate, when in truth they are merely taking the goals of an
institution seriously, and continually striving to achieve those goals.
Fortunately, indifference or criticism from their fellow workers does not
particularly bother Masterminds, if they believe that they are right. All in all,
they make dedicated, loyal employees whose loyalties are directed toward
the system, rather than toward individuals within the system. As the people
in an institution come and go, these NTs have little difficulty getting on with
their jobs-unlike the NFs, who have their loyalties involved more with
persons than projects.
The most independent of all the types, INTJs want their mates to be
independent as well, able to stand up to the sometimes formidable strength
of their personality.
Make no mistake, the emotions of an INTJ are hard to read, and neither
a male nor female of this type is apt to be very outgoing or emotionally
expressive. On the contrary, they have a strong need for privacy, and they do
not enjoy physical contact except with a chosen few.

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Seijts, Latham and Tasa

Seijts, Latham and Tasa

In their goal setting theory of motivation, Locke and Latham (1990) stated
that, given goal commit- ment, a specific challenging goal leads to higher
task performance than a vague goal, such as “do your best.” This assertion
has been supported in over 500 empirical studies (e.g., Latham, Locke, &
Fassina, 2002; Locke & Latham, 2002).

The Value of Learning Goals (or scientists know nothing)

That individuals in the performance goal condi- tion did not outperform
those in the do-your-best condition would have been astonishing were this
a standard goal setting experiment. This finding would be contrary to over a
quarter of a century of evidence in the motivation literature that has shown
that people who work toward specific, dif- ficult goals outperform those
instructed to do their best (Locke & Latham, 2002).
What differentiates this experiment from the ma- jority of the goal
setting studies that preceded it is the use of a highly complex task. A task
for which minimal prior learning or performance routines exist, where
strategies that were effective suddenly cease to be so, relocated the focus of
the experiment from primarily motivation to ability. It is consistent with the
findings of Kanfer and Ackerman (1989), Winters and Latham (1996), and
Seijts and Latham (2001) that we found that, in a situation primarily
requiring the acquisition of ability rather than an increase in motivation,
setting a specific high per- formance goal was not prudent. Setting a specific
and difficult learning goal was, instead, associated with higher performance.
The primary distinction between a performance goal and a learning goal
is the framing of instruc- tions. The instructions respectively associated with
the two types of goal invoke two different do- mains—motivation and ability.
With a performance goal, as the name implies, an experimenter frames the
goal so that participants focus on performance. A search for information to
attain the goal is neither mentioned nor implied because ability is treated as
a constant when good performance on a task re- quires primarily effort or
persistence. Thus, in the present experiment, the participants who were as-
signed a performance goal were instructed to attain 21 percent or more of
market share. Similarly, with a learning goal, as the name implies,
instructions are framed so that participants focus on knowledge or skill
acquisition. In the present experiment, we framed the learning goal, not in
terms of a percent- age of market share to be attained, but rather, in terms
of the search for and implementation of ef- fective strategies for increasing
market share. Ac- cording to Kanfer and Ackerman’s (1989) resource
allocation model, a learning goal, as a situational variable, draws attention
away from the end result. The focus instead is on process. This focus on
process rather than outcome can also be seen in studies on goal orientation,

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Seijts, Latham and Tasa

which typically employ complex tasks.

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Shawn & Yearta

Shawn & Yearta

Goal Difficulty and Performance

Most of the research on goal content has focused on the relationship

between goal difficulty and performance, predicting that given an adequate
level of ability and com- mitment, harder goals will lead to greater effort and
performance than easier goals. In a meta-analysis by Wood, Mento & Locke
(1987), 175 of the 192 laboratory and experi- mental field studies found full
or partial support for the predicted linear relationship. In other words, most
studies have found that performance increases with the level of goal
difficulty, providing the individual working to attain the goal is committed to
achieving it and has the ability to do so.

Three of the four relevant correlations indicated moderate but

significant relationships between difficulty and performance, with higher
levels of perceived difficulty associated with lower levels of perceived
performance. Thus the direction of this relationship was the reverse of that
predicted by goal setting theory and found in many studies of goal setting
and performance. This rather surprising result is open to two main
interpretations: either that goal difficulty was negatively associated with
performance in this setting, or that the findings were produced by a
methodological artifact.
According to goal setting theory, it is likely that very difficult goals,
especially those which are at the limits of a person's ability, will not produce
higher levels of performance (e.g. Locke & Latham, 1990). However, the
theory does not suggest that a negative relationship will be found, rather
that the linear function between goal difficulty and performance will level off.
The tasks of the scientists and professionals who participated in this study
are exceedingly more complex than those encountered in the single goal sit-
uations of controlled studies. It is possible, that faced with multiple and
complex goals, people may choose to work towards and achieve higher
levels of performance on less difficult goals rather than work towards more
difficult and complex goals knowing that their level of performance and
perceived self-efficacy are likely to be lower on such goals. This idea has
also been suggested in a study of single versus multiple goals by Kernan &
Lord (1990), who argue that in multiple goal environments the choice of goal
is the pri- mary concern rather than the process by which the goal is to be
attained. For example, when faced with multiple and distal goals individuals
may choose to invest effort in those from which they can expect to obtain
more feedback (e.g. Bandura, 1986) or those where they can expect a faster
rate of progress and hence experience positive rather than nega- tive affect
(Carver & Scheier, 1990). In many jobs which have multiple and complex
goals it is certainly not uncommon for people to direct their efforts towards

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Shawn & Yearta

the more achiev- able goals of their job.

Multiple Goals

The theory of goal setting is a cognitive theory of motivation. One of its key
assertions is that a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and
performance exists, and indeed a considerable amount of empirical evidence
has been collected over the past 25 years which supports this prediction. In
this study, however, a negative relationship between difficulty and
performance was obtained. Certainly this single finding is not sufficient to
challenge the basis of goal setting theory and, as already indi- cated, the
results obtained may be explained by methodological artifacts. However, the
theory itself does not lead to any predictions about relationships between
difficulty and performance in multiple goal environments. Indeed, nearly all
studies of goal setting have used single goals, and Locke & Latham (1990)
acknowledge that performance with multiple goals is an area 'rich with
research possibilities' (p. 54). Likewise, the theory does not make any
predictions about the effects of proximal or distal goals on performance.
However, the vast majority of studies have used fairly proximal goals where
the goal setting period is very short indeed compared to the yearly goal
setting period of job holders in this study. Here, too, Locke &Latham (1990)
acknowledge that 'much more research needs to be done before firm
conclusions can be drawn about the relative efficacy of proximal and distal
goal setting' (p. 61). Kernan & Lord (1990) have gone so far as to suggest
that 'simpler models of control theory and goal setting processes, though
adequate for the typical laboratory study, may not generalize to many field
settings'. In short, goal setting theory may simply not apply to multiple goal
environments or where relatively distal goals are set. When faced with
multiple and distal goals individuals may choose to invest effort in those
from which they can expect to obtain more feedback (e.g. Bandura, 1986) or
those where they can expect a faster rate of progress and hence experience
positive rather than negative affect (Carver & Scheier, 1990). In other words,
they may choose to work on easier goals which have obvious sub-goals
within them. Whilst it is likely that having even multiple goals and distal
goals will produce higher performance than having no goals at all, there are
good reasons to suppose that difficulty and performance will be inversely
related in such contexts. It may be that new theories need to be developed,
or existing theories modified to explain the effects of complex, distal and
multiple goals on the performance of employees in work environments of
the type studied here.

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Tal Ben-Sahar

Tal Ben-Sahar

Flow (Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi): Good parallel with other readings. Use the
graph!

He talked about identifying activities that have the right skill level
compared to the task difficulty at a certain point where we experience flow.
If it is too easy, we experience boredom, if it is too hard we experience
anxiety. Ideally we want to find activities that stretch us a little bit beyond
our comfort level.
Use flow as a compass. If we are doing something that is too easy, we
raise the challenge and vice-versa.
Immediate feedback leads to flow.

Ellen Langer (1989): Divide and conquer. Use short-term goals. Break down
achievement. "People can imagine themselves taking steps, while great
heights seem entirely forbidden." If we look only at the end result, it will
seem out of reach.
The same is true for visualisation. Shelley Taylor: if we just imagine the
outcome it is not as good as we imagine the steps that we need to take to
achieve this outcome.

Claypool & Cangemi (1983): If we write our goals, we are much more likely
to achieve because we make a commitment. Our mind doesn't like when
there is inconsistency between what is inside and what is outside.

Ajzen & Fishbein (1982): Goals have to be specific. Concretise goals: I want
to X on Y. It needs to be measurable. And with timelines... "By X".

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