Vous êtes sur la page 1sur 57

EL207: Analog Communication

Lab Manual
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Mr./Miss.
__________________________________

Of class, Electronics Engineering ID


no.____________,
Enrollment No. ____________, has satisfactory
completed his / her term work in Subject : EL207:
Analog Communication for the term ending in
_________20 /

Date: __________

Signature of the Teacher


INDEX
SUBJECT : ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION (151004)

SR.N DATE EXPERIMENT SIGN


O.
1. To generate amplitude modulation (AM) waveform
and to measure modulation index of AM wave using
waveform method and trapezoidal method
2. To extract information signal from the AM wave
using diode detector.

3. To observe frequency modulated waveform and to


measure peak frequency deviation for 2V peak to
peak modulating signal
4. To extract information signal from the FM wave
using FM detector

5. To obtain frequency response of pre-emphasis and


de-emphasis circuits

6. To generate SSB signal using balance modulator and


single sideband filter

7. To demodulate SSB signal

8. To obtain frequency response of RF amplifier

9. To understand block diagram of super-heterodyne


AM and FM receiver

10. To understand working of AGC circuit

11. To obtain fidelity of the AM and FM receiver.

12. To design implement and obtain the frequency


response of single tuned amplifier.
PRACTICAL NO :1
AIM:
To generate amplitude modulation (AM) waveform and to measure modulation index of
AM wave using waveform method and trapezoidal method

APPARATUS:
Amplitude modulation trainer kit Omega Type ETB-96, CRO, function generator,
connecting wires. Etc

THEORY:
PART-A : waveform method

Modulation is the process in which there is change in one of the parameters of high
frequency carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency and phase in accordance with
change in amplitude of modulating signal(information signal to be transmitted). The base
band signal is referred to as the modulating signal and the output of the modulation
process is called as the modulated signal.

Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which is the amplitude of the


carrier wave is varied about a means values linearly with the base band signal.
The envelope of the modulating wave has the same shape as the base band signal
provided the following two requirements are satisfied

1. The carrier frequency fc must be much greater then the highest frequency components
fm of the message signal m (t) i.e. fc >> fm
2. The modulation index must be less than unity. if the modulation index is greater than
unity, the carrier wave becomes over modulated.

Amplitude modulation index: (m)


It is the ratio of amplitude of modulating signal to amplitude of carrier signal
Vm
m = Vc

From Figure
m = Vmax – Vmin
Vmax + Vmin
m = Modulation Index
Vmax = maximum peak to peak value of modulated signal.
Vmin = minimum peak to peak value of modulated signal

Expression for AM wave :


Let, instantaneous modulating Signal is em= Emcos(wmt)

instantaneous Carrier Signal is ec = Eccos(wct)

then Resulting Modulated Wave From Fig is eAM= [Ec + Emcos(wmt)] cos(wct),
eAM= Ec [1+ m cos(wmt)] cos(wct)
The modulation index must not allowed to exceed unity; else the –ve peak of the
modulating waveform is clipped. This clipping not only causes distortion but also
interference.

Depending on the value of modulating index there are three types of modulation
1. under modulation (m<1).
2. perfect modulation (m=1).
3. over modulation (m>1).

Over modulation occurs when the magnitude of the peak negative voltage of
modulating wave exceeds the peak carrier voltage. To ensure that peak value of
modulating signal should not exceed the peak value of carrier signal.

PART-B : Trapezoidal method

Viewing the Modulated wave on CRO is difficult when the modulating waveform is
other than periodic because of the problem of synchronizing the sweep to obtain a
stationary pattern. The problem can be overcome using the trapezoidal method of
monitoring the modulation.

It is similar to Lissajous patterns .In basic lissajous method when the same waveform is
applied to both horizontal and vertical plates of the oscilloscope. Assuming that the
horizontal and vertical gains are equal and the spot is initially centered on the screen, the
spot will be at the screen center whenever the voltage is zero.
When the voltage goes positive the spot is deflected vertically upward and
horizontally to the right by equal amounts irrespective of wave shape, and therefore the
spot traces out the upper apart of the diagonal line. Likewise whenever the voltage goes
negative yhe downward deflection is equel to the left, producing lower part of the
diagonal line.
When Modulated signal is applied to the vertical plates the spot is deflected
vertically by the carrier voltage Fig show the normal pattern from which the modulation
index is easily obtained. Denoting the peak-to-peak voltage by Epp the longest vertical
displacement is L1 = Eppmax and the shortest is L2 = Eppmin but
Eppmax=2 Vmax and Eppmin=2Vmin, then

m = Vmax – Vmin
Vmax + Vmin

m = L1 - L2
L1 + L2

PROCEDURE:
PART-A : waveform method

1. Select sine wave as a Modulating signal from Function Generator with


appropriate peak to peak voltage and frequency (AF) between 500 Hz to 2kHz .
Measure the amplitude Vm with the help of CRO.
2. From Built in Carrier oscillator measure the amplitude Vc and Frequency fc With
the Help of CRO.
3. Connect the Modulating signal, Carrier Signal to Respected Sockets on Kit
4. Switch ON the AM kit.
5. Observe the Amplitude modulated wave at the Modulated output terminal using
CRO .
6. Now by varying the amplitude of the modulating signal observe and draw the
under Modulated (m<1), over (m>1)and perfect modulated wave.
7. Measure Vmax, Vmin from Modulated wave for each case and find out modulation
index m and % modulation Practically. And by Formula
a. M=Vm/Vc find Theoretical value for each cases.
8. Compare Theoretical and Practical results

PART-B : Trapezoidal method

1. Obtain the Modulated waveform repeating previous procedure


2. To obtain trapezoid keep CRO in X-Y Mode.
3. Connect Modulating Signal on X Channel(CH-2) and Modulated Waveform on Y
Channel of CRO(CH-1).
4. Measure L1 = 2Emax, and L2 = 2Emin from trapezoid and find Modulation Index,
5. Observe the pattern for m<1, m>1 and m=1 conditions on CRO
OBSERVATION TABLE:

PART-A : waveform method


Vc =

Sr. Amplitude of Vmax= Vmin= Vmax+Vmin Vm


No. Modulating Vc+Vm Vc-Vm m = Vmax-Vmin %Modulation m= Vc
Signal (Vm) in V in V (practically) (%m) (Theo.)
1

PART-B : Trapezoidal method

Sr. Amplitude of Modulating L1 L2 Modulation = L1 - L2


No. Signal (Vm) Index L1+ L2
1

WAVEFORMS:

PART-A : waveform method

(1) m<1
(2) m=1

(3) m>1

PART-B : Trapezoidal method


(1) m<1

(2) m=1

(3) m>1
QUESTIONS:

1. Give the Classification of Communication System?


Ans:

2. Why modulation is necessary?


Ans:

3. What is Modulation Index? Why percentage modulation is always less than 100 % in
case of A.M.?
Ans:

4. What is the total modulation index if several signals are modulated by same carrier?
Ans:

5. If Triangular wave is used as a Modulating Signal What type of change in AM wave is


observed?
Ans:
6. What is the required bandwidth for AM signal? Draw its frequency spectrum? What is
the bandwidth requirement for the AM signal when the frequencies of the modulating
signals 200 Hz, 400 Hz and 800 Hz are transmitted simultaneously?
Ans:

CONCLUSION:

PART-A : waveform method:

PART-B : Trapezoidal method

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :2

AIM:
To extract information signal from the AM wave using diode detector.

APPARATUS:
Amplitude modulation trainer, CRO, function generator, connecting wires. Etc

THEORY:

The process of detection provides a means of recovering the modulating Signal


from modulated signal. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation. Detector
circuit utilizes the rectification characteristics of diode. The diode should have the
capability of handling high frequencies. Generally point contact diodes are used.

Concept Structure:

The detector circuit is employed to separate the carrier wave and eliminate the side
bands. Since the envelope of an AM wave has the same shape as the message,
independent of the carrier frequency and phase, demodulation can be accomplished by
extracting envelope.

This circuit is essentially a rectifier circuit followed by a capacitor across the


output terminal act as a low pass filter with resistor R.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

(ENVELOPE DETECTOR)

(NEGATIVE HALF OF THE A.M. SIGNAL


REMOVED BY THE DIODE)

(CARRIER IS FILTERED AND AUDIO SIGNAL RECOVERED BY R&C)

WORKING:

Initially capacitor is uncharged. When modulated wave eAM is applied, its


negative half cycles are cut-off by the diode ”D”.
The positive half cycle charges C to a voltage almost equal to the peak voltage of
the half cycle. During the following negative half cycle, the diode is cut off , and
discharges through the rate of discharge being governed by the time constant RC.
However, the value of C and R made such that only the small amount of charges leaks
away in this duration, and the output voltage falls to a point, which is only slightly lower.
In the following positive half cycle, the diode conducts when input becomes more
positive than the voltage, remaining on C. Thus C is again charged to the peak potential
of the new positive half cycle. This process continue of the envelope is quite negligible as
can seen.
The value of time constant RC is very significant for proper detection. For
example, if C(or R) is too small, the output voltage may drop to zero between the
adjacent positive half cycles and hence it will not follow the amplitude envelope. On the
other hand, if C(or R) is too large, the voltage across C may not decay rapidly enough
between two adjacent half cycles so as to follow the envelope correctly.
The time constant RC is adjusted so that exponential decay of Vc follows the
envelope .

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply


2. Connect the carrier wave to the sockets marked CARRIER IN and 1 kHz audio
frequency generator to the sockets marked AUDIO IN
3. Connect the sockets marked MODULATED OUTPUT to the sockets marked
MODULATED SINNAL IN of the demodulating circuit.
4. Observe the waveform at sockets marked DEMODULATED OUTPUT. The
waveform should be a 1 kHz Audio Signal as fed from the Audio Frequency
Generator
5. Observe the effect of varying modulation index of AM wave on the output signal.
6. Draw the waveforms of input AM wave and demodulated output on graph papers

OBSERVATION :

m<1

m>1
QUESTIONS:

1. What will be the result if we remove positive half of the AM signal instead of its
negative half during demodulation?
Ans.

2. What is diagonal peak clipping ?


Ans.

3. Which type of distortion occurs practically at detector if modulation index at


transmitting side is increased more than 0.7 ?
Ans.

4. What is the effect on output waveforms if the direction of the diode is changed in the
given circuit?

5. Why the amplitude of the demodulated output is less than applied modulating signal?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :3
AIM:
To observe frequency modulated waveform and to measure peak frequency deviation for
2V peak to peak modulating signal

APPARATUS:
Frequency modulation trainer kit OMEGA TYPE ETB-98, CRO, cro probes, connecting
wires.

THEORY:

Modulation is the process in which there is change in one of the parameters of


high frequency carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency and phase in accordance with
change in amplitude of modulating signal(information signal to be transmitted).
Frequency modulation is a technique in which the frequency of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the modulating signal amplitude.

In frequency modulation, the amplitude of the modulated carrier signal is kept


constant. Thus information is contained in frequency variation of carrier signal.
As a result of this, FM is much more immune to the effect of noise, because noise
generally affects the amplitude of a waveform

An unmodulated carrier may be written as:


ec = Ecmax cos(ωc t + φ)

The instantaneous frequency of FM carrier is given by:

f = fc + k em(t)
= fc (1+ k Em cos ωmt) f become fmax when cos ωmt = 1

fmax = fc (1+k Em)

where the peak frequency deviation δ is proportional to the peak modulating signal and
δ = k Em

The FM signal is treated as a vector rotating at a frequency given above so


instantaneous amplitude may be represented as

eFM = Ecmax cosθ(t)

eFM = Ecmax cos(2πfct+2π k Em ∫ cos ωmt dt)

eFM = Ecmax cos(2πfct+2π δ ∫ cos 2πfmt dt)

eFM = Ecmax cos(2πfct+ δ sin 2πfmt )


fm
eFM = Ecmax cos(2πfct+ m sin 2πfmt )

Modulation index for FM:

mf = maximum frequency deviation


modulating frequency

mf = δ
fm

mf can vary if either the modulating frequency changes or the frequency


deviation changes.
From the equation of FM signal in teams of carrier amplitude and modulating
signal parameters. This equation gives us information about the bandwidth of FM signal
and the various frequency components contained in it.

Through use of Bessel functions it can be found that FM contains an infinite


number of sidebands and the carrier. the sidebands are separated from carrier by f m, 2fm,
3fm….etc. and their amplitudes keeps on decreasing progressively.

Bandwidth of FM signal depends on side bands


BFM = 2nfm
Using Carson‟s rule Bandwidth
BFM = 2 (δ + fm )

FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

As the modulation index increases number of side bands increases so bandwidth


required for FM signal increases. Higher side bands are generally ignored due to their
negligible amplitudes.

Reactance modulator circuit is used for generation of FM signal.

1. The oscillator and the tuned circuit provide the unmodulated carrier frequency and
this frequency is present on the collector of the transistor.
2. The capacitor and the resistor provide 90  phase shift between the collector voltage
and current. This makes the circuit appears as capacitor.
3. The changing information signal applied to the base has the same effect as changing
the bias voltage applied to the transistor and this would have the effect of increasing
and decreasing the value of this capacitance
4. As the capacitance is effectively in parallel with the tuned circuit the variation in
value will cause the frequency of resonance to change and hence the carrier frequency
will be varied in sympathy with the information signal input

In this board an integrated circuit called the function generator IC 8038 has been used for
the generation of FM.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect socket marked „MODULATING SIGNAL OUT‟ to the sockets marked


„MODULATING SIGNAL IN‟. Keep the switch toward A.C.
2. Observe F.M. output on CRO. Vary the amplitude and frequency of Audio signal
and see the effect
3. Connect CRO to the socket ” MODULATING SIGNAL OUT” and note down the
frequency of audio signal let this be fm.
4. Disconnect the audio signal Measure frequency of carrier wave form with using
cro or frequency counter connected between sockets marked „FM OUT‟ Let it be
fc
5. Again feed audio signal and observe Fm wave on CRO. Note down the maximum
frequency of a part of a wave form on CRO. Let this be fmax .
Calculate frequency deviation δ = (fmax-fc).
6. Calculate Modulation index mf = δ/fm.
7. Repeat the procedure for different amplitude value of Audio signal keeping
frequency constant
8. Draw the waveforms of modulating signal, carrier signal and FM output
OBSERVATION :

fc = , fm =

Sr. Amplitude of Max/Min Frequency Deviation at Modulation index


No modulating Signal of FM Signal Output (δ) mf = δ/fm
fmax / fmin

WAVEFORM:

QUESTIONS:
1. What is the function of IC8038?
Ans.

2. Compare AM and FM with respect to


i) Modulation Index.
ii) Number of sidebands.
iii) Bandwidth requirement.
iv) Carrier power.
Ans.

3. Why FM is more resistive to noise than AM?


Ans.

4. Give the bandwidth requirement for FM Signal


Ans.

5. Mention the Commercial radio broadcasting frequency range for FM. Also give
idea about modulation index and Frequency deviation for FM radio broadcasting.

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :4
AIM:
To extract information signal from the FM wave using FM detector

APPARATUS:
Frequency modulation trainer kit OMEGA TYPE ETB-98, CRO, cro probes, connecting
wires.

THEORY:
At a receiver the information contained in the modulation of carrier has to be extracted.
That means in a FM receiver the frequency changes in carrier have to be converted into
corresponding amplitudes. The conversion must be a linear otherwise distortion will be
produced.

Figure :1 FM Demodulator

Figure :2 Slope detector characteristic curve


Figure :3 Balanced slope detector characteristic

Slope detection is one way of demodulating FM signals. Fig.2 shows the response
curve of a tuned circuit whose centre frequency is slightly greater than the carrier
frequency. Point A on this curve corresponds to carrier frequency fc Around this point
the curve is quite linear and can be used to convert frequency deviations around fc into
output amplitude changes. The figure shows that the frequency selective nature of tuned
circuit curve converts the frequency modulated carrier into amplitude modulated one.
After this the signal can be extracted simply by a diode detector circuit which is used to
detect an AM wave.

The slope detector will work efficiently only if the frequency deviations are
limited to the linear range of the tuned curve. Fig.5 also shows a dotted curve
corresponding to a low Q tuned circuit. It is easy to conclude that this type of circuit will
lower the amplitude variations in the output and therefore a high Q circuit is preferred for
slope detector. This detector has got the advantage that the circuitry is simple. It reduces
the complexity of the FM receiver. An extension of this detector is a balanced slope
detector which makes use of two slope detectors one on either side of the carrier
frequency. This give S-shaped frequency v/s. Output characteristics which increases the
linear rang of detection.

Fig.6. shows the characteristics for this detector. Besides there are some other
detector circuits also, such as phase discriminator, ratio detector etc. They all word on the
same basic principle of converting frequency deviation into amplitude.

PROCEDURE:

1. Mains ON/OFF switch, fuse and Neon indicator are provided at the extreme left
hand bottom part of the panel.
2. D.C. and Audio modulating signals are available between sockets marked
„OUTPUT‟. Beside these sockets there is a switch for selecting either of the two
modulating signals.
3. The potentiometer on the left hand side of this switch controls the amplitude of
D.C. signal whereas the amplitude of audio signal is controlled by the
potentiometer.
4. On the left hand side below this switch. The frequency of the audio signal can be
varied with the control on the right side of this potentiometer. The modulating
signal is fed to the sockets marked „MODULATING SIGNAL IN‟. The F.M. is
available at the sockets marked „F.M.OUT‟.
5. The demodulating circuit is along the bottom edge of the panel. F.M. signal is fed
to the sockets marked „F.M. IN‟ and the audio signal can be recovered at the
sockets marked “DEMODULATED OUT”.

WAVEFORM:

QUESTIONS:

1. Enlist Different type of FM Demodulator?


Ans.

2. A standard diode detector AM demodulator Shown in fig given in theory can be used
to demodulate frequency modulation. Explain how this is possible.(Hint: Consider how
the FM signal is affected by the tuned circuit before diode.)
Ans.

3. What do you mean by Frequency Discriminator?


Ans.

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :5
AIM:
To obtain frequency response of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits

APPARATUS:
Trainer kit (EDKITS), function generator, Dual trace CRO, probes, patch cords.

THEORY:

PRE-EMPHASIS :

In frequency modulation a pre-emphasis circuit improves the signal to noise ratio


for higher frequency audio signals. This system compensates for the noises contributed
by circuit elements & components where the generation of such undesirable noises are
more prevalent as the audio-frequency range is extended. Since the audio-frequency
response in FM extends to 15KHz,the pre-emphasis circuit increases the amplification for
the higher frequency signals & hence raises them above the noise signal amplitude levels.
This is a practical & functional circuit because the noise signals have the fixed amplitude
with respect to signals at a given frequency.

The rate of pre-emphasis incline has been established by FCC regulations. The
incline starts at approximately 400Hz & is gradual. At 1.5KHz the increase reaches 2dB;
at 2KHz,3 dB are reached. At 2.5KHz, the desible increase is 5,& the incline from this
frequency is virtually linear, reaching 70 dB at 15 KHz.

As shown in fig 1, a resistor-capacitor combination forms the basic Pre-emphasis


circuit. Capacitor C1 is a coupling capacitor, but its value has been chosen to have a
fairly high reactance for low frequency signals & a very low reactance for signals of
higher frequency. Thus its value is smaller than the conventional coupling capacitor. The
time constant of C1 & R1 is 75 µs to give the best signal to noise ratio without unduly
increasing the deviation of the FM carrier because of higher-frequency single-amplitude
increase. Abnormal signal levels during the modulation process may drive the carrier
deviation beyond the allocated pass-band limits.

Because of the Pre-emphasis process at the transmitter, a compensatory circuit


must be employed at the receiver to nullify the effect of the effect of the increasing
amplitudes for the higher frequency audio signals. The opposite effect to that obtained
from the pre emphasis circuit is produced by the De-emphasis circuit.

The noise suppression ability of FM has been shown to decrease with higher
intelligence frequencies. This is unfortunate since the higher intelligence tend to be of
lower amplitude than the low frequencies. Thus, a high pitched violin that the human ear
may perceive as the same as the “sound” level as the crash of a base drum may have only
half the electrical amplitude as the low frequency drum signal. In FM, half the noise
reduction capability. To counteract this effect, virtually all FM transmission provide an
artificial boost to the electrical amplitude of the higher frequencies. This process is
termed as pre-emphasis.

By definition pre-emphasis is the increasing of the relative strength of the


high frequency components of the audio signals before it is fed to modulator. Stated
differently pre-emphasis provides to the upper audio frequency range the desired signal
level, with respect to desired level in the lower audio frequency range. Thus, the
undesired relationship between the high frequency intelligence components and the noise
is altered. The the noise remains the same, the desired signal strength is increased. There
is a disadvantage in that the natural balance between high and low frequency tones at the
receiver is altered.

DE-EMPHASIS :

A De-emphasis circuit is used in FM receivers (between the demodulator &


the audio amplifier) to compensate for the Pre-emphasis introduced during the
modulating process. Thus, the deamphesis circuit levels of the gradual inclined in
amplitude for the higher frequency audio signles so that they are proportionate to the
levels of the signals picked up by the micro-phone at the transmitting station.

A basic de-emphasis circuit is shown in fig. 2. Essentially thee circuit


behaves as a low pass filter because C1 & C2 have a signal shunting effect that increases
for high frequency signals. The series resistance R1 & R2 in conjunction with shunting
capacitors have a time constant(RC) that coincides with pre-emphasis network utilized
during modulation process. Capacitor C3 is conventional coupling capacitor and R3 is the
volume control.

The deemphasise circuit of fig.2. can be simplified by eliminating R2 and


C2 and changing the value of R1 and C1 to have the required time constant. For smoother
linear transition however the system shown in fig. 2. Is often preferred.
A deemphasise circuit in the receiver however corrects this defect, as it reduces the high
frequency audio at the same amount as the pre-emphasis circuit increased it. Thus,
regaining the original tonal balance. In addition, the de-emphasis network operates on
both the high frequency signal and the high frequency noise; therefore, there is no change
in the improved signal to noise ratio.

The main reason for pre-emphasis network, then is to prevent the high
frequency components of the transmitted intelligence from being blocked out by noise
that would otherwise have more effect on the higher intelligence frequencies.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE :

COMBINED FRAQUENCY RESPONSE OF PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS


PROCEDURE:

PRE-EMPHASIS NETWORK

1 Connect the trainer kit to mains supply & switch it on.

2 Select a frequency of 100KHz & 1Volt peak to peak signal of sine wave &
connect it at the audio freq i/p of Pre-emphasis circuit of the kit.

3 Connect the output of the Pre-emphasis network to the input of the amplifier
circuit & keep the gain adj. potentiometer in minimum position.

4 Connect the CRO at the audio freq input & another channel cro at the amplifiers
output.

5 Now vary the frequency from 100Hz to 20KHz as shown in the table.

6 Measure the output voltage & gain for different frequencies & plot the graph of
gain vs frequency for the network.

DE-EMPHASIS NETWORK:

1. Now remove the sine wave signal from Pre-emphasis network & connect it to the
input of De-emphasis network.

2. Connect the input & output of De-emphasis network to both the channel of CRO &
note the change in the output for different frequencies as shown in the table.

3. Plot the Gain v/s Frequency and conclude your result.


OBSERVATION TABLE:

PRE-EMPHASIS NETWORK :

Sr no:= frequency Output voltage Gain in db for


75µs

1 100 Hz

2 500 Hz

3 1 KHz

4 2 KHz

5 3 KHz

6 4 KHz

7 5 KHz

8 6 KHz

9 10 KHz

10 15KHz
DE-EMPHASIS NETWORK :

Sr no:= frequency Output voltage Gain in db for


75µs

1 100 Hz

2 500 Hz

3 1 KHz

4 2 KHz

5 3 KHz

6 4 KHz

7 5 KHz

8 6 KHz

9 10 KHz

10 15KHz

QUESTIONS:

1. What is pre-emphasis ? What is its use?


Ans.
2. What is de-emphasis?
Ans.

3. Does pre-emphasis have any effect on intelligence? If yes, how is that guarded
against?
Ans.

4. What are the values of cutoff frequency and time constant of pre-emphasis and
De-emphasis circuit?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :6
AIM: To generate SSB signal using balance modulator and single sideband filter

APPARATUS: DSB/SSB transmitter (ST2201 trainer) trainer kit, function


generator, CRO, probes, connecting wires

THEORY:

Like AM, DSBSC uses a microphone or some other transducer to convert speech
and music to an electrical signal called the message or base band signal. The message
signal is then used to electrically vary the amplitude of a pure sine wave called the
carrier. And like AM, the carrier usually has a frequency that is much higher than the
message‟s frequency.
It is seen that, in sinusoidal AM,
Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)

Thus at 100% modulation, power in any one side band

Psf=Pc/4

The total transmitted power is:


Pt=1.5 Pc

DOUBLE SIDE BAND SUPPRESSED CARRIER (DSB-SC):

Certain types of amplitude modulators make use of multiplying action in which


the modulating signal multiplied with carrier signal like
balanced modulator.

DSBSC = the message × the carrier

DSBSC signal consists of two sine waves:


1. One with a frequency equal to the sum of the carrier and message frequencies
2. One with a frequency equal to the difference between the carrier and message
frequencies.
Importantly, the DSBSC signal doesn‟t contain a sine wave at the carrier frequency. This
is an important difference between DSBSC and AM.

The presence of both sidebands but the absence of the carrier gives us the name of
this modulation method - double-sideband, suppressed carrier (DSBSC).
The carrier in AM makes up at least 66% of the signal‟s power but it doesn‟t
contain any part of the original message and is only needed for tuning. So by not sending
the carrier, DSBSC offers a substantial power saving over AM and is its main advantage.

SINGLE SIDE BAND (SSB):

Generally in both side band the information contain is same so if one of the
sidebands of DSB-SC signal is removed either by filtering or by cancellation it is known
as single side band modulation.

There are three methods of generation of SSB:


1. Balanced modulator (filter method).
2. Phase shift method.
3. The third method.

The most popular today is the third method. Earlier once simply used the technique of
generating a DSB-SC signal and then filtering one of the side bands.
The trainer is RF transmitter capable of generating.
(1) Double side band
(2) Single side band

The transmitter has on board DC.Power supply and required signal conditioning
circuitry and 8 switched faults. They are used to simulate fault conditions, in various
parts of circuit, in order to ensure better understanding of the system. Experiments cover
characteristics and working of DSB & SSB AM and effect of AGC on working.
One set of operating manual and student workbook is supplied with this trainer. Subject
& experiments with complete interconnection diagram. The operating manual covers
detailed circuits descriptions to understand the system configuration & its working
ST2201 is a signal. board AM transmitter, with audio input, modulator circuits &
transmitter output circuits & switched faults. The layout diagram of ST2201 board is
shown in Block diagram .

WORKING:
The following section describes the working of ST2201 trainer with reference to the
circuit diagrams as shown in fig.
1. Audio oscillator : this block comprises of IC 8038,which generates sine wave o/p
whose freq. can be controlled with the help of freq. adjustment pot from 300Hz to
3.4 kHz.the o/p is taken from pin no2.the transistor 2N3904 is configured as a
current amplifier and,the amplitude adjustment pot VR6.
This audio freq. Sinewave will be used as modulating signal, however we can use
any other external signal as our modulating signal by feeding the external position.
The output from audio oscillator is than fed to audio amplifier balanced modulator
& balanced modulator & Band pass filter circuit.

2. 455KHz Oscillator : This circuit generates as freq. slightly less than 455KHz and
is used as carrier signal for a balanced modulator. The circuit comprises of a coil
45327 and a transistor 2N3904.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

3. 1MHz Crystal Oscillator : This circuit employees a crystal to generate 1MHz


freq. This freq. through coil 45336 is available at tp9. This freq. is used as carrier
for the two balanced modulator & Band pass filter circuits. The carrier is being
amplitude modulated by the output from audio oscillator.

4. Balanced Modulator : The balanced modulator is used to modulate the carrier


freq. of 455KHz by the incoming audio freq. It employs the IC 1496 for this
purpose. It generates two side band viz. upper side band & lower side band with
carrier, than it feeds back inverted variable carrier which then generates an output
which contains only two side bands.

5. Ceramic Bandpass Filter: It is as the name itself shows is a Band pass filter, it is
used to generates a SSB signal from the DSBSC signal obtained from the balanced
modulator. This is Achieved by feeding the DSBSC signal to the input of ceramic
Band pass Filter, Whose band is so chosen as to pass only upper side band and
reject lower side band. Since the two side bands are close to each other therefore a
good quality ceramic filter is required.
6. Balanced Modulator & Bandpass Filter Circuit: Since the two circuits are
identical therefore the description of balanced Modulator & Band pass Filter
circuit 1 is given here, the statement applying equally to balanced modulator &
band pass filter circuit2. The modulating signal from audio oscillator block is
applied to + signal input of IC 1 (1496) and the carrier signal of 1MHz is applied
to carrier input. The modulated signal output is coupled through 45336 coil, and
the DSB output is available at tp3,which when selected by made switch is fed to
output amplifier.

The only difference in the two balanced modulator and bandpass filter circuit is
that in the 2ndcircuit the signal input is output of ceramic band pass filter which
is a SSB signal. It is once again modulated with 1 MHz carrier in order to
facilitate its transmission.

7. Audio Amplifier: This section employs IC LM 386 which amplifies the audio
signal be in an external signal applied at external audio input socket or be it output
of on board audio oscillator. The volume control potentiometer controls the
magnitude of output. The output signal available at pin No. 50 IC is applied
speaker & headphone socket. The speaker can fbe switched ON-OFF as
individual‟s convenience.

8. Output Ampifier : The input to this section may be DSB or SSB signal
depending on the position of mode switch . It is applied to the base transistor TR5
2N3904 through a capacitor C31. The amplified output of this transistor is applied
to base of TR6 2N3904 transistor through a gain control pot. The output is further
amplified signal available at tp 13. This is the signal which will be transmitted via
a cable or through antenna which ever is selected.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the trainer to mains. Make all necessary onboard connections.


2. Provide information signal either internally or externally.
3. Observe the DSB-SC wave form at the output of the balances modulator.
4. The SSB signal is obtained at the o/p of the ceramic BP filter.
5. Compare and contrast the two waveforms on the CRO.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Theoretical : SSB Frequency

Practical : SSB Frequency

QUESTIONS:

1. Name the different types of SSB modulation schemes?


Ans.

2. What is the advantages and disadvantages of SSB modulation over DSB and AM
modulation?
Ans.

3. Is it feasible to have transmission and reception of signals without the presence carrier?
Ans.
4. A voice signal with a 300- to -3000-Hz range modulates a carrier of 3.125 MHz to produce
LSB SSB. At receiver, the reinserted carrier has a frequency of 3.1256 MHz . Will the signal be
received at all ? If so, what will it sound like?
Ans.

5. A 2-Khz sine wave tone modulates a 175-KHz carrier to produce a USB SSB signal; that , in
turn, modulate a 28-MHz carrier producing LSB SSB. Describe the final output signal and state
frequency.
Ans.

6.. Give the practical applications of SSB & DSB?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :7
AIM:
To Demodulate SSB (Single Side Band) Signal

THEORY:

It is quite apparent that the carrier of AM modulation conveys no information. This is


obvious from the fact that the carrier components remains constant in frequency and
phase, no matter what the modulating voltage does. Just as obvious is the fact that the two
sidebands are images of each other, since each is affected by changes in the modulating
voltage amplitude via the exponent mVc / 2. It is seen therefore that all the information
can be conveyed by the use of one side band only. This point to new method for AM
communication: SSB (Single Sideband) Communication.

The major advantage of the SSB communication is that the signal power required for the
effective transmission is reduced approximately to ¼ of that for normal transmission. A
further check shows that the use of SSB immediately halves the bandwidth required for
normal transmission.

Demodulation of the SSB must obviously be different from ordinary AM detection. The
basic SSB demodulation device is the product detector, which is rather similar to an
ordinary mixer. The other method for demodulation is the use of diode balanced
demodulator. Both the methods are discussed in details as below.

1. PRODUCT DEMODULATOR:

o The product demodulator (or detector) is shown in figure. It is virtually a mixer


with audio output. It is popular for SSB, but is equally capable of demodulating
all the other forms of AM. In this circuit shown, the input SSB signal is fed to
the base via a fixed-frequency IF transformer and the signal from a crystal
oscillator is applied to the unbypassed emitter. The frequency of this oscillator is
either equal to the normal carrier frequency or derived from the pilot frequency,
as applicable.

o If this is a fairly standard double conversion receiver, the IF is fed to the product
detector will be 455 kHz. If the USB is being received, the signal will cover the
frequency band from 455.3 to 458.0 kHz single sideband transmission. This
signal is mixed with the output of the crystal oscillator, at 455 kHz. Several
frequencies will result in the output, including the difference frequencies. These
range from 300 Hz to 3000 Hz and are the wanted audio frequencies. All other
signals present at this point will be blocked by the low-pass filter consisting of
capacitors CF and resistor RF in figure. It is seen that the circuit has recovered
the wanted intelligence from the input signal and is therefore a suitable SSB
demodulator.

o If the lower sideband is being received, the missing carrier frequency is at 458
kHz, and the sideband stretches from 457.7 to 455 kHz. A new crystal must be
switched in for the oscillator, but apart from that, the operational is identical.

PRODUCT DEMODULATOR

2. DETECTION WITH THE DIODE BALANCEDMODULATOR:

o In a portable SSB transmitter-receiver, it is naturally desirable to employ as


small a number of circuits as possible to save weight and power consumption. If
a particular circuit is used, with the aid of appropriate switching when changing
from transmission to reception. Since the diode balanced modulator can
demodulate SSB, it is used for that purpose in transceivers, in preference to the
product demodulator. A circuit of the balanced modulator is shown in figure.
o As in carrier suppression, the output of the local crystal oscillator, having the
same frequency as in the product detector is fed to the terminals 1-1‟. Where
the carrier-suppressed signal was taken from the modulator 3-3‟, the SSB signal
is now fed in. The balanced modulator now operates as a nonlinear resistance
and, as in the product detector, the sum and the difference frequencies appear at
the primary winding of the AF transformer. This transformer will not pass radio
frequencies and therefore acts as a low pass filter, delivering only the audio
frequencies to the terminal 2-2‟, which have now become the output terminals of
the demodulator. It is seen that this circuit recovers the information from the
SSB signal, as required, and works very similarly to the product demodulator.

2 1 2 3
1 5

AF 6 2 1 SSB
out in
4 8 1 2

2' 2 1

3'

1 1'
Crystal Oscillator in

Detection with Diode balanced Modulator

QUESTIONS:

1. Enlist the Different type of SSB Demodulator?


Ans.

2. If the carrier re-inserted at the receiver is out of phase with that generated at
the transmitter, what would happen?
3. Using synchronous detector technique how modulating signal can be recovered
from SSB signal?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :8
AIM:
To obtain frequency response of RF amplifier

THEORY:

When radio signals originate, especially from some type of input microphone
system (such as a walkie-talkie or radio station system), they are only weak electric
currents. Often a small diaphragm will translate sound's pressure waves into movement,
which is then transmitted into distortions in an electrical current.

The problem is that this electric current is far too weak to be transmitted
through the air--the entire point of radio waves. In order to change this low-power
electronic signal into a powerful radio signal that can sent to a transmitter and broadcast
through an antennae, an RF amplifier is used to give the signal a needed boost.

A tuned amplifier that amplifies the high-frequency signals commonly used in radio
communications. The frequency at which maximum gain occurs in a radio-frequency (rf)
amplifier is made variable by changing either the capacitance or the inductance of the
tuned circuit. A typical application is the amplification of the signal received from an
antenna before it is mixed with a local oscillator signal in the first detector of a radio
receiver. The amplifier that follows the first detector is a special type of rf amplifier
known as an intermediate-frequency (i-f) amplifier.

An rf amplifier is distinguished by its ability to tune over the desired range of input
frequencies. The shunt capacitance, which adversely affects the gain of a resistance-
capacitance coupled amplifier, becomes a part of the tuning capacitance in the rf
amplifier, thus permitting high gain at radio frequencies. The power gain of an rf
amplifier is always limited at high radio frequencies, however.

Two typical rf amplifier circuits are shown in Fig (a) and (b)the illustration. The
conventional bipolar transistor amplifier of illus. a uses tapped coils in the tuned circuits
to provide optimum gain-bandwidth characteristics consistent with the desirable value of
tuning capacitance. Inductive coupling provides the desired impedance transformation in
the input and output circuits. The tuning capacitors are usually ganged so as to rotate on a
single shaft, providing tuning by a single knob. Sometimes varactor diodes are used to
tune the circuits, in which case the tuning control is a potentiometer that controls the
diode voltage. Automatic gain control (AGC) is frequently used on the rf amplifier, as
shown. AGC voltage controls the bias and hence the transconductance of the amplifier. In
the field-effect transistor (FET) circuit (illus. b), tapped coils are not required because of
the very high input and output resistances of the FET.
Figure : (c)

As shown in fig. the RF stage is tunable circuit connected to the incoming antenna
terminal.

The RF stage is an amplifier which is used to select the wanted signal and
reject other out of many, present at the antenna. It also reduces the effect of noise. At the
output of the RF amplifier we get the desired signal at desired frequency.
Working:-
The primary device responsible for the signal enhancement is known as a
triode or a diode with one added part--a control grid.
The control grid affects on the electric charge flows through the diode, and
by applying small voltage variations in the current passing through, the triode can make
large changes in the strength and behavior of the current.
Modern RF amplifiers employ entire circuit boards to make sure the signal
is given maximum strength with as little signal distortion as possible.
The frequency response of simple audio amplifier is shown in figure (a), it
is observed that the selectivity of a particular range of frequency and the ability to reject
unwanted signal of simple audio amp is less.

Figure.(d)
This drawback is overcome in RF amplifier as it is having better selectivity. Frequency
response of a simple RF amplifier is shown in figure (e).

figure (e).
Characteristics of RF amplifier:-

1. Low noise fig.


2. High gain
3. High selectivity
4. High IFRR(image frequency rejection ratio)
5. Low inter modulation distortion
6. Low harmonic distortion.

Advantages:-

1. Greater gain and therefore better selectivity

2. better image frequency rejection

3. Signal to noise ratio is improved

4. Better selectivity

5. Coupling between the antenna and receiver is improved due to impedance


matching

Application:-
Today, these amplifiers are used no only in radio towers, walkie-talkies,
and specialized communication devices, but also in every cell phone and cell
phone tower.

QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by tuning?


2. What do you mean by SELECTIVITY ? How it can be achieved?

3. How low harmonic distortion is achieved in RF amplifier?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :9
AIM:
To understand working of AGC circuit

APPARATUS:
Trainer Kit of A.G.C,,R.F. sources of 455 KHz (preferably modulated ) or Function
Generator , C.R.O(oscilloscope),Digital Multimeter , Patch Cords.

THEORY:

The gain of any receiver remains constant over entire range of frequency spectrum. so
output of receiver becomes high when high frequency signal received, as shown in figure
given below,

This can be prevented by using a manual gain control on the first RF stage, with the help
of AGC.
The AGC derives a varying biasing signal that is proportional to average received signal
strength and uses this bias vary the gain of one or more IF or RF stage.
There are two types of AGC :
1. Simple AGC
2. Delayed AGC
1. Simple AGC

In simple AGC, the AGC bias start increase as soon as receiving signal strength
increases and receiver becomes less sensitive.
The AM detector is used in this receivers is simple half wave rectifier that produces
a DC level that is proportional to average received signal.
This dc signal is put through an RC low pass filter to remove the audio signal and
then applied to bias the base of IF or RF amplifiers.
The time constant of filter must be 10 times loner than the period of minimum
received modulated signals.
e.g. minimum received modulated signal=50Hz
so, time period of this signal=0.2sec
then tc for RC LPF should be 2sec.
Basic circuitry is shown in figure given below,
-vcc -vcc

D2

audio outout

0.005uF C2

C6
30uF

R4

8k

Also, we can‟t implement AGC at initial stages because any strong signals in adjacent
channels will cause the AGC engage before the desired signal is up to the strength and
desensitize the receiver.

2. Delayed AGC

It is used in most of better communication receivers. delayed AGC is obtained


when generation of AGC bias is prevented until the signal level exceeds a threshold
level.
AGC starts taking effect when signal has risen neatly to the level that produces the
maximum output And then increases the signal to desensitize the receiver.
A delayed agc characteristics is shown in figure(1).
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

WORKING:
Above Fig illustrates a method whereby the variable DC AGC level can
be used to control the gain of a common emitter (CE) transistor amplifier stage. In the
case of a strong received station, the AGC voltage developed across the AGC filter
capacitor(CAGC) is a large negative value which subsequently lowers the forward bias
on Q1.It causes more DC current to be drawn through R2,and hence less is available for
the base of Q1,since R1,which supplied current for both, can only supply a relatively
constant amount. The voltage gain of a CE stage with an emitter bypass capacitor (CE) is
nearly directly proportional to DC bias current, and therefore the strong station reduces
the gain of Q1. Subsequently ,the reception of very weak signals would reduce the
gain of Q1, very slightly, if at all. The introduction of AGC back in 1920s marked the
first major use of an electronic feedback control system. The AGC feedback path is
called the AGC bus, because in a full receiver it is usually “bussed” back into a number
of stages to obtain a large amount of gain control.
PROCEDURE:
1) Connect the trainer kit of A.G.C to mains supply and switch it on.
2) Select an amplitude modulated source of 455 KHz from the R.F.Generator .If R.F.
source is not available ,select 455 KHz of sine wave with 100 mV amplitude from
the Function Generator.
3) Connect the R.F. Signal at the RF/IF input of AGC kit
4) Connect a Digital Multimeter at A.G.C capacitor CAGC .Keep the meter in 200
mV or 2 volts D.C. range
5) Connect C.R.O at the collector of transistor Q1.
6) Now vary the amplitude of R.F signal and observe the output at transistor collector
and capacitor CAGC .Note your results.
7) You should observe that as the R.F. input level increases, voltage at the CAGC
capacitor reduces. The negative voltage from the AGC capacitor decreases the
gain of the transistor .Thus the Automatic Gain Control is achieved when the
input R.F. Level increases.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. Vin p-p VC (Collector Gain Av Vc (capacitor


No. Voltage) Voltage)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

QUESTIONS:

1. List the Types of AGC Circuit?

2. What is the limitation of Simple AGC?


3. Which AGC circuit provides nearby ideal characteristic?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
PRACTICAL NO :10
AIM:
To design implement and obtain the frequency response of single tuned amplifier.

THEORY:
The single tuned multistage amplifier is as shown in figure. Note that each stage uses a
tuned circuit as the load in the collector circuit. Each of this tuned circuit is tuned to the
same frequency.

Figure:

The resistors R1,R2 and RE are used for biasing of the transistors. The emitter resistor
have been bypassed. C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors.

Operation:
A radio frequency signal is applied at the input of the amplifier.
Load is parallel to the resonant circuit. The resonant frequency of this circuit is adjusted
to be equal to the frequency of RF input signal.

The resonant frequency can be adjusted by the changing the value of C in the resonant
circuit.
The tuned amplifier will amplify the input signal at frequency fr with maximum gain.
The gain offered to the signal having frequency other than fr will be low.
Frequency Response and Bandwidth:

These amplifiers use the LC tank circuit. Therefore the frequency of the single tuned
amplifier is decided entirely by the frequency response of the tuned circuit.
The frequency response of this single tuned amplifier as shown in fig.
The response has a peak of resonant frequency fr on decrease on the both the sides of
fr. The bandwidth of this response depends on the equality factor Q of the tank circuit
because
Bandwidth=fr/Q

With increase in the value of Q the frequency response becomes more and more sharp
and the bandwidth decrease. In the other words circuit becomes more selective.
Advantages of single tuned amplifier:

The frequency response is sharp. So, the single tuned circuit is more selective.
The amplifier output impedance can be matched with the load impedance.
Disadvantages of the single tuned amplifier:

For a certain application required bandwidth is large. So, the single tuned circuit with
smaller bandwidth cannot be used for such application.
The core losses increase with increase in frequency hence selectivity decrease with
increase in frequency.
QUESTIONS:
1 . What do you mean by Q-Factor?

2. What is resonance frequency?

3. What is the Limitation of Single tuning? How it overcome?

CONCLUSION:

Teacher’s Sign: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi