1.

1 Introduction

Everything on the planet needs water, in other words water is the

lifeblood. Man and animals not only consume water, but they also
consume vegetation for their food,Vegetation in turn cannot grow without
water [-].diverse uses of domestic, agricultural, and industrial
consumption, both in quantity and quality, pose tremendous pressure on
the need of well-articulated management approaches. water is used for
fuelextraction, refining and production; hydropower generation; and in
cooling steam electricpower plants fueled by coal, oil, natural gas and
nuclear power. [1]
By nature, water is known to be pure as it is composed of strongly
bonded atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. However, the water supply across
the globe has to share space with other things such as organic materials,
minerals, chemicals and manmade pollutants. This brings about an
bacteria and viruses, undrinkable solution, since it can contain deadly
among other disease-causing agents[2]. Water from surface sources is
often contaminated by microbes, whereas groundwater is normally safer,
but even groundwater can be contaminated by harmful chemicals from
human activities or from the natural environment. Rainwater captured by
a rooftop harvesting[3]. Luckily mankind was able to develop different
water treatment methods to allowour water supply to be safe to drink.
While there are some methods that are not effective on a larger scale, all
of them make untreated water potable for human consumption the process
of treating water may have slight differences at various locations based on
the plant's technology as well as the type of water that needs to be treated.
Nevertheless, the basic principles are the same[2]. If your water is
1
contaminated, there are various water purification methods that are used
today, and each method has its merits and demerits. Filtering is good for
basic water tasks such as sediment and chlorine removal, but in the long
run reverse osmosis is the best option. because they require a lot less
energy and time required to make water versus distillation[4].

1-Thermal techniques:

Boiling water is the cheapest and safest method of water purification

Water sources and or channels of distribution may render r your water

unsafe. For example, parasites and germs are things you may not see

bybare eyes, but their effects can be life threatening.[4]

Distillation is a water purification method that utilizes heat to collect pure

water in the form of vapor. This method is effective by the scientific fact

that water has a lower boiling point than other contaminants and disease-

causing elements found in water. Water is subjected to a heat source until

it attains its boiling point. It is then left at the boiling point until it

vaporizes. This vapor is directed into a condenser to cool. Upon cooling,

vapor is reversed into liquid water that is clean and safe for drinking. Other

substances that have a higher boiling point are left as sediments in the

container.[4]

2
2-Coagulation–flocculation

Filtration is one of the effective ways of purifying water and when using

the right multimedia filters it’s effective in ridding water of the

compounds. This method uses chemical and physical processes to purify

water and make it safe for human consumption. Filtration eliminates both

large compounds and small, dangerous contaminants that cause diseases

with a simple and quick filtration process. Since filtration does not deplete

all the mineral salts, water that has been filtered is considered healthier

compared to water purified using other methods. It’s one of the effective

water purification method. [4]

Chlorine is a powerful chemical that has been in use for many years
to treat water for home consumption. Chlorine is an effective water
purification method that kills germs, parasites and other disease-causing
organisms found in ground or tap water But increasing chlorine can cause
many diseases and risks[4].

3- membrane technology

Membranes of all types, types and composition have become the core of
industrial and medical sectors, medicines and many different sectors,
especially in Iraq, which necessitates the engineer in the operational units
that use membranes in their work and the special treatment of water we
can solve the water problem for time to use membrane technology(-

3
Membrane technology is an emerging technology and because of its
multidisciplinary character it can be also used in a large number of
separation processes [5].The Membrane technology widely accepted as a
means of producing various qualities of water from surface water, well
water, brackish water and seawater. Membrane technology is also used in
industrial processes.[6] membrane technology can be summarised as
separation can be carried out continuously; energy consumption is
generally low; membrane processes can easily be combined with other
separation processes (hybrid processing); separation can be carried out
under mild conditions; up-scaling is easy; membrane properties are
variable and can be adjusted; no additives are required.
The following drawbacks should be mentioned, concentration
polarisation/membrane fouling; low membrane lifetime; low selectivity or
flux; up-scaling factor is more or less linear.[5] In general, classification
by driving force is as follows :

1- Concentration difference

In many processes, including those in nature, transport proceeds via

diffusion rather than convection. Substances diffuse spontaneously from
a high to a low chemical potential. Processes which make use of a
concentration difference as the driving force are gas separation, vapour
permeation, pervaporation. dialysis, diffusion dialysis, carrier mediated
processes and membrane contactors (In pervaporation, gas separation and
vapour permeation it is preferred to express the driving force as a partial
pressure difference or an activity difference rather than concentration
difference).

4
High permeable materials are used if high selectivities are not required, as
for example the production of oxygen enriched air for medical
applications, combustion processes, and sterile air for aerobi fermentation
processes. Another application is the separation of organic vapours from
non-condensable gases such as nitrogen (air!) or methane (removal of
higher hydrocarbons), where high selectivities may be obtained with
highly permeable materials.[5]

2- Thermally driven membrane processes

Most membrane transport processes are isothermal processes with either
concentration, pressure or electrical potential difference as the driving
force. When a membrane separates two phases held at different
temperatures, heat will flow from the hjgh-temperature side to the low-
temperature side. This transpon of heat can be expressed by a simple
where the heat flow is related to the corresponding driving force, the
temperature difference. [5]

3- Pressure driven membrane processes

in membrane performance, costs, and energy demand, will see a steady

growth in membranes in the water industry into the foreseeable future.
It has been revealed that traditional water treatments are ineffective in
removing some contaminants and that during the disinfection step new
harmful compounds can be produced (e.g. trichloromethane from the
reaction between chlorine and natural organic matter). Pressure driven
membrane processes could be a solution for an advanced physical
treatment of water for drinking purposes other than for wastewater

5
recovery Different membrane processes with a different separation range
are available.
Table 1 shows the applications of membrane processes in water
treatments. Microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) are low-pressure
processes (0.1-2 bar for MF, and 2-10 bar for UF) that effectively remove
microorganisms and suspended solids (MF) and colloids (UF).
Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) work at higher pressure (8-
20 bar for NF and 10e-0 bar for RO). Nanofiltration is a relatively young
membrane process which is effective for water softening through the
removal of magnesium and calcium ions and for removing some simple
organic compounds. The application of RO for desalting brackish water
and seawater is well known, but this process can be also used for the
removal of low molecular weight organic compounds either of natural or
synthetic origin from water. The different membrane processes can
substitute single purification steps in traditional water treatment plants or
can be opportunely combined to make an integrated membrane process.
Nevertheless a wider diffusion of membrane processes is still limited
mainly by technological and economical factors. From an economical
point of view the cost of some types of membrane (especially those based
on ceramic materials) is still high and the costs increase as the desired
water quality increases. MF and UF are cheaper than NF and RO even
though, over the last few years, the cost of a RO plant has decreased due
to a greater diffusion of this technology for water desalination [7].

6
 Membrane Application Membrane type Material
process

Microfiltration Sterilisation Porous- Ceramic

Removal of symmetrical or Polymeric
suspended solids asymmetrical
and colloids
Porous- Polymeric
Ultrafiltration Removal of symmetrical or
viruses and asymmetrical
macromolecules
Nanofiltration Removal of Dense or Polymeric
organic nanoporous
compounds asymmetrical

Reverse osmosis Removal of salts Dense composite Polymeric

or skinned

Table(1- 1). Membrane used in membrane processes for water treatment

In microfiltration and ultrafiltration, porous membranes with the

approximate pore sizes given in Table (1-2) are used. Membranes for
nanofiltration and reverse osmosis can be considered as an intermediate
between porous membranes with very small pores and dense membranes
which are used, for example, in gas separation. The transition from
microfiltration over ultrafiltration to nanofiltration and reverse osmosis is
not sharp but lies in the areas of the pore sizes given in Table 1.
Approximate pressure ranges are also given in Table 1. It is seen that as

7
the membrane pores / structure becomes more open, the necessary applied
hydrostatic pressure decreases. Thus only relatively small pressure levels
are used in microfiltration whereas relatively large hydrostatic pressures
are used in reverse osmosis.[8]

Filter Pore Operating

Symbol
type Size, mm Pressure,psi

Micro 1.0-
MF <30
filter 0.01

0.01-
Ultrafilter UF 20-100
0.001

Nano 0.001-
NF 50-300
filter 0.0001

Reverse < 225-

RO
Osmosis 0.0001 1,000
Table(1-2). Pore Size and Types of Materials Removed[9]

Figure( 1-1). Substances Removed from Water by membrane

filtration Processes[10]
8
1-2 Membrane Modules

The two major membrane module configurations used for reverse

osmosis applications are hollow fiber and spiral wound. Other
configurations, which include tubular and plate and fi:ame, are used in the
food and dairy industry. [11]

1- Hollow Fine Fiber

This configuration uses membrane in the form of hollow fibers,

which have been extruded from cellulosic or non-cellulosic material. The
fiber is asymmetric in structure and is as fine as a human hair, about 42
|im ID and 85 jam OD, Fig 2. Millions of these fibers are formed into a
bundle and folded in half to a length of approximately 120 cm. A
perforated plastic tube, serving as a feed waterdistributor is inserted in the
center and extends the full length of the bundle. Thebundle is wrapped and
both ends are epoxy sealed to form a sheet-like permeate tube end and a
terminal end which prevents the feed stream from bypassing to the brine
outlet.[11]

Figure( 1-2). Hollow fiber membrane modules Assembly.

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2- Spiral Wound

In a spiral wound configuration two flat sheets of membrane are

separated with a permeate collector channel material to form a leaf. This
assembly is sealed on three sides with the fourth side left open for
permeate to exit. A feed/brine spacer material sheet is added to the leaf
assembly. A number of these assemblies or leaves are wound around a
central plastic permeate tube. This tube is perforated to collect the
permeate from the multiple leaf assemblies. The typical industrial spiral
wound membrane element is approximately 100 or 150 cm long and 10 or
20 cm in diameter shown fig.
Spiral wound elements are most commonly manufactured with flat
sheet membrane of either a cellulose diacetate and triacetate (CA) blend
or a thin film composite. A thin film composite membrane consists of a
thin active layer of one polymer cast on a thicker supporting layer of a
different polymer. The composite membranes usually exhibit higher
rejection at lower operating pressures thanthe cellulose acetate blends.
The composite membrane materials may be polyamide, polysulfone,
polyurea, or other polymers . [11]

Figure( 1-2). Spiral wound membrane modules.

10
 ‫(عامل الزمن‬
)‫و أشياء أخرى‬

1.3 Reverse osmosis

Osmosis is a natural process where water flows through a semi

permeable membrane from a solution with a low concentration of
dissolved solids to a solution with a high concentration of dissolved solid.

Reverse osmosis is the process by which an applied pressure, greater than

the osmotic pressure, is exerted on the compartment that once contained
the high-concentration solution. This pressure forces water to pass through
the membrane in the direction reverse to that of osmosis. Water now
moves from the compartment with the high-concentration solution to that
with the low concentration solution. Due to this, relatively pure water
11
passes through membrane into the one compartment while dissolved
solids are retained in the other compartment. Hence, the water in the one
compartment is purified or “demineralized,” and the solids in the other
compartment are concentrated or dewatered[12] .

Figure( 1-2). Semi-permeable membrane[12]

The mineral/salt content of the water is usually measured by the

water quality parameter named total dissolved solids (TDS), concentration
of which is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L), or parts per thousand
(ppt). The World Health Organization andthe United Sates Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA) under the Safe Drinking Water Act have
established a maximum TDS concentration of 500 mg/L as a potable water
standard. This TDS level can be used as a classification limit to define
potable (fresh) water[13].

Due to the resistance of the membrane, the applied pressures required to

achieve reverse osmosis are significantly higher than the osmotic pressure.
For example:
• For 1,500 ppm TDS brackish water, RO operating pressures can range
from about 150 psi to 400 psi.

• Forseawater at 35,000 ppm TDS, RO operating pressures as high as

1,500 psi may be required[12].

12
The ability to remove many dissolved substances efficiently, yet
produce a good tasting finished water, is one advantage of reverse osmosis
Another advantage is that RO does not add any other chemical to
your water. It merely separates the dissolved substances from the
incoming water.
Reverse osmosis has several disadvantages The primary
disadvantage is the amount of water wasted by the process For each gallon
of water produced, between 2-20 gallons of water are lost as waste,
Reverse osmosis units can be expensive. Cost of a unit along with
installation may run from several hundred to four thousand dollars or
more,The RO membranes are subject to decay and require periodic
replacement. As they decay, the quality of the treated water becomes
poorer, Small holes in a worn membrane can allow microorganisms to
pass through with the treated water, Hard water can shorten the life span
of the RO membrane. A water softener might be necessary to keep the
membrane working at its best but Due to the treatment, solid materials will
not pass.

1-4 PRETREATMENT

Pretreatment can be classified into four groups: physical, chemical,

biological and electrical strategies. Pretreatment can remove soluble salt
(hardness) collides (silt, Fe, Al, silica) solid (suspended solids and
particulate organics) biological material and dissolved organic
material.
To control the RO membrane fouling, all the organic, colloidal, and
biological matter needs to be removed from feed water to the RO system.

13
Hence a proper pre- treatment process capable of producing a substantial
reduction in fouling potential of membrane is very important to the
functioning of a RO filtration process.
When the pretreatment of the process fluid (water) is efficiently
done, its treatment can now be performed. A list of treatment techniques
is given, in which various chemical and physical techniques are mployed
for the treatment of the process fluid, of one is the reverse osmosis
technique which is the most effective and energy efficient technique to be
employed.

1-5 OBJECTIVE

1-To study and compare the properties of tap water,

reverse osmosis water and distilled water

2-To Check the Performance of RO-apparatus

3Compare between Ro will plant and Ro river plant

4-TO Study and Compare the RO Feed Water,

Permeate and Retentate

5-To study the effect of pressure on RO performance

by qualitative analysis of permeate and retentate

14
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Sheltonswater., “https://sheltonswater.com/blog/top-7-methods-of- [2]
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American Water Works Association., “Water treatment.,” p. 523, [3]
1995.
schultzsoftwater, “https://www.schultzsoftwater.com/blog/4- [4]
methods-to-purify-your-water.”
Membrane_basic principles of membrane technology- mulder.pdf. . [5]
A. Björk, “Chemometric and signal processing methods for real [6]
time monitoring and modeling using acoustic sensors,” Anal.
Chem., vol. 153, pp. 355–360, 2007.
T. Peters, “Membrane technology for water treatment,” Chem. [7]
Eng. Technol., vol. 33, no. 8, pp. 1233–1240, 2010.
M. Hejimadi, “Download free books at.” 2010. [8]
R. Baxter, N. Hastings, a. Law, and E. J. . Glass, [ No Title ], vol. [9]
39, no. 5. 2008.
S. drinking water Foundation, “Ultrafiltration , Nanofiltration and [10]
Reverse osmosis,” Filtration, pp. 1–6, 2008.
R. Rautenbach, “Chapter 7 Reverse Osmosis,” pp. 410–452, 1989. [11]
J. Kucera, Reverse Osmosis, Industrial Applications and [12]
Processes. 2010.
J. Kucera, “Kucera, Jane,” Middle East, no. January 2010, 2010. [13]

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