Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
SECURITY ISSUES
2012/2013
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Security divided into two types. The first, known as traditional security whereas the
military threat from State A to State B. Basically, it is driven by a state actor which
has declared war on another country that presumably threatens the latter’s power. At
this level, military components such as military leaders, soldiers and heavy weapons
are involved. In that sense, the traditional security issue consists of elimination of
threat through war. The classical examples of this are the War World I and II, in
which states tried to solve domestic threat through the use of weapons.
social and political economic aspects that constitute a threat imposed on a state or a
region. This threat may have capability to weaken a state’s capability in the area of
economic capacity, political survival and cultural heritage. Thus, the existing threat
unpredictability and a complicated situation are the two aspects associated with non-
traditional security. In order to protect state’s survival, weapon was not the answer.
1
Instead, diplomacy, political alliance, regional cooperation, and counter policy have
been often used by states in international relations. While terrorism became a major
threat in the region, Indonesia, Philippines and Malaysia has signed an Anti-Terrorism
Pact on May 2002 to boost deterrence activities. This was another kind of effort made
variable and also as the tool to evaluate state’s roles in dealing with it. Malaysia was
among the founders of ASEAN in 1967, and is actively involved in several areas of
cooperation. From the early days of ASEAN, Malaysia, without doubt, had
contributed to the peace and security of the Southeast Asia region vis-a-vis the
security issues faced by some ASEAN Members. Unlike many other regions, the
threats to security in the Southeast Asia region had not always involved military force
since ASEAN was founded. ASEAN members signed the Treaty of Amity and
Forum (ARF) in 1994. The TAC, on one hand, provides the six fundamental
action;1 while the ARF, on the other hand, implicitly became a strategic platform for
ASEAN to facilitate and encourage the Asia Pacific countries to address security
issues faced in the Southeast Asia region, in particular, and in the Asia Pacific region,
1
This refers to the six core norms: sovereign equality, non-use force, peaceful settlement, non-
interference, mutual respect and tolerance, peaceful coexistence. For more detail, please refer to
ASEAN Secretariat. 1988. Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. ASEAN Documents
Series 1967-1988. Third Edition. Pp 39-42; and to Haacke Jurgen. 2003. ASEAN Diplomatic and
Security Culture: Origins, Development and Prospects. Routledge Taylor& Francis Group. Pp 7.
2
Simon Sheldon W. 2007. ASEAN and Its Security Offspring: Facing A New Challenges. Strategic
Studies Institute: US.
2
Thus, war has been regarded as an unpopular approach to resolving security
issues in the region. As pointed out by Rizal Sukma, “none of the ASEAN countries is
now worried about the possibility of going to war with one another”.3 Yet, military
threat is still a focal concern for ASEAN members. However, for Malaysia, military
threat is not responsible for shaping much of its foreign policy in the context of
Southeast Asia region. In the recent times, Malaysia concern has changed along with
security or sovereignty. Throughout history since ASEAN the founding till today,
Malaysia’s role has been dominant in the area of non-traditional security issue. In
order to understand this role of Malaysia, multilateral channel and bilateral approach
are the keys of this study, the focus will be on Malaysia’s participation in ASEAN as
This study will add to the diversity of studies on Malaysia foreign policy,
especially after Dr. Mahathir Mohamad era. Under Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, most of
was related to economic policy and cooperation with ASEAN members, and also Dr.
was comprehensively touched. For that reason, this study would contribute to
3
Rizal Sukma. Globalization’s Impact on Threat Perceptions and Defence Postures in Southeast Asia.
In Ho Joshua et.al. 2009. Globalization and Defence in the Asia Pacific. Routledge Francis&
Taylor.pp, 96
3
under the two Prime Ministers after Dr. Mahathir, i.e. Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and
Malaysia’s roles since the aftermath of Communism ideology in Asia region. Threat
had changed. Thus, Malaysia’s concern and motivation subsequently changed towards
current threat from non-traditional security issue. It also contributes to distinguish the
substance of Malaysia’s soft diplomacy after during Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and
Najib Tun Razak eras. In that regard, therefore, this study also provides new features
such, this study is also significant to those who are interested in Malaysia’s foreign
policy, especially with regard to new ideas on how Malaysia should approach new
changed from “one policy for all” to “separate policy for a different issue”?
4
4. Is that ASEAN important to Malaysia’s survival in the context of non-
traditional security?
5. Why Islam became a source of Malaysia foreign policy goals and strategy
region during the Abdullah Badawi and Najib Tun Razak eras. Therefore, the
objective of this study is to understanding the real concern for Malaysia’s leaders and
society in terms of security matters. In this respect, Malaysia’s political ideology and
society have crucial roles to construct Malaysia’s action in dealing with the unseen
strategies have defined Malaysia’s national interest. Along with that, this study also
successful or faced with difficulties from a range of challenges from its neighbours
and non-state actors in the region. At the same time, there had been innovations on
that regard, this study also tries to archive the objective of Malaysia’s new approach
5
which has been used to counter any possibility of threat posed especially in the “era of
informal threat”.4
At the same time, this study shall also compare the scenario, approach and
policy motivation that had been made by the different leaders. In this regard, the
study will try to evaluate the changing political environment at the regional as well as
the domestic level. The analysis shall start with the highest threat scenario such as
communism, the environmental issue etc where there is the possibility of negative
give clear scenarios when comparing the situations faced by the different leaders in
Malaysia.
Southeast Asia since 2004 when Abdullah Ahmad Badawi assumed the position of the
Prime Minister of Malaysia. In view of this, the focus and scope of this study are
linked to three aspects, : non-traditional security, Malaysia within the ASEAN and
security. Humans have so many interests pertaining to their lives such as food,
4
United States of America used term the “Era of Terrorism”. Academically, the terms faced difficulties
to prove who are the terrorist and what kind of action that can be regarded as terrorism. The US
National Security failed to define these two issues when it declared the war on terror in 2003. To be
fair, I used the terms the “era of informal threat”, where the threat comes from unexpected events. For
example, free trade agreement can produce great and sound economy, but to some extent it is, perhaps,
daunting the national economy in the long term. Similarly, with international criminals/crimes.
6
environment, rights, living condition, education, incomes, health, wealth, welfare,
prosperity etc. In principle, a human being needs to satisfy his requirement for a good
life thereby requiring the state where he belongs to protect, expand the needs of its
peoples and maintain consistent stability within itself and the region, as well.
Therefore, non-traditional security is all about human security prospects. 5 This study
shall first identify the human security situations in Malaysia in order to get a clear
scope. For Malaysia, the main concerns related to human security are the energy
crisis, issues on environment human rights dogma, transnational crimes and extremist
groups.6 This study will attempt to explain particular issues with reference to current
examples.
From the beginning of its formation, ASEAN has been a crucial regional
organisation for Malaysia terms of security matters. For the purpose of this study,
Malaysia’s involvement in the setting up ASEAN will not touch. However, in order to
be clear on Malaysia’s position in ASEAN cooperation, this study will explore on its
participation in and commitment towards ASEAN based on crucial issues that are
related to the country’s security dimension. In other words, , this study focuses on
order to get the full scenario, this study shall discuss briefly selected prominent issues
affecting Malaysia during the era of Tun Abdul Razak to Dr. Mahathir.
areas of cooperation will be covered, starting from the time of Abdullah Ahmad
5
Some scholar used the terms “man-made issues” and “natural disasters”. See, Rashila Ramli. et al.
Towards a Modified Approach to Human Security in Southeast Asia- A Perspective from Bangi.
Pertanika Journal Science & Humanities, Vol.20, No.3.(2012),pp. 577-588.
6
Most of the features given are basically based on what Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Malaysia
pointed out in its website. See www.kln.gov.my/web/quest/md-overview> 18 December 2012.
7
Badawi to Najib Abdul Razak tenures. In this context, the analysis on ASEAN be in
an inclusive manner. Generally, it will refer to how Malaysia had effectively brought
its national interest into multilateral cooperation and made sure that it could be
the efforts made by Malaysia that reflected his political will in Southeast Asia region.
In other words, what kind of agreement that has been ratified by Malaysia under
ASEAN events and also Malaysia commitments that already taken place in ASEAN
still serves as a corner stone to Malaysia foreign policies or rather as stepping stone
level. ASEAN, being in Southeast Asia was the only one of organic organisation that
could manageable the region effectively to maintain stability and peace. Malaysia as
strategically located in the heart of Southeast Asia, realize the potential roles of
security aspects.
The Asia Pacific region is quite important in this respect since the ASEAN
Regional Forum (ARF) established by ASEAN in 1994 also include several Asia
Pacific countries. In this regard, the ARF roles emphasize on maintaining stability and
prosperity in the region through conflict avoidance and settlement of conflicts through
peaceful means. Along with that, Malaysia’s diplomacy can be regarded as preventive
8
diplomacy, especially so after the Mahathir era. After the end of the Cold War,
taking measures to avoid conflicts which could escalate into military conflicts. In this
case, in the eyes of Malaysia’s policy makers, it would be better to preserve stability
by avoiding conflict rather than by resolving conflict that already occurred, thereby
unnecessarily enhancing tensions among involved parties. As has long been observed,
any conflict faced among its members due to the non-interference policy. In other
words, the “ASEAN Way” of dispute settlement has been individually adopted by all
ASEAN members which prefer to resort to using informal or frank discussions among
them. For that reason, Malaysia’s diplomacy is focused primarily on actions which
region, regardless of whether these are done through formal meetings or informal
The limitation of the study consisted of 3 aspects which are generally based on
the contents and time-span of the study. Since the study seeks to evaluate ASEAN as
irrelevant to touch all aspects with regard to ASEAN and Malaysia participation in the
organisation. A clear understanding of the time-span and contents of the study will
The first limitation is the limited in depth discussions on the initial stage of the
formation of ASEAN and Malaysia as one of founders. It’s not necessary for the
9
study to introduce and evaluate the establishment of ASEAN and also Malaysia’s
interest and concerns before the Mahathir era. This is because the study is not
changing of threat environment between the pre- and post-Mahathir era. In order to
issues that were of concern to Malaysia in the Southeast Asian region during different
that would test ASEAN’s credibility. Thus, the limitation of study is that it only
focuses on the prominent issues and national concerns in the international threat
The second aspect is that since the study pertains to non-traditional security
issue, therefore traditional security issue will not be touched. After the Mahathir era,
some scholars viewed that both forms of security are somewhat related to each other.
They argue that, in theory, a military threat is a major threat to any nation that
probably can harm economic development due to increasing expenses on the military
and subsequently lowering economy development and surge social unrest. To this
traditional security threat. Unfortunately, this assumption does not make any sense in
the context of Southeast Asia since Communism which actively threatened the region
in the region. Although this does not mean that military threat is absent in every
countries it could be considered that military threat is not a major threat to the states
10
security issue will be ignored in this study. Instead, the study will just focus on non-
traditional security issue, which will be looking at the Southeast Asia region as a
whole and the Asia-Pacific region, as well, that may undermine Malaysia national
security concern.
The third is the limitation of time-span of the study. As mentioned earlier, the
study will focus on Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Najib Abdul Razak leaderships
separate from Mahathir era. The question arises as to why the study span involves
Mahathir era which is separated from Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Najib Abdul
foreign policy on human security? There had been a clear change of environment
since Mahathir took the office as a prime minister in 1981. At that time, the Cold War
era still continued to spread it’s impact in Southeast Asia. This is not a new issue to
Arrangement (AMDA) that was devoted to destroying the prominent enemy at that
time – the communist, in the region. This situation continued to undermine ASEAN
member political survival at home. However, beginning in early 1991, the Communist
threat ceased through peace agreements and provocative action against communist
insurgency.
After the end of Cold War era, Malaysia, under Mahathir, faced another threat
from the West through democratization and capitalism which was regarded as new-
colonialism to the newly independent countries like Malaysia. Again, this is not a new
scenario for Malaysia since during Abdul Razak era the country adopted a policy so-
resources. It could be seen that, the Mahathir era was relevant as a stepping point to
11
understand the evolution of threat towards Malaysia’s sovereignty. When Mahathir
decided to step down as Malaysia’s Prime Minister in 2003 and Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi took over as Malaysia’s fifth Prime Minister, the threat was changing.
Unlike Mahathir’s and his predecessors eras, the threat came basically from states
where the sources of conflicts originated from increasing animosity between them
such as Konfrontasi 1963 and Vietnam War. However, after the Mahathir era, the
international security situation, as triggered by the 9/11 incidence, saw states devoted
context, religion-based extremist groups were regarded as a new threat to the nations.
In short, threats had emerged driven by non-states actors that hardly threaten
the states status-quo. With this background, there had been a different situation
was faced by Malaysia during the Tunku Abdul Rahman till Mahathir era in which
states still posed as a real enemy, whereas during the Abdullah Ahmad Badawi era
Malaysia was facing a new threat known as “informal threat” which was mostly
driven by non-state actors. According to Peu Ghosh( 2009), “non-states actor refer to
some ideological minority group. Their activities have great impact on the actions of
the states”.7 Therefore, any political movement or minority groups were have
7
Ghosh Peu. 2009. International Relations. PHI Learning Private Limited: New Delhi. Pp, 71.
12
By this explanation, obviously, the Mahathir era can be regarded as a separate
stage in the context of threat to Malaysia. From this point, the time-span of the study
can easily be fixed. The tendency of the study is, therefore, to focus more on the
period after the Mahathir era, i.e. from 2004 till 2013, which is suitable to explore and
evaluate a human security threat. Nevertheless, security situation during the years
previous to 2004 will also be touched randomly and without going into detail. The
purpose will be only to get the different situations that can help to build the
13
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
In the study, “recent findings” refers to researches which were done during the
period 2005 till 2012. This include findings published in books and journals. For this
study, the literature review was based on findings published in two books and two
journals.
The most recent writing with regards to Malaysia’s foreign policy related to its
role in ASEAN is a research done by Johan Saravanamuttu in 2010.8 In his book, the
author explored a new dimension pertaining to Malaysia’s foreign policy from the
time of Tunku Abdul Rahman till the early Najib’s time. This comprehensive book
provides a new dimension in three aspects, viz.: alignment, neutralism and Islamism.
From this, the author argued that Malaysia’s foreign policy approach, either in the
8
Saravanamuttu Johan. 2010. Malaysia Foreign Policy The First Fifty Years Alignment, Neutralism
and Islamism. Southeast Asia Studies: Singapore.
14
For each approach, Malaysia, without doubt, had used different diplomacy in
order to safeguard its national survival. In this regard, particularly during Abdullah
Badawi’s tenure, the author extensively discussed Islamism in the national context
when the government was facing apparent denounce by the opposition parties. The
provides an opportunity for this study to explore and evaluate the role of Islamism in
containing the emergence of extremist groups after the 9/11 incident. From here, the
study frequently used the Islamism policy which marked Abdullah Badawi’s era to
reflect continuity in foreign policy in curbing the spread of threat to Malaysia’s non-
traditional security.
Southeast Asia, in aiming to manage its national interest, various authors in a book
edited by Abdullah Razak Baginda in 2009 provides impetus to the study to explore
region.9 The main arguments contained in this book tend to point out that Malaysia
had been successful in overcoming various threats to the nation and the region such as
communism, terrorism, militant groups and piracy. For instance, during the
neutralise the situation by making the region free from nuclear weapons which had
Abdullah Razak Baginda.(ed) 2009. Malaysia’s Defence & Security Since 1957. Malaysia Strategic
9
Research Centre.
15
enabled Malaysia and the rest of the ASEAN member states to protect their
This background helps the study to understand the different situations faced by
Malaysia during the period from 1967 till the Mahathir era. By having such
information, it enables the study to clarify which approach had been taken by
Malaysia in ASEAN, as well as in the Southeast Asia region, to protect its national
interests. As had been observed, the threat had changed as occurred in the recent
times, where Malaysia under Mahathir had strongly combated extremist and militant
groups such as the Jemaah Islamiah and Moro Islamic Liberation Front
(MILF).11Realising the change of threat, the study explored the evolution of threat in
terms of scale and, at the same time, the approach taken by Malaysia during and after
threat with different leaders. By so doing, it would give clarification with regard to the
focus of Malaysia foreign relations since the formation of ASEAN. Yet, the threat to
Malaysia is not only from the terrorist groups, but it is more complex, especially
during this era of globalisation. Hence, the study has added another form of non-
traditional threat. More frequently Malaysia has been facing crucial issues such as
drug trafficking, energy crisis, primary commodities price problem, and intra-states
Malaysia is located in the heart of the Southeast Asia region and, logically, the
country pays special attention to regional security issues that may likely affect its
10
See, Nathan.K.S. Malaysia Foreign Policy: Evolution of Strategic Interest in a Changing Domestic,
Regional and Global Context. Abdullah Razak Baginda (ed). 2009. Malaysia’s Defence & Security
Since 1957. Malaysia Strategic Research.pp,73
11
Jatswan S.Sidhu. Malaysia Defence and Security since 1957: An Overview. Abdullah Razak Baginda
(ed). 2009. Malaysia’s Defence & Security Since 1957. Malaysia Strategic Research Centre.pp, 14-19
16
security identity- stability and moderate society. Malaysia’s stability depends much
on the stability and peace in the Southeast Asia region. Thus, Malaysia’s concern is
trafficking, illegal arms trafficking, maritime piracy, energy crisis and minor conflicts
Therefore, ASEAN apparently seem to have determined Malaysia foreign policies for
the century. As we have seen, as argued by Ranjit Singh, after a decade, after facing
numerous threats from various aspects Malaysia’s foreign policy direction had
changed and tended to focus on ASEAN as the cornerstone that determined the
has added Ranjit Singh’s idea to see whether or not ASEAN still remains as the focal
Another study that probably had helped to develop a new idea in terms of
Malaysia’s recent national interest was the work done by Patricia A. Martinez in
2005.13Her study explained and explored the crucial policy adopted by Abdullah
Badawi, i.e. Islam Hadhari or Progressive Islam, aimed at eliminating poverty, and his
openness policy. The basic argument made by the author was that these policies had
to his political victory, especially in the 2004 General Election where the governing
political party, Barisan Nasional (BN), obtained a great victory. However, eliminating
poverty and putting Malaysia in the right track to uphold Muslim rights and condition,
was not just a domestic effort, but in order to make it successful, Malaysia’s
participation at the regional level in all aspects was also necessary. Hence, Patricia’s
12
Ranjit Singh. Malaysia and Regional Security. Abdullah Razak Baginda (ed). 2009. Malaysia’s
Defence & Security Since 1957. Malaysia Strategic Research Centre.pp, 79
13
Patricia A. Martinez. Malaysia in 2004: Abdullah Badawi Defines His Leadership. Southeast Asian
Affairs, 2005.
17
works help the study to look at the Islam Hadhari approach from the external point of
view in the context of its effectiveness and significant achievement. For the first time
leadership, in that was greater freedom in terms of the media, parliament and
This situation had shaped the demands of Malaysia’s society. Safety and social
political rights, as well as economic rights, had increased. Thus, in this regards,
Abdullah’s tenure of leadership was faced with non-traditional security issues, which
were, generally, driven by the SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) issue,
poverty and extremist groups which became a focal concern for Malaysia’s society
eventually determined the Abdullah leadership’s direction. As the author did not
explore this issue, this study has attempted to explore Malaysia’s national interest
during Abdullah’s era vis-a-vis the country’s participation in ASEAN and Southeast
Asia region in the effort to solve and manage non-traditional security issues while
her article, “Malaysia Foreign Policy under Najib”14, she had effectively discussed
and evaluated the differences and similarities between Najib and Mahathir on their
Najib’s current foreign policy from that during the Mahathir era based on personality
foreign policy was influenced more by his educational and historical backgrounds,
14
Khadijah Md. Khalid. Malaysia Foreign Policy under Najib. Asian Survey, Vol.51, No.3( May-
June/2011)pp. 429-452
18
domestically and internationally.15Najib’s conservative personality refers to him as
son of Abdul Razak, the Malaysia’s second Prime Minister, during whose time there
had been the struggle to protected Malaysia’s survival in terms of the needs for
Najib declared the national motto “1Malaysia” and “People First, Performance”. Now
which have become sort of a mantra and sources for his administration to adhere to
either as a public policy or foreign policy. Khadijah summed up that Najib’s foreign
policy was more economic-oriented than that of his immediate predecessor, Abdullah
Ahmad Badawi.16The author, Khadijah, has provided an important point for this
First, Performance Now”. Here, attempts to explore in detail the relationship between
15
Ibid.,pp,433
16
Ibid.,pp,440
19
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
As this study deals with exploring a nation’s foreign policy which consists of
many concepts and interpretations, the Berg’s qualitative approach17 has been adopted
for the collection of data and information. In this regard, the data and information for
this study have been collected or gathered through observation and survey.
3.1.1 Observation
early ASEAN formation to 2013. The aim was to evaluate Malaysia security concern,
roles and effort in ASEAN in order to solve the threat. However, not all issues are
touched on this observation. Hence selective issues may be made. It depends on issues
17
Berg. Bruce L. 2004. Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Science. Pearson Education. pp,
15-16.
20
such as non-traditional security issues, human security diplomacy, Ministerial
Meeting that Malaysia involved and bilateral cooperation among ASEAN member
observation at national also could be made. It tended to look through the roles of
society, they needs, political leaders ambitions and national policy that related to the
national interest with different Prime Minister. By understood the national interest, it
assists to look at diplomacy approach and its principals that has been made by
national interest, diplomacy approach and priorities of foreign policy. To put in the
track, the observation provided two crucial sources; primary and secondary sources.
a)Primary Sources
In this study, data and information were collected from primary sources which include
such as Number One Wisma Putra, ASEAN documents and also government reports
Data and information were also collected from secondary sources. For this
books. The data and information referred to were those which were useful to support
21
3.1.2 Survey Methods
statements, the result obtained from the survey were examined through rationalisation
and context. This was because the continuity, similarities, and reasonable facts are
crucial elements in the interpretation process and are important in avoiding biasness.
In this approach, a structured survey has been used. The questionnaire, however,
differed from one respondent to another based on their background. The respondents
were contacted through mail, telephone and personal interview. So far, survey has
been done. Most of survey provided only a few questions to avoid respondent
Since the study tended to understand ASEAN roles in Malaysia foreign policy
after Mahathir Mohamad era, the study techniques comprises historical approach,
22
political comparison, and analysis ASEAN roles. In historical approach will going to
elaborate Malaysia participation in ASEAN, the major threat faces by Malaysia and
its effort. From this, the data will compare Malaysia political leader attitude, foreign
policy goals and strategy and the evolution of national interest. In fact, the study will
evaluate the sources of threat in different era. In this regards, ASEAN could be
analysis whether or not ASEAN still become cornerstone of Malaysia foreign policy
strategy. In that sense, the study used case studies, descriptive approach and analysis
content.
The first was the case study on the crucial concern of Malaysia on non-
had strongly focused on the potential threats arising from these areas due
the nation.
23
well as the achievements made and the outcomes of these policies and
actions.
The results or the findings of the case studies were described as extensively as
These descriptions were done based on careful interpretation of information and data
from valid documents and commonly known facts pertaining to a particular scenario
rationalisation, strategic thinking and context. In other words, to reduce bias during
24
examination, it was ensured that coherence and continuity from one fact to another
4.1 Introduction
Southeast Asia can was once regarded as Malaysia’s “14th state”. Thus, any potential
to fortify the country’s position domestically. However, after Mahathir’s era, ASEAN
no longer became a cornerstone of Malaysian foreign policy, but rather with limited
role due to the changes of threats, the lack of ASEAN commitments and more of a
25
describe Malaysia’s participation in the region since the founding of ASEAN in 1967
“securitization” in Southeast Asia through addressing the main threat. During that
time, the states’ perception towards each other dominated traditional threat. The real
danger faced by ASEAN members was an external form of threat. External threat
came from super power rivalry to consolidate their power in the region. The threat of
the Cold War era was that it developed animosity among ASEAN members which
Southeast Asia had three superpowers hovering over it, especially after the
United States of America (USA) normalised its relation with China in 1972 that
subsequently brought China, USA and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) as
the superpowers had their influence in the region. ASEAN tried to avoid being seen as
partisan to any one of them. In this context, Malaysia played an important role since it
was aware of the potential instability in the region politically, economically and
socially. The first step taken by Malaysia was its proposal of a neutralisation policy in
the region in 1974. Neutralisation policy has sought to reduce China’s influence 19 in
the region due to the political implication in the Indo-China crisis that affected
18
Ahmad Moktar Selat. New Directions in Malaysia Foreign Policy: From Tunku to Abdullah Badawi.
In Ruhanas Harun (ed). 2006. Malaysia’s Foreign Relations Issues and Challenges. University of
Malaya Press. Pp,14-17
19
Acharya, Amitav. 2001. Constructing a Security Community in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the
Problem of the Regional Order. Routledge Francis& Taylor.pp,54
26
population imbalances were related to human security. This concern began since
Vietnam was divided into two different political ideologies which increased the
solidarity of societies and by spreading the ideas of communism, was possible. In fact,
Malaysia, at domestic level, was still facing communism insurgencies would enable
them to manipulate the Chinese in the urban areas by guarantee they rights and
support for internal insurgencies or for government combating insurgencies, have the
effect of raising the level of violence and complicating both conflict management and
peaceful resolution”.20
normalisation to curb China’s influence amongst all ASEAN member states. The first
action was towards Indonesia, which disagreed with normalization policy with China
due to its relationship with the USSR, which is an ideological rivalry with China.21
in influencing Indonesia to normalize with China and give way for the declarations of
Zone of Peace Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) (1971) and Southeast Asian
Nuclear Weapons Free Zone (SEANWFZ) (1995) and easily achieve their goals. Both
consensus, it forced Big Powers to respect and guarantee the Southeast Asia region
20
Mohamad Ghazalie Shafie. The Neutralisation of Southeast Asia. Pacific Community.(October 1971)
21
Naurine Shaun. ASEAN and the Management of Regional Security. Pacific Affairs, Vol.71, No.
2(1998)pp, 195-214
27
ASEAN member states from being divided into two blocs - one side being proponents
and allowing big powers to assist existing regimes whilst the other side strongly
mural states aggression through equal distribution of power rather than dominated by
one country which may be supported by an external power. Such a step is important
since Malaysia had been concerned with economic development for its citizens after
adopting the New Economic Policy, or “Dasar Ekonomi Baru (DEB)”, which was to
increase capital capability of the Malays that required government spending to focus
on the economic and social development rather than enhancing military spending and
it’ capacity.22 As pointed out by Michael Leifer with regards to neutralization policy,
viz: “threat might be contained, managed and even eliminated, subsequently national
From the social point of view, the communist victory in North Vietnam and
Vietnam incursion on Cambodia had the possibility to spill over to Malaysia which is
predominant Muslim community was afraid that the ideas of communism would
cause turmoil in the country as for Muslims and other religions were against the ideas
of Communism. This was proven when Malaysia placed Islam as the fifth principle on
its foreign policy which reflected an effort to maintain Malaysia Muslim’s identity. In
fact, there was a move of the UMNO/government towards a more Muslim character
22
Ahmad Moktar Selat.,Op.cit,pp,19
Leifer Michael. ASEAN’S Search For Regional Order. In Seng Tan See (ed). 2009. Regionalism in
23
Asia: Critical Issues in Modern Politics. Routledge Francis & Taylor.pp, 137
28
after the May 1969 race riot.24 Partly because, to attracted supports from Malay-
Muslims as majority group since 1969 General Election won by opposition party.
Therefore, the protection of Islam from Communist ideology propaganda also meant
issue. Low intensity conflicts occurring in the Indo-China crisis had increased
Thailand and Cambodia, especially to the States of Kelantan, Kedah and Terengganu.
It began when South Vietnam was attacked by North Vietnam. As a result, many
South Vietnamese migrated to Malaysia illegally.25 The problem was that most of the
Chinese population, especially in the above mentioned states which were dominated
by the Malays.26
The migration of Chinese from outside has undermined the Malay domination
and, therefore, threatened their rights as the native society. Politically, the National
Front or Barisan Nasional (BN) since under Tun Hussein Onn, the third Prime
In order to maintain power over those states, it was necessary for the national front to
protect Malays rights and privileges by maintaining Malays race domination. In 1980,
Declaration, which aimed to remove North Vietnam domination over Cambodia and
24
Nair Shanti. 1997. Islam in Malaysia Foreign Policy. Roultedge Francis& Taylor.pp, 60-61
25
Johan Saravanamuttu. 2010. Malaysia Foreign Policy the First Fifty Years. Institute of Southeast
Asian Studies: Singapore.pp, 174-175
26
Danny Wong Tze-Ken. 1995. Vietnam-Malaysia Relation During the Cold War, 1945-1990.
University of Malaya Press.pp,126-127
29
also to have legitimate action to send back migrants to their home countries.27
Regarding the Indo-China crisis, Tun Hussein Onn proposed an ASEAN agreement,
namely the ASEAN Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in 1976 as guidance for
ASEAN member states in solving problems, disputes, and crisis through negotiation
Based on that, Malaysia had placed its faith on ASEAN in order to create a
conducive environment in the region that would benefit Malaysia’s security. The
success of the neutralization policy had led Malaysia to be the first Southeast Asian
nation to forge diplomatic relation with China in 1974 and, subsequently, this was
followed by the rest of ASEAN member states. It can be argued that, during that time,
member states which might be damaging to Malaysia’s political survival. In this case,
The absence of communist threat after the collapse of the USSR and also the
formation of ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in 1994 changed the political landscape
of Malaysia and ASEAN. Malaysia’s security situation was not directly threatened by
regime power as before, but rather the social and economic aspects. The main danger
and incompetent labor. By having this background, Third World countries faced
27
Ibid.,pp,181
28
Halisah Ashari. Diplomacy and Foreign Relation.>www.parlimen.gov.my/articel. 15 Mei 2013
30
difficulties to compete in the economy market. This weakness constituted human
insecurity in terms of poverty, standard of living and low wage which became a focal
reflected the vulnerability of the region’s economy. Attacking the Ringgit Malaysia
activities. During that time, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) incentives in the hotel,
tourism, and agriculture sectors had declined due to the concern of protecting the
RM.29 Almost every part of life including small traders until house hold incomes were
badly affected. Wage was lowered and access of education was relatively low. The
absence of incentive in social spending due to government cut off in order to focus on
manufacturing sector.30. Clearly, globalization was the main source of the emergence
conditions, Malaysia under Mahathir solved the crisis through changes in ASEAN
cooperation with unequal field and therefore the result is inevitable. ASEAN need to
change its economic partnership. China was one of the good alternatives. Why China?
29
Mohamed Ariff and Syarisa Yanti Abu Bakar. The Malaysia Financial Crisis: Economy Impact and
Recovery Prospects. The Developing Economies,Vol.XXXVII, No.4(1999)pp417-438
30
Ishak Shari. Financial Crisis and its Social Impact in Malaysia. In, Hill Hall and Peng-Chu Yun (ed).
2001. The Social Impact of the Financial Asian Crisis. Edward Elgar Publishing. Pp, 96-99
31
“The White Paper on Relations with Asia is an Opportunity for the
Future”.>www.adelaidenow.com.au< 23/2/2013
31
China provided potential success. It could integrate Malaysia into the world
economy systems which would ensure its economy interest that promises equal
how regional economy relations with China, would play a role in enhancing national
economic prosperity. In order to overcome the social situation, Malaysia with not
much option left, increased local company capital capability and stipulated economy
sector. Malaysian immigration authorities altered the multiple exit permits to allow
businessmen a longer stay in China. At the same time, Malaysia proposed to ASEAN
Meeting (ASEM). The Malaysian government also loosened its control by not
insisting that business delegations to China require officials from the Ministry of
Fund (IMF) made way for a consistent promising economy trend after 1998. The
to maintain trade equality. The idea trade equality suggested that regional economy
32
Dhillon, Karminder Singh.2009. Malaysia Foreign Policy in the Mahathir era 1981-2003: Dilemmas
of Development. National University of Singapore Press: Singapore.pp 155
33
Kim Shee Poo. The Political Economy of Mahathir’s China Policy: Economic Cooperation, Political
and Strategic Ambivalence. Ritsumeikan Annual Review of International Studies, Vol,3.( 2004)pp,59-
79
32
stability influences national economy prosperity.34 Malaysian economy heavily
enhance economy stability in terms of goods and services within ASEAN market.
Such strategy also could reduce illegal migration from Malaysia’s neighbouring
countries and also recover national economy resilience among ASEAN members.
West power that might harm Southeast Asian economy and Malaysia in particular. By
this concern, Malaysia’s effort has led ASEAN to create ASEAN +three and East
Asian Summit which served as strategic platform to Malaysia and ASEAN member
states to gain trade surplus, enhance economy capability and maintain regional
that increased lay off from 2.8 percent in 1997 to 5.0 percent in 1998.35 As a result, as
reported by United Nations Development Program (UNDP), human costs of the crisis
include continued social stress, fragmentation, domestic crime, streets crime and
activities had increased due to the economic crisis in 1997/1998. Subsequently piracy
as well as armed robbery against ships had increases. The Straits of Malacca and the
34
For instance, Malaysia goods and services trade more depends in Southeast Asia market. When Thai
Baht attacked by devaluation, Malaysia RM automatically affected. See, Wee Victor. “Responding to
the Economic Crisis in Malaysia.” Paper Presenting in OECD symposium on the Structural Aspects in
the East Asian Crisis. Paris, 16-17 September 2007.pp, 2
35
Verma NMP. 2012. Recession and Its Aftermath in United States, Australia and the Emerging Asia.
Springberg: India.pp,xvii
36
Jin Zumkher Hye and Andriesse Edo. Malaysia and South Korea: A Decade After Asian Financial
Crisis. Chulalongkorn Journal of Economic, Vol.20, No.1(2008),pp1-26
33
Sulu region was the most pirate-prone waters in the Southeast Asia region.37
Previously in the 1992, Malaysia has signed memorandum bilaterally with littoral
Since economic interest was the mutual concern of ASEAN countries, effective
economic cooperation that could restrain piracy activities in the region would lead to
a prosperous region.
resilience. By having economic cooperation with China, Japan and South Korea
through ASEAN would promise a win-win situation. Hence, ASEAN ranks as the first
priority in view of its influential role and direct impact on national and regional
security for Malaysia.39Based on Malaysian foreign relations strategy and goals till
Mahathir era, Rajmah Hussain argued that, Malaysia has placed its faith in ASEAN
37
Eklof Amirell Stefan. Maritime Piracy and Raiding In Southeast Asia: Local and Global
Perspectives. In Chong Terence (ed). 2008. Globalization and its Counter-Forces in Southeast Asia.
Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore.pp,217
38
Ibid.,pp217-218
39
Nathan K.S. Malaysia Foreign Policy: Evolution of Strategic Interest in a Changing Domestic,
Regional and Global Context. In Abdullah Razak Baginda (ed). 2009. Malaysia’s Defence & Security
Since 1957. Malaysia Strategic Research Centre.pp, 70.
40
Rajmah Hussain. 2010. Second Editions. Malaysia at the United Nations a Study of Foreign Policy
Priorities, 1957-1987. University of Malaya Press.pp,44-45
34
4.1.3 Malaysia in Southeast Asia after Mahathir’s Era: The Emergence of
Security Complex
Mahathir’s era. The first aspect, the sources of security threat has changed. After the
mention by Ruhanas Harun, the post-Cold War era highlighted the concern of non-
warming, and transnational crimes. Threats like these, out from government control.
In sum, the source of threat was not only caused by globalization, but also multiethnic
Secondly, new principle diplomacy and foreign policy strategy emerged. The
evolution of security influences Malaysian foreign policy strategy. Since Tun Abdul
innovations involved Islamism and moderate. In this case, Malaysia is addressing one
policy, non-traditional security by separate policy and mechanism and not “one policy
Ruhanas Harun. The Evolution and Development of Malaysia’s National Interest. In Abdullah Razak
41
Baginda (ed). 2009. Malaysia’s Defence & Security Since 1957. Malaysia Strategic Research Centre.
Pp, 55
35
to all” as Malaysia did during communism threat before. The question which arises
It changed because of two reasons. First reason was the nature of threat. Before
and during Mahathir’s era, there were only communist threat and big power rivalry to
facilitate their power in the region. State as the rational actor attempted to prevent
communist threat. The aim was clear, to protect national identity and stability. To
reach that level, Malaysia used ASEAN to led multilateral security and created regime
security such as code of conduct, treaty of amity, neutralizations policy and so forth.
However, after Mahathir Mohamad’s era, state is not a prominent source of threat.
Indeed, in the current situation, sources of threat came from globalization, non-states
actors, emerging superior society, history and multiethnic society. To deal with such
sources, one policy couldn’t afford to address all threat due the different causes,
implications and characters. Therefore, foreign policy strategy approach has been
renewed.
The second reason was the role of leadership attitude. Tun Abdul Razak, Tun
conservative norms since Malaysia was a newly independent country, the leaders
ethnic nationalism and regime survival. It created political emotions. These characters
were responsible to determine Malaysia’s policy strategy. To protect the DEB spirit,
education background constituted his attitude and ideas. 42As a medical doctor, his
42
Wain Barry. 2009. Malaysian Maverick Mahathir Mohamad in Turbulent Times. Palgrave
Macmillan.pp,22-24
36
approach was based on “prevent a disease to save the important organ method”. In
short, he solved the threat based on ‘a doctor point of view’. Mahathir’s personality
influenced his policies in order to reduce unequal relations between First and Third
Unlike his predecessors, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Najib Tun Abdul Razak
provide a new attitude. Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said in 30th ASEAN Ministerial
Meeting, “I sincerely believe it does not harm our cause if we seek to renew and
indeed reinvigorate that kindred spirit of close collaboration”.43 This reflected souring
regard, Malaysia officially listed five non-traditional security issues. It referred to the
energy crisis, environmental issues, human rights, transnational crime and extremist
group.44
a)Environmental Issue
Ahmad Badawi and Najib Tun Abdul Razak period. Nonetheless, these issues
emerged during Mahathir’s era, but environmental issue has been known as First
43
Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, “30th Ministerial Meeting”, Kuala Lumpur.
44
Most of the features given is basically based on what Malaysia Foreign Affair Ministry pointed out
in its website. See www.kln.gov.my/web/quest/md-overview> 18 December 2012.
37
World countries political strategy towards developing states.45 Malaysia as speaker of
the Third World countries against First World roles and demanded that the Third
spread and therefore industrial policy in the Third countries need to be more
environmental oriented than economy oriented.46 However, those issues were ignored
to have its own industrial policy towards economy development that eventually
became necessary to Malaysia due the 2020 aspiration. The 2020 dream was to
achieve a develop nation state in or before the year 2020. Thus environmental issues
were not a focal concern to Mahathir but rather in the Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
those issues likely important due to the society awareness had increased. The
emergence of “superior society” during Abdullah Badawi forced him to tackle threat
effectively.47 They become the third force within the development of Malaysian
policy. For Malaysia, the rise in temperature due to trapped carbon dioxide and green-
house gases affected the lives of people that included potable water, health, food, and
the well-being of the environment.48 The dilemma was, while Malaysia strongly
regional level. Malaysia as pointed out by Syed Hamid Albar, Malaysia Foreign
Minister during Abdullah Ahmad Badawi’s time, “a stable environment in East Asia
45
Bryant Raymond L. 1997. Third World Political Ecology. Routledge Francis&Taylor.pp, 58-58
46
Malaysia suggested that rich countries should pay for poor countries in order to prevent cut tress for
development, but their contribution is not forthcoming. See, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi speech at the
opening XXIST World Road Congress, PWTC, Kuala Lumpur, 3 Oktober 1999.
47
“Work with Me, Not for Me” indicated the liberalization policy under him. see, Pandian
Sivamurugan, Rusdi Omar, and Mohd Azzizudin Mohd Sani. “Work with Me, Not for Me: Malaysia
under Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. Asian Culture and History, Vol.2, No.1( 2003-09)pp,97-107
48
Environmental issue>www.kln.gov.my< 15 February 2013
38
is essential, especially for Malaysia, which is situated in the centre of Southeast Asia
exploitation on raw materials and enhance industrial activities that may hamper
environmental aspect. Therefore Malaysia was seeking to overcome those issues with
b) Energy Crisis
Malaysia is rich on raw materials such as oil, hydro, natural gas and coal.
Malaysia’s pursue status as industrial economy was brought energy issue as important
and human needs. In this case, Malaysia intents to protect its interest in regard of
human security, global energy supply and demands.50 More precisely, since middle
class emerged in 1990, government seek to have great sound economy to meet their
interest in order to maintain middle class support.51 The increase in demand for
39
explore more on those particular resources.52 Yet, the main energy resource is non-
renewable energy and therefore it became a crisis. The potential threat posed over on
of living and health. To this juncture, Malaysia as one of the raw material producers,
tend to balance energy exploration between the needs of economic demands and the
since the era Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, his openness elements in terms of
administration, society, and media took places. Therefore the NGO’s and civil society
Malaysia consist social political rights. In this stage, political freedom, press freedom
inequality between races and gender issues were voiced by opposition parties.
Printing Press and Publication Act 1984, University and University Colleges
Act 1975, New Economy Policy (NEP), Police Act 1967, Internal Security Act which
enhance in domestic violence, were opposed by the opposition. They claimed that, all
those acts reflected Malaysia, as a county which abuses human rights. For example, in
NEP, non-Malays claim they had been discriminated in terms of economy and
political rights. Contrary, Malays as majority group controlled economy sector with
52
Abdul Rahman Mohamed and Keat Teong Lee. Energy Policy for Sustainable in Malaysia. The Joint
International Conference on “ Sustainable Energy and Environment”, 1-3 December 2004, Hua Hin,
Thailand.
40
special treatment and have privileges entering higher education institutions.53 As a
result, non-Malays felt most victimized by the affirmative action policy. 54 Meanwhile,
the Internal Security Act and University Act brought the scope of freedom to
limitation and were said to deprive basic human rights to choose a political entity. All
of this input became government concern and transformed into policy. Externally,
human rights issues became a tool for the international community to condemn
ASEAN countries due to the weakness of freedom. In order to avoid meddling from
external power and impose sanctions, which happened to Myanmar and Vietnam,
Malaysia acknowledged that human rights issue is not only related to human well-
being, but more importantly plays a role as a deciding factor in a regime’s survival.
d) Transnational Crimes
problem. It involves illicit drug trafficking and human trafficking. In the context of
drug trafficking, Malaysia is located in the Golden Triangle where Thailand, Vietnam
and Laos are located, and they are famously known as world producers of heroin.55
Therefore, Malaysia has long been used by drug trafficking syndicates as a transit
country along the lucrative demands of lies.56 How a country like Malaysia can
develop human resources, if 45 per cent of its population below 25 years old are drug
addicts? There are many consequences of drug abuse. It is physical, leading to the
53
Wan.A.Manan. A Nation in Distress: Human Rights, Authoritarianism, and Asian Values in
Malaysia. Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, Vol. 14, No.2(1999)pp, 359-381
54
Hock Guan Lee. Affirmative Action in Malaysia. Southeast Asian Affairs, (2005),pp, 211-228
55
Dupont Alan. Transnational Crime, Drugs and Security in East Asia. Asian Survey, Vol. 39,
No.2(1999),pp. 433-455
56
Rajmah Hussain, Op.cit.pp, 248
41
deterioration of body and mind, as well was societal, leading to crime and family
problems. Moreover, it does not only harm the social institutions, but also weakens
choice. This issue is also related to the women and children’s rights as most of them
are vulnerable when it comes to smuggling. For Malaysia it is one of the largest
human rights challenges from 2004 till now. Trafficked women were exploited in
prostitution, pornography, bonded labour and sex tourism whereas for children, they
were trafficked for begging, organ trade and drug peddling.57 In 2004, according to
Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi ManusiaMalaysia (SUHAKAM), most who fell victim were
from Indonesia (983 cases), Thailand (137 cases) and Myanmar (22 cases).58
Meanwhile Filipinas, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar and China contributed to the sex
industry in Malaysia.59 At the same time, they were also used as labours in the
To make matters worse, it also led to social problems such as street crime and
robbery. This increased black market in Malaysia that also stimulated the bold culture
or budaya kuning within the Malaysian society.60 Malaysia under Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi and Najib Tun Abdul Razak has sought to produce “first class-thinking”
found difficulties since the cultural crisis was worsening. The existence of criminal
and domestic violence committed by refuges and illegal immigrants may force
57
Trafficking in Women and Children in Malaysia, report of Human Rights Commission of Malaysia(
SUHAKAM), 2004.
58
Ibid.,pp.20
59
Diana Wong and Gusni Saat. Trafficking of Filipino Women to Malaysia: Examining the Experiences
and Perspectives of Victims, Government and NGO Experts: Executive Summary, United Nations
Global Program Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Vienna.
60
Ahmad Shah Pakeer Mohamed,et.al. The Phenomenon of Human Trafficking Activities in Southeast
Asia. International of Humanities and Social Science, Vol.1,No.13( 2011),pp, 168-177
42
investors to pull out from Malaysia thereby cause an economic downfall in the
future.61 In fact, it may create financial burden for government to recover social
In this issue, extremist groups are divided into two terms. The first term refers
to militant groups. Militant group poses threats in context of Islam practise and ethnic
relationship. In this context, Malaysia became a save heaven for militant groups to
operate, coordinate, and recruit. Militant groups’ goal is to overthrow the current
government, create instability and use Islam as propaganda to verify their actions. Al-
(KMM) were popular example of this term. Their operations in Malaysia might be
enhance extremist group in Malaysia political landscape. The reason was Malaysia
government whilst the other in favour to Opposition party, who claimed to promote
Islamic state and prosperity. Since the JIM and KMM has link with Ulama in Parti
government injustice and promote Syariah Law or Islamic Law, it stimulated peoples
to support them.62 Hence the militant group activities may undermine Malaysia
population, this might cause fear in the ethnic relationships. According to Kana
61
Mohd Na’eim Ajis,et.al. Managing Foreign Workers in Southeast Asia Countries. Journal of Asia
Pacific Studies, Vol.1, No.3(2010),pp, 481-506
62
According to Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, PAS, JIM and KMM had special ties. See example in
Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid. Politically Engaged Muslims in Malaysia in the Era of Abdullah Ahmad
Badawi. Asian Journal of Political Science, Vol.18, No.2(2010).pp, 154-176.
43
(2004), “as marginal minority, the Malaysian Christians community faces formidable
challenges in an increasingly Islam context.”63 In fact, they felt that Islamism policy
only benefited only one racial group, that is Muslim then the non-Muslim rights were
upon question.64 In other words, non-Muslim felt they had been marginalise and
The second group is known as guerrilla groups. This group operates at the
regional level. Mainly, guerrilla operations are inspired by separatism, violence and
ethnic nationalism agendas. They were also known as separatist and paramilitary
integrity, and peace. Malaysia’s sovereignty and credibility has been tested in various
Organization (PULO) group and government armed forces threaten Muslim society in
Sayaf Group and “soldiers of Sulu” are still active in piracy activities, entering
Malaysia illegally, and involved directly in smuggling, human trafficking, illicit arms
regional guerrilla group in the regions has networking with KMM and JIM in terms of
financial and missions. The spill over effect and Sulu armed forces threat is the
primary concern of Malaysia. This activity has provoked fear amongst people who
live in East Malaysia. On this regard, Malaysia had been deal with non-states actors
63
Kana Maria Perpetua.2004. Christian Mission in Malaysia: Past Emphasis, Present Engagement, and
Future Possibilities. Australia Catholic University: Virginia.pp, 103
64
Ibid.,pp 64.
65
Verma Vidhu. 2002. Malaysia State and Civil Society in Transition. Lynne Rienner: London. pp, 91
44
While government strongly against them activities, extremist groups will
protect they own business in order to survive.66 The clash of interest made extremist
groups threat a more complex and difficult to resolve. Having that background, the
extremist group and transnational crimes were prominent concern than other issues in
Malaysia. To deal with such crisis, Malaysia under Abdullah Ahmad Badawi,
development through consistent the tenets of Islam and focuses on enhancing the
quality of life with basic goals: improve the socio-economic Muslim ummah through
4.2 Islam Hadhari Approach in Malaysia Foreign Policy Goals and Strategy:
Foreign policy goals and strategies were constructs based on national and
regional issues. Malaysia under Abdullah Ahmad Badawi mostly faced three
prominent issues in international relations and national politics. The first was the 9/11
episode. This tragedy increased the number of extremist groups in national and
regional level. Malaysia was not spared as well. Jemaah Islamiah, Al-Maunah and
Kumpulan Militan Malaysia (KMM) were few of militant groups which had the
instability and spread the idea of Jihad or spiritual struggle. For Malaysia, the huge
66
Kissinger Henry. 2001. Does America Need a Foreign Policy? Toward Diplomacy in 21 st century.
Simon and Schuster.pp, 12-15
67
Khadijah Md. Khalid. Voting for Change? Islam and Personalised Politics in the 2004 General
Elections. In Terence Gomez Edmund (ed). 2007. Politics in Malaysia: The Malay Dimension.
Routledge Francis & Taylor.pp, 145
45
concern was guerrilla groups due to the sovereignty, Islam image and boundaries
increases the market demand thereby enhances economical activities to meet national
material and develops more industrial companies that produced emission which
enhance global warming problems. Langkawi Declaration and Rio Summit in 1992
address those issues Abdullah Ahmad Badawi has adopted Islam Hadhari as tool of
Thirdly, superior society emerged. This social scenario was new aspect in terms
of civil society. During Mahathir Mohamad’s era, civil society has been controlled by
the government. Most of their activities and rights were blocked through the national
law in various aspects. Instead, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi gave freedom back to the
people, but with responsibility. From that point, superior society emerged and
subsequently influenced government policy and power. The superior society has
played a vital role to constructed human security needs. It can be evaluated through
68
Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.2006. Islam Hadhari: A Model Approach for Development and Progress.
MPH Printing Sdn.Bhd: Kuala Lumpur.
46
Islam Hadhari is a concept which consist nine core principals. It comprises faith
and piety towards Allah, a just and trustworthy government, free and liberated people,
development, good quality of life, protection of the rights of minority women and
children, cultural and moral integrity, safeguarding of environment and strong defence
capabilities. The most relevant principal that should be discussed in regards to human
society and country.70 The priority is to uphold human security conditions. Islam
provided the strategy terms, such as progressive, just, tolerance, and against
aggression. The strategy had regulated Malaysian foreign policy approach and goals.
At this point, Islam is being presented as a generator of civilization and culture and
not merely as a source for religious inspiration.71 Based on that, Islam Hadhari as a
tool of Malaysia’s foreign policy strategy devoted to reimage Islam condition in the
region and international sphere, balances economy development and uphold human
rights. These elements confirm Malaysia’s foreign policy strategy emphasised on soft
power through pragmatic cooperation vis-a-vis external countries and not aggressive
69
Ten Main Principles of Islam Hadhari. The Star, 7 August, 2006
70
Pak Lah: Islam hadhari not a new religion or order. The Star, 7 August, 2006.
71
Kee Beng Ooi. 2006. Era of Transition Malaysia After Mahathir. Institute of Southeast Asian
Studies: Singapore.pp,115
47
According to one scholar, Islam Hadhari can be said to be another effort to steer
Muslims’ mindset back on track.72 That is why in 2006, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi
said that “the term, “jihad” should not be misused and should not be misinterpreted to
justify terrorism. Such actions only serve to tarnish the teachings of Islam. Islam does
not permit such violence.”73 To deal with such issues, Malaysia effort divided into
two levels; domestic and regional. Both stages are driven by the principal to neutralise
those groups in order to curb extremist group influences over society and threaten
government power.74 Nonetheless, it does not means that Abdullah Ahmad Badawi is
more tolerant to extremism. In other words, “to neutralise the group, remaining
with alleged ties to extremist groups (15 al Ma’unah and four associated with Jemaah
Islamic groups. Such action aims to promote the idea of tolerance and re-image
Malaysia’s Muslims could enhance the non-Muslim fear to Islam either as religion or
political entity. Thus, in one corner, Malaysia has responsibility to overcome those
issues to avoid social unrest through eradicating the militant activities. Therefore most
72
Li Jiesheng. Malaysia Foreign Policy in the Post 9/11 era Moderate Islam as a Base with
Pragmatism.>Global-Politics.uk.htm<
73
Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.Op.cit.pp,12
74
Gatsiounis, Loannis. Islam hadhari in Malaysia Current Trends in Islamist Ideology,
Vol.3(2006),pp.79-88
75
Syed Hamid Albar, Op.cit,pp 472
76
According to Funston John, such actions aim to lowering the tone of confrontation to PAS and
opposition party. However, it wasn’t truth at all since, during that time, Abdullah administration also
arrested KMM members. To see, Funston John idea, see. Funston John. The Malay Electorate in 2004:
Reversing the 1999 Result? In, Saw Swee Hock and Kesavapany K.(ed). 2006. Malaysia Recent Trends
and Challenges. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore.pp,143
48
KMM are arrested under Internal Security Act whose desire to overthrown
government.77
guerrilla groups, but the root causes of the crisis, should also be addressed. It needed
innovation diplomacy approach. In 2005, Abdullah said that, “I believe that we can
address the problem of extremism and terrorism by delivering better and more
achieve zero poverty or kemiskinan sifar. Without such policy, according to Syed
Hamid Albar, “our people could have been alienated and disenfranchised, creating a
reflected that to make sure extremist group have less influence in Malaysia,
government sought to improve Muslims condition and the image of Muslim, not by
On the other hand, more importantly, those efforts reflected to win the heart and
place Islam, as it should be and put the Jihad in right path. At the same time, it is also
support for JI and Al-Maunah operations were reduced and subsequently prevent its
revival.80 Related to that, Malaysia as a save heaven for militant group needs to
prevent or counter any militant activities situated in the national level. In fact, militant
groups have special networking to pan-extremist groups in the region such as JI and
77
Op.cit. Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid. Politically Engaged Muslims in Malaysia in the Era of Abdullah
Ahmad Badawi. Asian Journal of Political Science, Vol.18. No, 2(2010),pp,154-176
78
Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Speech at the United Malays National Organization Annual
General Assembly, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, June 20, 2005.
79
Ibid.,pp,489
80
Ibid.,pp,472
49
Al-Qaeda. These concerns lead Abdullah Badawi to take an appropriate response in
regional level.
In regional level, the issue was focused on guerrilla groups that lasted in the
Malaysian border lines. This required collective effort from Southeast East Asian
countries to overcome those threats. However, with limited function, dealing with
strong enough as before during the Cold War era.81 In this case, while ASEAN
member states also faced the same problem, it led ASEAN react as individual
countries to pursuit they own interest. In fact, most of ASEAN countries are still not
cohesive nations and effective states.82 Non-interference principal seems like “mind
your own business” thereby weakened ASEAN solidarity in the region.83 Thus
As regional effort, Malaysia aims to improve the image of Islam and eliminate threat
through respecting other countries sovereignty and peaceful resolution. The real threat
for Malaysia is in the context of guerrilla activities comes from Eastern Malaysia,
81
Interview with Khoo Ai In, Phd Candidates in University Putra Malaysia also served as Lecture in
International and Strategic Studies, UM in 2009-2011.
82
Muthiah Alagappa. Is the ASEAN Cornerstone of Malaysia Foreign Policy? The Edge Malaysia,
November 10,2012
83
Ghazalie Shafie. ASEAN, Regionalisme, dan Isu Keselamatan. Pemikir, Bil.27, 2002, January-
Mac,pp 69
50
Training for Trainers, Public Awareness and Education Programmes, Border and
Security Control and Post-Terrorism Situation and Management.84 This effort was
necessary since guerrilla group activities characterized by guerrilla warfare, not static
therefore difficult to deter. The SEARCCT will identify and seek to address the root
causes, undertaking strict and stern enforcement measures and also undertaking
case, officers daily will check any militant activities around the region through
various resources such media, government information, and Malaysian Central Bank.
Malaysian Central Bank’s role is to detected money transfer in a huge amount from
considered as financial aid to guerrilla group. “Money trial” seems to increase s in the
region. This effort was successful when JI, a militant group’s operation in Tawau,
sparked fear among businessmen, tourist and fisherman in Eastern Malaysia. One of
launched Operasi Pasir in 2008 through deterrence activities to the ASG operations in
Jolo, Sipadan Island and Puyut Island. Moreover, some of the guerrilla groups had
protected drug traffickers entering Malaysia.86 The existence of low intensity conflict
in Southern Philippines, has given space to the drug trafficker supplying drug via
Puyut Island in Lahad Datu, and Sipadan from Zamboanga in the Philippines. As a
84
Ibid.,pp,477
85
Ibid.,pp488
86
Stark Jan. “Malaysia Foreign Policies and a New Asian Regionalism”. Working Papers Series, No.48,
February 2007, University of Hong Kong.
51
result, the value of human safety decreased due to the intended threat. 87 In order to
the end of 2003 between Philippines government and Moro Islamic Liberation Front
Malaysia would become more engaged with both sides in an effort to reconciliation.88
Islam Pattani in Southern Thailand were other guerrilla groups in the region. Those
groups were inspired by separatism ideas aimed against Thailand government in order
to apply Shariah law in Narratiwat, Pattani, and Yala. The problem is that battles
between guerrilla groups and Thailand armed forces produced spill over effect into
Malaysia territory in Kelantan. Kelantan became a safe heaven for guerrilla groups
To topple guerrilla group’s power, Malaysia and Thailand adopted new strategy
Development Strategy in 2004 was signed. This cooperation mainly focused on key
areas such as investment, transport and trade. This step was important to develop
52
Such action provided a platform to avoid separate movements and tension
between government armed forces and PLO through enhancing human rights needs
and prosperity in the Southern Thailand.90 In the early April of 2004, Malaysia sends
an Islamic lecturer to the south to teach Muslims a moderate form of Islam and turn
correct understanding of Islam. By doing so, Malaysia could aid fellow Muslims and
push the threat of Islamic fundamentalism [extremist groups] away from its borders.92
However, those strategies faced difficulties after 28 April incident where 107
insurgents Muslim were killed Thailand forced. Thaksin Sinawatra, Thailand Prime
Although, Malaysia’s effort in Southern Thailand failed to bring peace, but it had
In sum, extremist groups were combated to protect human security based on Islam
Muslims and non-Muslims prosperity and equal rights. According to Shanti Nair, “In
the management of Malaysia’s foreign policy with respect to Islam, domestic political
priorities have often outweighed the significance of the ummah the global Muslim
since Malaysia at that time became the Chair of OIC that has intention to uphold
Muslim society around the world. For those reasons, among other thing, Abdullah
90
“Malaysia Pledges to Aid Thai Government in Ending Violent Unrest on Shared Border”. Global
Insight, February 12, 2007
91
“Malaysia Bantu Thailand: Hantar Penceramah Agama, Kepakaran Hadapi Ancaman Militan.”
Utusan Malaysia, May 5, 2004
92
Jieshing Li.,Op.cit.
93
Funston John. Malaysia and Thailand in Southern Conflict: Reconciling Security and Ethnicity.
Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affair, Vol.32, No.2( August
2010),pp.234-257
94
Nair Shanti. 1997. Islam in Malaysia Foreign Policy. Routedge Francis& Taylor.pp,11-15
53
Ahmad Badawi placed Islam Hadhari as main principal in his foreign policy, and
Australia. This type of cooperation poses two problems. First, it contributed to the
ASEAN and civil society, in which ASEAN was more of an elite organization rather
than people oriented, produced limitation to Malaysia, in terms of dealing with non-
traditional issues, which were driven by non-states actors. Secondly, it increased the
number of guerrilla groups in the region. To combat extremist groups Malaysia’s has
specials ties with US in terms of military training, financial assistance and strategy.
SEARCCT was financed by US and therefore, the US interest was the first priority
than Malaysia’s national concern. US seek to eliminate extremist groups through hard
approach while Malaysia’s tried to neutralise those threat through soft approach.
Consequently, Malaysia has success to trounced militant groups at home, but failed at
the regional level. The reason was most of extremist groups target is US, and
therefore, Malaysia who had collaborated with US to contain extremist activity in the
region found difficulties due to that cooperation. In other words, Malaysia has work
with enemy.
95
Ibid, pp12.
54
Malaysia is developing country. To become developed nation, enhancing
infrastructure, oil and gas is vital. Such effort aims to create added value, diversify
could afford to compete in regional and global market. Innovation and competition
were important indicators in the era of globalisation. This situation forced Malaysia to
explore and extract more raw materials in order to meet economy and development
demands. A part from that, the roles of superior society demanding economic property
economy development.
energy crisis came into being. Media and NGO’s particularly environmentalist groups
Since that, Malaysia launched Bio-Malaysia in 2005 aiming to diversify its economy
and create a better life for Malaysians. In the same year, Malaysia established
biotechnology laws that would help to protect citizens and the environment, called as,
Access and Benefit Law and Bio-safety Law. The Access and Benefit Law intends to
increase usage of alternative fuels such as bio-fuel and bio-diesel as well as renewable
energy.96 According to Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, “consumption of fossil fuel and use
96
Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010.pp, 43
55
degradation.”97 This is the reason for the Bio-Safety Law format. The aim was to
interest over environment and human rights concerns.98 This law was more concern
on haze pollution. For several times, Malaysia was affected by haze pollutions by
immediate neighbour such as Indonesia. People were affected health and business
wise. At home, Malaysians, especially civil societies were very particular and acted
authority.99
Indeed, this crisis became transnational crisis in the region due to the market
interdependency and geographic factor. For that reason, Malaysia played a vital role
to transfer domestic problems into regional solution. Malaysia had ratified the Cebu
Declaration on East Asian Energy Security in 2007 and also signed the ASEAN
Security Agreement in 2007 that have intention to overcome energy crisis by working
together with ASEAN member states. The aim is to meet Southeast Asian
consumption for energy without depending to countries outside the region. In this
effort, ASEAN member states will share the best practices, technology, investment to
enhance Research and Development R&D, assists less developing countries especially
in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam (CLMV) countries, and to seek alternative
energy. In the same time, Malaysia has participated in Bali Road Map to protect the
97
Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Speech at, “Bio-Malaysia 2005”, Putrajaya International
Convention Centre, April 28, 2005
98
Smeltzer Sandra. Biotechnology, Environment, and Alternative Media in Malaysia. Canadian Journal
of Communication, Vol.33(2008),pp 5-20
99
According to Indonesia, 8 were Malaysia companies operate in Indonesia has responsible for those
illegal fire forest. See, “Govt Vows to Prosecute 10 Firms Over Fire Forest”. The Jakarta Post, August
16, 2005
56
environment. Unfortunately, the progress, as Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said “has been
forest fire in Sumatra led Malaysia to close schools as well as Malaysia largest
seaport, and declared a state emergency in Kuala Selangor and Port Kelang as smoke
severely limited visibility and created a significant health risk. 101 Thus Malaysia
provided Indonesia with fire fighting equipment and fire fighters to enable Indonesia
to curb the spread of forest fire with immediate action.102 Meanwhile, since palm oil
production needs 25 hectares for the region in order to meet regional consumption in
petroleum product, Malaysia focused to build oil pipeline project to ASEAN member
states. In this case, Malaysia has 3 oil pipeline projects, Malaysia-Thailand in 2004,
friendly fuel.105 By doing so, as Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said, “we seek to ensure a
good balance between achieving economy objectives and pursuing social goals.”106
100
Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Speech at, “Malaysia Green Forum”, University Putra
Malaysia, April 2010.
101
“Indonesia Fire Blanket Central Malaysia. The New York Times, August 12,2005
102
“Malaysia Haze Points to Regional Problem”. The New York Times, June 23, 2012.
103
Oye Oliver. Palm Oil as Transnational Crisis in Southeast Asia. South-East Asian Studies, Vol.2,
No.2.(2007)pp,81-101
104
Nicolas Francoise.2009. ASEAN Energy Cooperation An Increasingly Daunting Challenge. Ifri
Press.pp,22
105
Ibid.,pp,21
106
Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Speech at Invest Malaysia 2006 Conference, Shangri-La,
Kuala Lumpur, Mac 23,2006
57
Malaysia’s strategy to reach foreign policy goals was motivated by Islam Hadhari
Transnational crimes occurred in Malaysia due to the economic stability and peaceful
society. It encouraged to foreign labour seek job and market opportunity. However, it
created transnational crimes and human trafficking. The question may arise is how it
could happen? Basically there is two reasons; “hierarchical structures” and “loose
whereas loose networks seem like refer to organization with self-organise and no
groups somehow involved in political arena in order to protect groups activities such
In Southeast Asia countries, there have several groups and organisations such as
Philippines, Jao Phao in Thailand and Binh Xuyen in Vietnam108 operating in the
black market that involves violence and crimes. The problem is Malaysia as
surrounded by those states had use Malaysia as a platform to expanded them business
and activities. Operation in peace and have great sound economy development, made
criminal groups activities are low visibility, flexibility, and have longevity.
107
Noble Ronald. 2010. The Globalization of Crime: A Transnational Organized Crimes Threat
Assessment. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Press. Pp, 26-27
108
See Shanty et.al. 2007. Organized Crime: From Trafficking to Terrorism. ABC-CLIO.
58
Consequently, this “silent threat” produced insecurity for human security in the long
term. Most of the peoples trafficked comes from Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines
were served in the sex industry as GRO. In 2004 for instance, about 700,000 people
have been trafficked annually for the sex trade alone in Malaysia.109 Worryingly, the
influx of human trafficker especially among women and children, it would increases
undermines local social norms.110 Thus, Malaysia adopted a legal measure called Anti
Human Trafficking 2007 act to make Malaysia effort battling effectively. Through
these Act, Malaysia has power to prosecute and give jails sentence up of 20 years and
This effort is necessary since Malaysia realized that surrounded by the sea and
land was easy steps and cheap route to entering and also trespassed by land due to the
Malaysia share borders with neighbouring countries. In this regards, ASEAN could
For that reason, Malaysia sought to solved the problem through bilaterally with
Indonesia under MOU in 2006 but with limited terms, in which only include illegal
migrants from Indonesia and protecting maid rights in Malaysia. At the same time,
109
“Malaysia Makes Inroads in Battling Human Trafficking.” Bernama, February 24,2013
110
However, at this level, it only in the threat perception level, not in the real terms, but the possibility
is there. Interview with Dato Ahmad Moktar Selat, Malaysia former Ambassador, and former lecturer
in IR deparment, UM. 15/2/2013.
111
Ibid.,
112
In fact, several governments have special ties with transnational organised crimes in order to make
ruling party stayed in power. For instance, in Bihn Xuyen, drugs cartel in Vietnam has power to
determine government Junta power, since most of peoples in the rural areas depends on Marjiuana farm
owned by drug cartel to survive. 65% peoples living in rural areas. See, “Urban Poor’s ‘Everday
Struggle’ in Vietnam. The Diplomat Magazine. October 23, 2013
59
Malaysia sent police personnel to the hotspots trafficking such as Malacca Straits and
South China Sea to prevent their route into Third countries.113 Unfortunately, with
Malaysia limited effort wasn’t really produced tangible result. When resolved
emphasis on the freedom without limitation. Malaysia was diverse in various areas
such as culture, languages, religions, history and race where stimulated Abdullah
administration to defined human rights philosophy in the line of East culture. For
living within the society. Dealing with that situation, Malaysia attempted to overcome
the root obstacles to human rights issues based on Islam Hadhari principals.
To re-image Islam conditions, uphold human rights was the most necessary. The
roles of superior society had also influenced Abdullah administrations to protect and
guarantee society rights. In this case, Press Act has been amended to give rights to
free press. As a result, Harakah newspaper allowed to re-operates, and for the first
time, massive rally occurred since newspapers has free to speak and gradually
government and most of corrupted political leader charger in courts. This reflected
Malaysia.
113
Ibid.,
60
Moreover, to reimage Islam in the region, Abdullah administration actively
promoted equal human rights in Southeast Asia. In Southern Thailand for instance,
economy capability, so the people will easily can earn money enable them to sends
they children to schools and also reduces they living in the poverty level. 114 The more
they educated, the less they involves in extremist groups. Based on that assumption,
Malaysia sends aid to the fellow Muslim in Southern Thailand through enhance
leading Malaysia effort to neutralise the situation were directly affected Muslims
feeling and emotions. Abdullah said, “ this nature can bring a lot of unhappiness and
Hence Malaysia sent Najib Tun Razak and Syed Hamid Albar for consultation
to respect Muslims feeling in Malaysia due to the Tak Bai incident happened in
human rights issue is quite sensitive due to its link with national reputations and
assistance. Therefore, Malaysia tried to spread the idea of human rights among
Second East Asia Forum, in Kuala Lumpur, 2004, Malaysia stress that ASEAN
114
Experts and political leaders believed that, the emergence of extremist groups in Southeast Asia
driven dominantly by one assumption in which people living in the poverty level have potential to
involve in extremist groups due to the financial supports. See. Vaughn Bruce et.al. Terrorism in
Southeast Asia. Congressional Report Service, October 16, 2009.
115
“Tak Bai Crackdown”. The Nation, October 28 2004
61
security community perspective must be expand to the new challenges faces by states
According to Syed Hamid Albar, Malaysia Foreign Ministers at that time, “East
Asian Security Community must also include respect for human rights and
dignity.”116 In September 2007, when Myanmar military junta cracked down on the
peaceful protest by monks and students, Malaysia initially strong denounce junta
administration and suggesting that to release Aung San Suu Kyi without
precondition.117 Such action not only to uphold human rights condition in Myanmar,
but also to places Malaysia good image on human rights, since Internal Security Act
became the central problem of human rights in Malaysia. In other side, Malaysia
proposed East Asian Arms Register aiming to have a forum in the joint lower level
bilaterally that enable ASEAN member states to assist each other in the context of
such as the avian flu.118 It also involved cooperation in water and food security in the
reachable. Each principal in Islam Hadhari formulated the strategy in order address
interest of society. The road might be long but the policy goals and strategy had been
116
Datuk Syed Hamid Albar, Speech at, “ Building an East Asian Security Community”, in the Second
East Asia Forum, Kuala Lumpur, December 6, 2004
117
Hock Guan Lee. Malaysia in 2007 Abdullah Administration under Siege. Southeast Asia Affairs,
2008.pp,187-206
118
Ibid.,pp,100
119
National Mission in Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006-2010.pp,9-10
62
elements of Malaysia foreign policy strategy. ASEAN Troika120 regulated by
distrust. At the end, addressing non-traditional threat only prevailed in the “white
black papers” without further actions. Islam Hadhari interests could not reach in that
policy strategy.
could be overcomes such as haze pollutions, militant groups, human rights and energy
human rights, and transnational crimes is not a short term commitments. In fact,
After Abdullah Badawi resigned in 2009, Najib Abdul Razak took office and
Malaysia human security diplomacy continues with different approach, but in the
same norms.
In 2009, when Najib Razak became Prime Minister, his announced that
hope that our nation would move forward under the theme of “1Malaysia, People
First, Performance Now”, I have emphasised these principal at home, and they are
120
Jurgen Hacke. ASEAN Diplomatic and Security Culture A Constructivist Assessment. International
Relations of the Asia-Pasific, Vol,3. No, 1(2003).pp, 57-87
63
also the principle that will shape our foreign policy.”121 At this stage, Najib said “we
must and reshape our foreign policy priorities to meet changing world order”. 122 . In
other words, Malaysia foreign policy shift in many ways reflected Najib Razak
Economic Model (NEM) 2010 and Economic Transformation Program (ETP) 2010 in
protecting people human security in terms of rising cost of living, growing criminal
“People First” in terms of foreign policy, can be define as an effort towards producing
absorption” style to deal with the changing world.125 Since the “People First” mantra
referred towards economic terms and socials needs, the selective security issues
prevail. Malaysia foreign policy strategy, therefore attempted to engage with issues
that could bring economic prosperity and protected socials rights. By that, Malaysia
was no longer promoted collective security identity in the region as Mahathir era, but
121
Datuk Seri Najib, Speech at, “Malaysia Foreign Policy: Future Direction for 2009-2015”, in Heads
of Mission Conference, Putrajaya Kuala Lumpur, June 22, 2009
122
Ibid.,
123
Johnson Joshua R. Cooperation and Pragmatism: Malaysian Foreign Policy under Najib. Asia
Pacific Bulletin, No.63(June 3,2010)
124
Khadijah Mohd. Khalid. Malaysia Foreign Policy under Najib. Asian Survey, Vol. 51. No,3(
May/June 2011)pp,429-452
125
Wasatiyyah terms actually came from the Holy Quran, in Sura Al-Baqarah.
64
foreign policy concern intensely ties with human security, international environment
or extremist and living in the era of interdependency among countries has intensified
terms and its approach. Some scholars claimed that, it only related to combating
extremist groups in the region. Khadijah Mohd Khalid for instance, said Wasatiyyah
violence all side.126 The same tone also appeared in Mohammad Agus Yusuff and
Fakhreddin Soltani work when they said “Malaysia foreign policy showed Malaysia
Wasatiyyah approach is more than they assumptions. It can be used to social, political
bedrock of our policies, domestic or foreign and it encompasses social, political and
good of all”129 without being a bias, sceptical, emotional and provocative towards
the sensitivity of religion, faith, culture, practice and experience. Having that
126
Ibid.,pp,436-437
127
Mohammad Agus Yusuff and Fakhreddin Soltani. Replicating of Domestic Security Policy in
Malaysia Foreign Policy. Asian Social Science. Vol,9. No.2(2013),pp.115-120
128
Dato Sri Anifah Aman, Speech at,” Malaysia Foreign Policy: Moderation in Action”. In Malaysia
for the International Conference of the Global Movement of Moderates, January 17, 2012.
129
Ibid.,pp,10
65
background, Malaysia foreign relations was based on “good of all”. Any national
of our own”130to effect change and meet national interest. Apparently, moderation or
moderation approach has been often used in the Malaysia human diplomacy. Along
with Malaysia foreign policy priorities, any involvement in regional sphere, Malaysia
There is changeless on human security issues after Mahathir’s era. In this case,
Malaysia effort to overcome human security threat divided into two scopes. The first
scope, referred to economy commitment that content middle income, cost living,
unaffordable housing. In order to grow middle income, reducing cost of living and
strong economic ties with ASEAN as individual countries and partners such as
Secondly, “good of all” principle had played important role to regulate foreign
policy strategy and goals. Emotions and blaming game ignored. This is because
Malaysia intent to minimize social threats such as illegal immigrants, criminal, racial,
130
Ibid.,pp,2
66
human trafficking, maid abuse, illicit drug trafficking, extremist groups and
environment degradation.
to develop nation by emphasis strong economy effort with big economy power in
order to produce a huge economy impact to all players. In fact, the ETP and NEM had
stimulated Malaysia effort to have strong economy policies. This optimistic view can
be proved when Malaysia often forced ASEAN member states to embrace China as a
top ASEAN partnership. According to Najib Razak, “Malaysia also led ASEAN
initiative to accord Dialogue Partner status to China, and in 2010 we pushed for the
creation of the ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA).”132 At the same time,
Malaysia also was the first nation in Southeast Asia establishing industrial park with
line.
This cooperation has led Malaysia, and China bilaterally open part industrial in
Qinzhou Park, in China, Kuantan Industrial Park and Gemas-Johor Baru rail link
131
Ibid.,pp,442
Datuk Seri Najib Tun Abdul Razak, Speech at, “Official Launch of Malaysia-China Kuantan Park, 3
132
67
Hijau groups and IJM Sdn.Bhd and China companies.133 Kuantan Industrial Park
provided 8,500 jobs opportunities. For Small Medium Enterprises SME’s would able
to promote they own products with market opportunity. After two months Najib took
office as Prime Ministers, Malaysia has signed “Joint Action Plan on Strategic
areas.134 By this Joint Action Plan, China FDI in Malaysia was RM1.0 billion whereas
total trade between both countries expected to reach RM300 billion this year. This
resources, wholesale and retail. Most of these sectors had employed a huge labour in
Malaysia and therefore it created a benefit to the increasing the labour incomes. In
fact, Malaysia has success to diversify economic activities and also decreased poverty
to 3.6 per cent this year. In this regards, most of economy projects between both
countries focused in the rural areas where less develop. It tried to narrow development
gap between centre and periphery. Based on that, Malaysia people living standard
agricultures country to semi industrial economy. This situation has led Malaysia
diversify the pattern...these include oil and gas, high value agriculture, green
68
and 2013 to its peoples. By these steps it would bring Malaysia economy to be more
developed nation in the near future by projecting NEM and ETP. Indeed, Malaysia
China policy driven by the assumption that China economy policies was too open,
strong, refused economy orthodox and semi-capitalism orientation would have a great
promise for equal competition among middle nation like Malaysia. This was
as Najib Razak said at Head of Mission Conference in June 2009 with regards to
China roles to Malaysia economy, “is fundamental to our national interest”. 138 By
play equal treatment, it make Malaysia voices heard, then it might promises equal
benefit to all stakeholders. This reflected “good of all” norms in Malaysia moderate
diplomacy.
important. However this cooperation has limitation due to the financial resources and
ethnic tensions emerged in these areas of cooperation.139 Even though has limitation,
137
“Formulation of Foreign Policy”.>www.kln.gov/web/guest/formation< 23/2/2013
138
Ibid.,
139
For instance, in the area of cooperation between Sarawak and Kalimantan in Indonesia has produced
ethnic tension among peoples. It began when Madura race from Kalimantan, conquered economy
activities in Sarawak hinterland, especially near to Kalimantan. As a result, it lead discrimination and
thereby produced marginalization to Dayak ethnic group. This created communal violence between
ethnic groups in 2001. See, Dayak vs Madura on Youtube.com
69
Triangle (IMT-GT).140 Basically, these project aims to realise the idea of ASEAN
EAGA for instance, has become a regional food basket and eco-tourism destination in
the Southeast Asia region. Sabah in Western Malaysia, gained more benefit on this
system.142
tourists. This led to great business opportunity in terms of demand-supply chain and
activity especially health services to take an opportunity to uphold they services since
health awareness had increases in Southeast Asia region. For instance, Normah
Medical Centres in Sarawak and Sibu Medical Centre become popular places from
would assist local government to uphold health services for local people as well as
tourists in Sabah and Sarawak through modernize health facilities, provided adequate
doctors and staffs and maintained effectiveness. At the same time, by these sub-
140
“Strategic Plan 20009-2015”. Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
141
“Joint Statement Eight Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Philippines East Asean Growth Area
Summit”, Phom Penh, Cambodia, April 4, 2012
142
“BIMP-EAGA Sees Promising Outlook for Food Market. The Star, July 17,2012
143
“BIMP-EAGA & IMT-GT Consumer Fair Kicks-Off”. The News Straits Times, November 30,2012
144
“Trans-boundary Travel for BIMP-EAGA Region is now possible”. The Borneo Post, February 20,
2012
70
productions. Most of these projects are under green technology to ensure
in Thailand including Narathiwat, Yala, Pattani eight Malaysia Northern states and 10
provinces in Indonesia, in which most that areas has shared border with Malaysia
action by extremist groups since poverty, among other thing, was the main factor of
the existence those groups. It may be contain immediate affect to Malaysia in the
reflected a share common capital, business management and common market. 146 In
this situation, the stakeholders wouldn’t have intention to threaten other countries
Southern Thailand for instance, Malaysia and Thailand has joint economy on
investment, trade and transportations. This business venture would increase economic
activities and upgrade border facilities under Custom, Immigration, and Quarantine
(CIQ) to maintain market liquidity and ensure legitimate tourist entering both
activity due to share common business and capital. By this assumption, at least, it
created collective identity among political leaders and society to against inappropriate
implement AFTA rules and objectives due to the national economy protection,
145
“Indonesia-Malaysia-Thailand Growth Triangle”. Asian Development
Bank.>www.adb.org/countries/subregional-programs/imt-gt< 23/2/2013
146
Da Cunha, Dereck. 2009. Singapore in the New Millennium: Challenges Facing the City-States.
Southeast Asian Studies: Singapores.pp,137
147
“IMT-GT Meeting on Progress of Projects”. The Edge, September 28, 2012
71
products fragmentation and hidden trade tariff. China, in one corner, was provided an
organize crimes and human rights issues. Malaysia at regional sphere actively
participated to address the fundamental problems that might create a possible threat to
Malaysia at home as well as in the region. To deal such issue, again, Malaysia has
been choose moderation as the best way to survive by adopted humane approach to
cooperation would promise people integration in the both side, it also could produce
tension between them. Partly because they have common cultures and ethnic that
would suppress issues such as Batik, Wayang Kulitand Rasa Sayang song where
UNESCO for Batik and Wayang Kulit or shadow puppet theatre as Malaysia culture
heritage due to the reduced antagonising in much larger and also respect Indonesia as
countries in terms of cultures enable both citizens understand the political borders
prevail between them. Such step is important since Indonesia as nearly located in
Tawau. Indonesia labour, count for 70 per cent estimated at round 1.7 million people
Clark Marshall. “Indonesia-Malaysia Relations: Cultural Heritage and the Politics of Garuda vs
148
72
in Malaysia.149 Half of million Indonesia peoples work in various sectors in Sabah,
It making the community faces potential threat to national safety. In one corner,
Malaysia also felt burdened since criminal activities particularly in Klang Valley such
robbery, high profile murders, theft and street violence, mostly done by Indonesians
countered such argument by saying, “if one Indonesian commits a crime, the Malaysia
Government is very quick to react, but a crime involving Malaysians, they are very
slow”.150 This argument refers to Malaysians crime over maid and Indonesia workers
in Malaysia, which has been treated in unprecedented way. For instance, Malaysia
web advertisement post incorrect words in order to promote maid service by saying,
“Indonesia maids now on sale” where made Indonesia Labour Minister denounced
same line, Indonesia maids had always tortured by its employer that mounting anger
in Indonesia side. With 1.7 million Indonesia labour in Malaysia, the situation may
labour issue had contributed bad image of human rights in Malaysia such as poor
racist.152 Although the issues still remains, the first step has been taken by Malaysia
149
“Malaysia-Indonesia Ties at a Critical Juncture”. The Brunei Times, September 7, 2010.
150
“KL-Jakarta Ties that Can be Maids Better”. The Star, December 18, 2012
151
“Tensions rise over ad that reads “Indonesian Maids Now On Sale”. The Journal, October 10, 2012
152
Huling Alice.2012. Domestic Workers in Malaysia: Hidden Victim of Abuse and Forced
Labor.>www.law.nyu.edu< 23/2/2013
73
labour and services of person through coercion.”153 Such effort showed Malaysia anti-
smuggling and seeks to reduce labour worker rights abuse. In 2011, Malaysia-
Indonesia, instead looking for help in Thailand and Philippines, especially a Muslim
such as Ops Sayang, Nyah 1, Nyah 2, Ops Sapu and amnesty programme combated
undocumented people and sent back to them native country.156 This effort is the pre-
Indonesia relationship that often hate and love relations. So far, maid rights abuse has
as key to promoted peace and prosperity in the region. At the same token, it is also
promoting equal political attitude towards members and enemy. For instance, when
countries due to the human rights problem, Malaysia refused to be drawn into the
153
TIP Report,2011.pp,244
154
“Indonesia Maid Issues Nears Settlement”. The New Straits Times, May 8, 2010.
155
“Malaysia Says Indonesia Maid Deal Delayed; Will Look Elsewhere for Hired Help.” The Jakarta
Globe, July 13,2010
156
Azizah Kassim and Rugayah Haji Mat Zin. Policy Irregular Migrants in Malaysia: An Analysis of Its
Implementation and Effectiveness. Discussion for Paper Series, No.34, December 2011. Philippines
Institute for Development Studies.
74
shame and blame game, instead using constructive engagement by granting of asylum
of minority Muslim Rohingya from Myanmar and also sending Malaysia NGO’s to
Such effort will prevent human trafficking as well as illegal migrations from
rates and religion polarisation. Malaysia as Muslims states, religion issue daunting
healthy ethnic relationship with the expansion of Islam influences at home, that
moderate Muslims in the country and people of the Christian faith. It will augur well
for the future”.159 At the same time, Malaysia also afraid that Myanmar location near
to Malacca Straits could become a zone of violence seems like the waters of
down situation in Myanmar. Apart from that, it also effort to make anti-piracy
Straits.161
157
“ UNHCR Granted access to Rohingya Refugess”. The Bangkok Post, January 16, 2013
158
See, Sivamurrugan Pandian. Islam Hadhari: From non-Muslim Perspective. Jurnal Kemanusiaan,
No.12(2008),pp 15-22
159
“Vatican to Open First Embassy in Malaysia”. The Choice, January 19, 2013
160
Tanchum Micha’el. The Buddhist-Muslims Violence in Myanmar: A Threat to Southeast Asia.
BESA Centre Perspectives Paper, No. 188, November 28, 2012.pp,1
161
Nathan K.S. Malaysia: The Challenge of Money Politics and Religious Activism. Southeast Asian
Affairs,(2006),pp,151-171
75
Malaysia Wasatiyyah diplomacy provided excellent achievement to contained
threat poses by guerrilla groups. Malaysia play excellent role to peaceful process in
the Southern Philippines as mediator where ended the long issues confronting
framework of peace and distribution of power. From this point, it created the sense of
mutual trust and mutual interest among MILF, Republic of Philippine and Malaysia.
This peace negotiation will serve interest in the Western Malaysia security. Malaysia
believed that tension between MILF and Philippines government may threaten
solidarity between federal government and local states in Sabah. Federal government
worried if MILF activities will spread the idea of separatism in Sabah because Sabah
population comprising ethnic Sulu-Muslim that similar to MILF ethnic and culture.
those ethnic groups in order to gained moral support. Hence it might growth the
extremist Islam or separatist group in Malaysia while realising Free Aceh Movement
in Indonesia has been came from Muslim groups in Malaysia. 162 For that concern,
framework for Bangsa Moro in 2012. In this regards, Southern Philippines will have
these area will prevented spill over effect of threat to West Malaysia such as
kidnapping, drug trafficking, illegal migration where undermines human safety for
local people in Sabah and Sarawak. Illicit drug trafficking increases due to the
existence of low intensity conflict that allowing or give a space to the drug trafficker
162
Asiaweek, March 2,2001.
163
For more detail, see, “Bangsa Moros Framework”.
76
supplying drug via Puyut Island in Lahad Datu, and Sipadan from Zamboanga in the
Philippine. In fact some of the militant groups had protected drug traffickers to
entering Malaysia.164This threat has produce insecurity to the local Sabah especially
common borders but also shared common history, cultures and ethnic. Sharing
common borders constituted threat towards territorial integrity whereas history and
cultures as a source of conflict posed a threat in the lens of ethnic nationalism and
create ethnic assimilation. Lahad Datu intrusion in March 2013 was one of products
of these sources. In this crisis, Malaysia effort as peacemaker in the region has been
tested. Most of Sabah society was not fully integrated. The Tausug ethnic migrated in
the huge numbers to Sabah from Southern Philippines by illegal ways. They bring
they cultures, languages, and style of life where extremely contradict with local
peoples cultures. In fact, most of the Tausug committed to crimes and this created
Moreover, the Tausug also believed that Sabah is under Sultan Sulu powers
based on history perspective and therefore they registered as “Sulu Soldiers” who
desire to place Sultan Sulu power in the special areas of Sabah, especially Lahad Datu
and Semporna. Internal support has brought Jamalul Kiram soldiers intervened
164
Stark Jan. Malaysia Foreign Policies and a New Asian Regionalism. Working Papers Series, No.48,
February 2007, University of Hong Kong.
165
Human safety refer to the safety of people were related to independent people movement, and they
freedom and prosperity. See, Zarina Othman. Mainstreaming Human Security: the Asian Contribution.
Paper Presented at International Development Studies Conference, 4-7 October 2007, Bangkok,
Thailand.
77
Tandou and Semporna due to the Tausug ethnic support. Since then, Tanduo villages
in Lahad Datu had been stormed by known as “Royal of Sulu Soldiers” that claimed
recognition and asking to stop send Sulu society in Sabah to Philippines. But yet,
Malaysia has refused to such claimants. The reason was, by having recognition for the
group as Royal Sulu Soldiers, it means will increase migration from Southern
Philippines in East Sabah that may contribute to the arms trafficking in the Sulu Sea
where becomes a lucrative route to illicit arms trade for supplying group gangster in
Sabah and Sarawak.166 At the same token, Malaysia authority also afraid that Sabah
might become “the second Southern Philippines”, where has separatism vision. To
retreat and Malaysia asking Philippines government to persuade the group to peaceful
withdrawal.168 However, after reconciliation process failed, and only after 8 police
commando died, Malaysia arms forced decided to response through offensive attack.
Along with that, Malaysia announced the comprehensive security approach so called
as Eastern Sabah Security Command as long effort to lasting stability and human
security in Sabah. In ASEAN Summit 2013, in Brunei, none of these threat bring by
in the region without being emotional and bias towards surrounding nations.
Internally, the emerging “People First, Performance Now” had raises the idea of
166
Miani Lino. 2011. The Sulu Arms Market National Responses to a Regional Problem. Institute of
Southeast Asian Studies: Singapore. pp, 65-82
167
“Lahad Datu Situation to be “Solved in the best way”. The New Straits Times, February 21,2013.
168
“ Lahad Datu Stand-Off: Philippines request Malaysia to Extend Deadline”. The Star, February
23,2013
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human security within Malaysia society thereby constructed different national interest
tolerance which strengthened the values of peace, realistic, humanity, justice and
5.1 Summary
In sum, over the years, Malaysia threat has been changed. From
169
“Formulation of Foreign Policy”.>www.kln.gov/web/guest/formation< 23/2/2013
79
security complex, leading to differing national interest from one national leader to
the eras of Tun Abdul Razak Mahathir Malaysia’s foreign policies priorities were
mostly to secure the country’s position in the region and to protect national prosperity
and unity by containing traditional security which was the prominent threat at that
time. In this regard, ASEAN has become a strategic platform for Malaysia to translate
national concern into regional action. For instance, at home, Malaysia faced
communist insurgency in the 50s and for several years after achieving independence
and racial unrest in May 1969. Externally, it faced the desire of big powers to meddle
in the Southeast Asia region. To avoid this external threat, Malaysia proposed the
1997/98 and the lack of transparency in the Washington Consensus, Malaysia initiated
to further expand ASEAN cooperation with its Dialogue Partners - China, the
doubt, had been successful in promoting prosperity, peace and economic development
Malaysia faced non-traditional security threats as the dominant concern at the regional
and national levels. This trend suggested that challenges were not mainly and
necessarily military in nature as before, but rather the threats to national security were
approach it was through the adoption of “one policy to all issues”, with the
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assumption that those threats were related to national sovereignty meaning that
2003, the country adopted a foreign policy which clearly gave another perspective of
the evolution of Malaysia foreign policy goals and strategy in the region. Non-
crime, but failed in the level of implementation. Malaysia does not place its faith in
ASEAN anymore, but rather acts individually as a country to determine the success of
its policies at home. For examples, while Malaysia daunted by militant groups in
mounting extremist group activities domestically, it had solved those issues through
Timor Leste as another country from Southeast Asia region, besides Malaysia. At the
same time, in the effort to combat transnational crimes, Malaysia has signed MOUs
only with Indonesia and the Philippines. Similarly, illegal immigrations issue that
prevails in Malaysia has only been addressed in at the bilateral level rather on
multilateral basis. In fact, ASEAN member states do not signed any agreement on this
issue. In the economic context, China and ASEAN individual countries such as
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Singapore played a vital role to Malaysia economic partnership than the AFTA in
foreign policy, but rather as a stepping point to forge strategic partnership with
individual countries. The reason was clear. During Tun Abdul Razak till Mahathir
power to distributed power equally among member states since they were confronting
Asia region, most of them newly independent, therefore this threat created huge
concern to all ASEAN members. In this scenario, ASEAN as organisation could play
deterrence approach and promoted common security aspiration. Although these are
non-military threats, ASEAN could not balance those threats due to national
NGO’s participation, while more elite oriented and the conservative approach in
ASEAN organisation, such as the non-interference policy, has been the main point
relations with neighbouring countries with promising tangible results rather than in
ASEAN that is still a mere talk shop. For instance, while Malaysia strongly pursues
Project, and with China in the industrial park project. Having such commitment,
170
See, Tham Siew Yean. Prosper Thy Neighbour Policies: Malaysia’s Contributions after the Asian
Financial Crisis. ASEAN Economic Bulletin, Vol.24, No.1(2007),pp. 72-97
82
Malaysia’s diplomacy is not really “activism” as before, but it was influenced by self-
security identity, with suitable and promising tangible results for the country’s human
threat. While military threats could be addressed by weapons and arms, non-military
threats couldn’t be addressed in the same way. Hence, humane approach to humane
unity and Muslim image, where, after the 9/11 incidence, Malaysia has responsibility
to “correct” the misunderstanding about Islam. Islam Hadhari not only served as an
mantra at home, but it also was an effort to uphold Malaysia human concern to bring a
just economic, equal rights, solidarity among fellow citizens, and prosperity. Thus,
the region. This approach was continued by Najib Razak after Abdullah resigned as
Najib Razak in the global world as the best way to deal with Malaysia human security
concern in the region. Both approaches were the creation of Malaysia diplomacy to
deal with non-state actors in the era of informal threat and interconnected world.
Using one approach to one issue in mind, moderation diplomacy tried to balancing
equal result to Malaysian and its partnership by maintaining respect, dignity and
equitable manner.
foreign policy strategy? The study provided two reasons. Firstly, the real threat in of
non-traditional security pertains to militant and guerrilla groups in the region. Some
83
the government. By using and promoting Islam, it could abstain and produce good
Prime Minister post-Mahathir era, there is no suicide bombing happen, nor militant
group threats targeting Malaysia security. Secondly, Islam itself provides the best way
with other countries. Abdullah Ahmad Badawi and Najib Razak had always said that
Islam provided moderate, progressive, equality, and innovation in the nation building.
diplomacy approach, and the evolution of threat and national interest, this study
provided 3 three implications. First, ASEAN has played limited roles to Malaysia’s
foreign relation priorities after the Mahathir era. Dealing with non-traditional threat
had different approach, but the uniqueness about Malaysia’s diplomacy after the
Mahathir era was that Islamic norms and practices had conceptualised and regulated
Malaysia’s diplomacy to meet the changing world. It’s not wrong to argue that, the
region due to her position in Southeast Asia and interconnection with neighbouring
countries. Along with Malaysia position in Southeast Asia, where had shared common
borders with most ASEAN countries indicated that Malaysia was the huge targets of
non-traditional “attack”. In this respect, the source of threat has been expanded to be
84
globalization, superior society, histories and multi-ethnic roles from which new
features of Malaysia foreign policy strategy emerged. The element was self-security
the middle class, but rather all the classes in Malaysia’s society. In sum, this essay
5.3 Suggestions.
military threat in the era of informal threat. By looking into different situations, this
study would assist to bring an overview on how Malaysia conducted its human
security by adopting different norms of diplomacy after the Mahathir era. Obviously,
the threats on Malaysia come from transnational crimes and extremist groups at home
and from abroad in this region. Thus, further research on Malaysia’s management of
crisis in the region on those particular areas shall be the key concern for the researcher
in the near future. This study is crucial to all who are interested in Malaysia’s foreign
policy after Mahathir era in the context of Malaysia’s diplomacy on human security
questions which may arise probably would be: What are the causes of mounting
85
extremist group activities in the region? If Jihad pretend as the answer, should
Malaysia worried with this threat? What is the fundamental problem of combating
What might be the relevant factor to describe the cause of transnational crimes in
Southeast Asia and can Malaysia succeed in addressing non-traditional threats without
strong ties with ASEAN as an organization? Obviously, this study is crucial to whom
who interested in Malaysia foreign policy after Mahathir era especially, in the context
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