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Materials Science and Engineering Department, Johns Hopkins University, 102 Maryland Hall, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore,
MD 21218-2689, USA
Abstract
Non-contact generation and detection of acoustic and ultrasound waveforms is of practical importance, since it permits making
acoustic and ultrasonic measurements at elevated temperatures, in corrosive and other hostile environments, in geometrically dif-
ficult to reach locations, in outer space and doing this at relatively large distances from the test structure. Non-contact acoustical
and ultrasonic techniques currently available are laser generation, optical interferometric detection, electromagnetic acoustic
transducers (EMATs), air(gas)-coupled systems and hybrid combinations of the above. The present paper will describe how several
such systems have been used in unique materials characterization applications.
Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0041-624X/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ultras.2004.01.101
10 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16
There are various types of ultrasonic scanning sys- distance between the EMAT’s face and the surface of
tems, Fig. 3 and some of them may be used in a non- the test object. The footprint of a generating EMAT
contact manner, Fig. 4. transducer is much larger than a detecting one. They can
only be used for electrically conducting materials and
are much better detectors than generators of ultrasound.
6. Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs)
Also since the late 1970s, EMATs have been suc- 7. Laser generation and interferometric detection
cessfully used for inspection of metal bars, tubes, pipes
and plates [8–11]. One major problem with EMAT’s In 1963 White reported the generation of elastic
is that their efficiency rapidly decreases with lift-off waves in solid materials by transient surface heating [12]
R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16 11
Fig. 7. Detection of two-ply deep poor consolidation using laser generation/air-coupled detection C-scan system.
R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16 13
Power
ultrasound techniques for railroad rail and wheel
Supply inspection [33–37], Figs. 8–13. These systems can operate
Laser effectively at distances of several inches from the metallic
Oscilloscope
Pluse surfaces, which are sufficient to prevent contact with any
IR
Charge Amplifer rivets, tie-downs, or other protrusions from the rail. Re-
cently, this non-contact ultrasonic system was success-
M2 fully demonstrated at a US government rail test track
facility.
Capacitive Air-Coupled
Transducer
30mm (1.2 in.) diameter
10 mm (0.4 in.) aperture 11. Monitoring radiation embrittlement of metals
50 kHz – 2.0 MHz fequency
As nuclear reactors age the mechanical properties of
Fig. 8. Laser generation/air-coupled detection system for railroad rail
inspection. their steel containment vessels change due to neutron
L R L
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
L R L
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig. 9. Examples of laser generation/air-coupled detection of saw cut defects in railroad rail.
L R L
R
Amplitude
S S
S L
Laser Air
Generation Detection
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
No Defect Surface Defect
R
Amplitude
L
Laser Air
Generation Detection
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
No Defect Surface Defect
Fig. 10. Comparison of defect signals obtained from upper and lower rail surfaces.
14 R.E. Green Jr. / Ultrasonics 42 (2004) 9–16
0.0 0.0
-0.6 -0.6
0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200
Time (µsec) Time (µsec)
Air-coupled
Crack
Detection
Fig. 11. Example of laser generation/air-coupled detection of saw cut in railroad rail base.
S L
Detector
4 Reflected
Crack Wave
Direct
Wave Transmitted
Relative Amplitude
2 Wave
Laser Line -2
Source
-4
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attenuation detection of neutron irradiation embrittlement of Seminar, Stuttgart, Germany, 1998, pp. 24.1–24.11.
nuclear reactor steel, in: R.L. Crane et al. (Eds.), Nondestructive [40] A.L. Hiser Jr., Determination of toughness and embrittlement for
Characterization of Materials in Aging Systems, vol. 503, Mate- reactor pressure vessel steels using ultrasonic measurements,
rials Research Society, Warrendale, PA, 1998, pp. 175–182. Ph.D. Dissertation, Materials Science and Engineering Depart-
[39] A.L. Hiser Jr., R.E. Greene Jr., Initial evaluation of ultrasonic ment, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 2002, pp. 1–
attenuation measurements for estimating fracture toughness of 439.