UNIT – I

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of atomic nucleus and nuclear changes is
termed as nuclear chemistry.

Structure of Nucleus

 Every nucleus is made up of two particles namely proton and neutron.

 Nucleus is present in the central part of the atom. The entire mass of the nucleus is due to the
presence of positively charged proton and neutral neutrons. Both the particles (i.e., protons and
neutrons) are called nucleons.

Proton + Neutron = Nucleon

Nuclear Binding Energies

 Mass of an atom has been found to be slightly less than the sum of the masses of electrons,
protons and neutrons present in it.
 For example, mass of a helium atom (He) which has 2 electrons, 2 protons and 2 neutrons, is
4.00390 amu. This is less than the total mass of its constituents.

= (2 X 0.0005486) + (2 X 1.00758) + (2 X 1.00893)

Mass of 2 Mass of 2 Mass of 2
Electrons Protons Neutrons

= 4.03411 amu.

The difference between the expected mass and the actual mass

= 4.03411 – 4.00390 = 0.03021 amu is termed mass defect.

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 Hence, the mass defect is defined as the difference
between the actual nuclear mass and the expected nuclear
mass.

The mass defect is converted into energy which can be calculated from Einstein’s mass – energy
equation, E = mc2. It is measured in electron volts (eV) or million electron volts (MeV) where 1 MeV =
1.602 X 10-6 ergs. Hence, nuclear energy released in the formation of helium nucleus,

E = mc2 = (0.03021 X 1.661 X 10-24) X (3 X 1010)2

Mass defect in grams Velocity of light

= 4.5119 X 10-5 erg

= 4.5119 X 10-5 / 1.602 X 10-6

= 28.12 MeV

Hence this much energy must be supplied to disrupt the nucleus of helium and is termed its
binding energy.

Hence, binding energy of an atom is defined as the

energy released when the given number of protons and
neutrons collapsed to form its nucleus.

It may also be defined as the energy required to disrupt its nucleus into the constituent protons
and neutrons.

Number of nucleons in the case of helium being 4, binding energy per nucleon = 28.12/4 = 7.03
MeV.

Packing Fraction

The mass defect divided by number of nucleons gives packing fraction.

Packing fraction = Mass defect / Number of nucleons

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Nuclear Forces

The forces which hold nuclear particles together are termed as nuclear
forces.

They are the attractive forces existing in the nucleus between proton
and neutron; neutron and neutron and even between proton and proton.

These are short range forces. These operate within a distance of 1 X

-16
10 m (=0.1 fermi)

 The radius of the nucleus is known to be of the order of 10 -15 m. The protons are positively
charged and must repel each other.
 For example, from the value of charge on the proton and the distance between them in the
nucleus, it has been calculated that two protons at the nuclear distance repel each other with an
electrostatic force of about 6 tonnes.
 How is it, so many protons are lying side by side in such a tiny space and yet do not repel?
 This is possible because the nuclear forces of attraction between the two similar particles are
about 40 times as great as the forces of electrostatic repulsion.

Nuclear Stability

Various theories have been put forward to explain the stability of nucleus. Important ones of
these are:

1. Exchange Theory: (π – meson theory)

 In 1934 Yukawa proposed π – meson theory.

 Nucleon attraction inside the nucleus arises due to interchange of a new type of particles are
known as mesons.
 According to this theory, during the interaction of protons and neutrons, proton emits positive π
– meson which is absorbed by neutron and that neutron becomes proton and vice-versa.

1 1 
+1P 0n + +1 ve meson)

 In this way neutron emits negative π – meson which is absorbed by proton and that proton
becomes neutron.

3
 1 1 
0n +1P + -1 ve meson)

 In this way neutron and proton exchange is occur in nucleus. If π – meson particles exchange is
faster, the nuclear stability is higher. Similarly, if π – meson particles exchange is slower, the
nuclear stability is lower.

2. Nuclear Fluid Theory

 According to this theory the nucleus is considered to resemble a liquid drop. Nucleons are
believed to be present in the nucleus as nuclear fluid of very high density = 130 million
tonnes/cm3 which is about 100 trillion times the density of water. This density is uniform and
does not vary from atom to atom.
 Along with its almost unbelievable high density nuclear fluid possesses a correspondingly high
surface tension (=9.3 X 1019 dynes/cm, i.e., 1.24 X 1018 times the surface tension of water).
 A nuclear film attached to a wire one centimeter long would support the weight of one billion
tonnes.
 This force of nuclear surface tension is, in fact, responsible for keeping the nucleons bond
together against the forces of repulsion. This is known as the nuclear fluid theory of the stability
of the nuclei.

N/P Ratio

 Nuclear stability is determined by using N/P ratio.

 The ratio between the number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an element and the
number of protons present in the same nucleus is called the N/P ratio.
 It has been found that nuclei whose N/P ratio lies outside the zone of stability are unstable and
therefore undergo spontaneous radioactive disintegration.
 For nuclei with atomic number 20 or less (i.e., with P = 20 or less) the N/P ratio is almost equal to
1. They are stable.
 As the atomic number exceeds 20, the N/P ratio is more than 1 (i.e., the number of neutrons is
more than that of protons).

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  This is because with an increase in the number of protons, the force of repulsion between them
becomes more. The force of repulsion can be diminished to some extent if the number of
neutrons increases. Thus, the ratio N/P increases upto 1.6.
 Above this value the nuclei become so large then they disintegrate (become radioactive).
 If the N/P ratio is too high, i.e., above the zone of stability the isotope would be unstable. It will
emit a β-particle (i.e., an electron). In this way a neutron changes into a proton and its N/P ratio
decreases and come closer to the zone of stability.

Examples:

1. Disintegration of isotope of sodium

Here the N/P ratio falls from 13/11 to 12/12 i.e., from 1.18 to 1.00
2. Disintegration of isotope of carbon

Here the N/P ratio falls from 8/6 to 7/7 i.e., from 1.33 to 1.00
 If the N/P ratio is low, i.e., the nucleus lies below the zone of stability it would again be unstable
and would tend to come closer to the zone of stability by capturing a neutron or losing a
positron or losing an α-particle.

Examples:

Natural Radioactivity

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  Radioactivity was discovered by the scientist Henry Becquerel in 1896.
 Natural radioactivity may be defined as a process in which nuclei of certain elements undergo
spontaneous disintegration (transformation into another element by the ejection of α- or β-
particle).
 All the heavy elements from bismuth (atomic number 83) through uranium and also a few of the
lighter elements possess radioactive properties.
 Uranium in the form of potassium uranylsulphate, KUO 2(SO4)2 was the first compound to be
radioactive..
 Radioactive changes are spontaneous. These are not controlled by temperature, pressure or
nature of chemical combination.
 During the radioactive disintegration radioactive rays are emitted. The three important rays
namely α-, β- and ϒ-rays.

Modes of Decay

 The nuclei of a radioactive atoms is unstable, it will undergo decay by the spontaneous emission
of α- or β-particles. This result in the formation of new nuclei called ‘daughter nuclei’ and the
nuclei that undergoes decay is called ‘parent nuclei’.

There are two types of decay. They are,

α-decay

β-decay

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1. α-decay

When the radioactive nuclei decay by the emission of α-particle, the process is called α-decay.

α-emission reduced the atomic number by two units and atomic mass by four units.

Example:

2. β-decay

When the radioactive nuclei decay by the emission of β-particle, the process is called β-decay. Β-
emission increases the atomic number by one unit and no change in atomic mass.

Example:

Units of Radioactivity

The standard unit of radioactivity is curie (c) which is defined as that amount of any radioactive
material which gives 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations per second (dps), i.e.,

1c = activity of 1g of Ra226 = 3.7 X 1010 dps

The millicurie (mc) and microcurie (µc) are equal to 10-3 and 10-6 curies i.e., 3.7 X 107 and 3.7 X
104 dps respectively.

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 But now-a-days, the unit curie is replaced by rutherford (rd) which is defined as the amount of a
radioactive substances which undergoes 106 dps i.e., 1 rd = 106 dps.

However, in SI system the unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq).

1 Bq = 1 dps

Rate of Disintegration

 The activity of a radioactive element is measured by the rate at which it changes into its
daughter element.
 Rate of disintegration depends on the nature of the radio-element and is independent of
external factors (temperature, pressure etc.,)
 According to the law of radioactive decay, the quantity of a radio-element which disappears in
unit time (rate of disintegration) is directly proportional to the amount present.
 Let us consider a radio-element A which is changing into another element B. let N atoms of A be
present initially.

 If in a small time dt, number of atoms which decay is dN, then –dN/dt gives the rate of
disintegration which must be proportional to the number of atoms present (N). Mathematically,

dN
  N
dt or

dN
  N
dt ----------- 1

where λ is the proportionality constant called the radioactive constant or decay constant or

disintegration constant. Rewriting Eqn.1

dN
   .dt
N ----------- 2

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which on integration gives,

 ln N  t  C
----------- 3

where C is the integration constant.

 0
To start with, i.e., when t = 0, let the number of disintegrating atoms present be N

Substituting the values in the above equation, we have

 ln N 0  0  C

Substituting this value of C in Eqn.3, we have

 ln N  t  ln N 0
or

ln N 0  ln N  t
or

N0
ln  t
N ----------- 4

Then

1 N0
  ln
t N

Changing the base of logarithm from e to 10, we get

2.303 N
  log 0
t N
9
 ----------- 5

-1 -1 -1

From this equation the dimensions of λ are time (S , min etc.,)

Half Life Period


The time required for the decay of the radioactive element to one-half of its original amount is

1/2
called half-life period. This is denoted by t

Each radioactive element has its characteristic half-life period. For example, the half-life for the

238 9 226 3

radioactive decay of U is 4.51 X 10 years and that of Ra is 1.62 X 10 years.

 1/2
The half-life period (t ) does not depend upon the initial amount of radioactive element but it

depends upon the value of decay constant or disintegration constant (λ). This can be proved as

follows:

1/2
After time t , half of the atoms of radioactive substance disintegrate, so that

N0
N 
2 ----------- 1

We know that,

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 2.303 N
  log 0
t N ----------- 2

Substitute Eqn.(1) into Eqn.(2)

N0  t1 / 2
log 
N0 / 2 2.303 or

2.303
t1 / 2   log 2
 or

0.693
t1 / 2 

(log 2 = 0.3010)

 Since λ is a constant, the time required for disintegration of one-half of the original amount of

radioactive substance is independent of the initial amount of radioactive substance.

Average Life Period

 Rate of disintegration of a radioactive element is proportional to the number of atoms present in

that element.

 As disintegration proceeds in a given sample, the number of its atoms goes on decreasing and

with this rate of disintegration also goes on diminishing.

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  The process of disintegration will therefore continue infinitely. Total decay period of any element

is therefore infinity. Use of total decay period for radioactive elements would thus be

meaningless.
av
 Instead of total decay period or total life period, another term used is average life period (t ),

which is the reciprocal of the disintegration constant, λ.

We know that,

0.693
t1 / 2 
 or

0.693
 
t1 / 2

Hence, average life period,

1 t
tav   1 / 2  1.44 t1 / 2
 0.693

Thus,

Average life period = 1.44 X Half-life period

Geiger-Nuttal Rule

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  Through experimental determination, Geiger and Nuttal (1911) gave the following relationship

between the range (R) of the α-particles emitted by the radionucleid and the radioactive

av
constant (λ) or the average life period (t )

3/2

log λ = b + c log R (R is obtained from the energy of the α-particle i.e., R = 0.318 E )

where ‘b’ is somewhat different for the different disintegration series and ‘c’ is the slope of the

lines.

 With this rule, one can calculate the life periods of very short-lived or very long-lived elements

from the range of the α-particles emitted by them.

 It is evident from the relationship that longer the life of a radioactive element the shorter the

range and smaller the energy of the α-particle.

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Radioactive Equilibrium

 Suppose a radioactive element A disintegrates to form another radioactive element B which in

turn disintegrates to still another element C.

 In the beginning, the amount of A (in terms of atoms) is large while that of B is very small. Hence
the rate of disintegration of A into B is high while that of B into C is low.
 With the passage of time, A goes on disintegration while more and more B is formed. As a result,
the rate of disintegration of A to B goes on decreasing while that of B to C goes on increasing.
 Ultimately, a stage is reached when the rate of disintegration of A to B is equal to that of B to C
with the result the amount of B remains constant.
 Under these conditions B is said to be in equilibrium with A. For a radioactive equilibrium to be
established half-life of the parent must be much more than half-life of the daughter.

Mathematically,

1
NA  T  T 
 B  A 
NB A TB

where  A and B are the radioactive constants for the processes A  B and B  C
respectively and TA and TB are the average life periods of A and B respectively.

In terms of half-life periods,

NA (T1 / 2 ) A

NB (T1 / 2 ) B

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 Thus at radioactive equilibrium, the amounts (number of atoms) of the different radioelements
present in the reaction series are inversely proportional to their radioactive constants or directly
proportional to their half-life and also average life periods.

Artificial Transmutation

The emission of α or a β-particle from the radioactive element results in the formation of a new element.

This urged scientists to find methods for the conversion of naturally stable elements into other
elements by artificial disintegration. The artificial disintegration could be caused by bombarding the
nuclei of the atoms with high speed sub-atomic particles such as α-particles, β-particles, neutrons,
protons and deuterons, etc.,

The process of conversion of one element into the other by artificial means, i.e., by
bombarding the nuclei of atoms with high speed sub-atomic particles is called
artificial transmutation of elements.

The first artificial transmutation experiment was reported by Rutherford in 1919, in which a
nitrogen-14 nuclei was bombarded by α-particle to get oxygen-17 nuclide.

The sub-atomic particles used for bombarding the target nuclei are called bombarding particles
or projectiles.

Before bombarding the target nuclei, the bombarding projectiles are imparted high energy by
the device called particle accelerator.

The various particle accelerators are: linear accelerator, cyclotron and synchrotron, etc.,

Artificial Radioactivity or Induced Radioactivity

In 1934 Irene Curie and her husband F. Joliot found that when aluminium, magnesium and boron
were bombarded with α-particles, the products formed were radioactive which disintegrated
spontaneously with the emission of positron which has the same mass as that of electron but opposite
charge, i.e., positively charged electron (+1e0).

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 The above changes have been represented in the tabular form.

The phenomenon in which artificial transmutation of a stable nucleus leads to

the formation of radioactive isotope is called artificial radioactivity or induced
radioactivity.

Nuclear Fission

The process of splitting of a heavier nucleus into a number of

fragments of much smaller mass, by suitable bombardment with sub-atomic
particles is called nuclear fission.

Example:

 When uranium-235 is bombarded with slow neutron, uranium-236 is formed which being
unstable, further breaks up in several different ways as described below:

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 The splitting of U235 has been shown in the Fig.

 The tremendous amount of energy released during nuclear fission is because of the loss in mass.
 The Nuclear Chain Process:- the neutrons emitted from the fission of first uranium atom hit
other uranium nuclei and cause their fission resulting in the release of more neutrons which
further continue the fission process. In this way, a nuclear chain reaction sets up releasing
tremendous amount of energy.
 It has been found that the energy available from 1 Kg of uranium-235 is equivalent to that
available from 2,000 tonnes of coal.

Concept of Critical mass

 One of the important aspects of the chain process is that in order to continue the chain nuclear
process there should be sufficient fissionable material.
 The minimum amount that the fissionable material must have so as to continue the chain
reaction process under the given set of conditions is called the critical mass.
 If the mass of the material is more than the critical mass, it is referred to as super-critical mass
whereas if the mass of the fissionable material is smaller than the critical mass, it is called sub-
critical mass. The critical mass of U-235 is between 1 Kg to 100 Kg.

Mechanism of Nuclear Fission – Liquid Drop model

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 1) The phenomenon of nuclear fission has been explained by liquid drop model suggested by Bohr-
Wheeler.
2) According to this model, an atomic nucleus has many similarities with a liquid drop and hence
behaves as a liquid drop.
3) When sufficient energy is applied on a uranium nucleus through the neutron bombardment, the
compound nucleus formed and changes its spherical shape to elliptical shape.
4) If the energy applied on the uranium nucleus through the neutron bombardment is sufficiently
large, the elliptical shape of the nucleus may change to a dumb-bell shape. Both the parts of the
dumb-bell carry positive charge (critical shape).
5) The energy absorbed by the uranium nucleus to change from spherical shape to critical shape is
called threshold energy required by the fission reaction to occur.
6) Since the two parts of the critical shape have similar (positive) charges, they repell each other
and ultimately are separated from each other into two nuclei having the spherical shape and
almost the same size.

Applications of Nuclear Fission

The tremendous amount of energy released during fission process can be used for both
destructive and constructive purposes.

 Atomic bomb (Destructive purpose)

 Nuclear reactor (Constructive purpose)

1. Atomic Bomb

 Nuclear chain fission reaction is the basic principle of atomic bomb.

 Two pieces of a fissionable material like (U 235 or Pu239) each with sub-critical mass are brought
together rapidly by means of a conventional explosion. The
arrangement is shown in the Fig.

 One piece of the fissionable material constitutes the wedge while the
other forms a target.

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  A chemical explosive is packed at the back of the wedge which can push the wedge to the target.
 When the wedge and target are brought together, the sub-critical masses constitute super-
critical mass. Then the chain reaction is started by a neutron.
 The chain reaction taking place in the atomic bomb is,

2. Nuclear Reactors

 The release of energy by nuclear fission is the basis of nuclear reactor.

 In a nuclear reactor, the fissionable material (fuel) (U 235 or Pu239) is stacked with heavy water or
graphite called moderator.
 The neutrons produced in the fission pass through the moderator and lose some of their energy,
resulting slow neutrons. These slow neutrons can be captured by the fuel to initiate new fission.
 Cadmium rods are inserted in the moderator and these have the ability to absorb the neutrons
and thus control the rate of the chain reaction.
 The energy released in this controlled chain reaction appears mainly as heat and can be removed
by circulating a coolant, water around the reactor.
 Steam produced is used in steam turbines for generating power. It has been estimated that the
fission of 1 Kg of U235 liberates as much heat as produced by burning 2,000 tonnes of coal.

Nuclear Fusion

It is defined as the process in which lighter nuclei fuse

together to form a heavier nucleus.

 For example, the fusion of hydrogen to form deuterium or helium, lithium and hydrogen to form
helium.
 All these reactions take place in the presence very high temperatures about 10 8 K, so they are
called thermonuclear reactions. All the reactions are exothermic and release huge energies.

Example:

Applications of Nuclear Fusion

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  The phenomenon of nuclear fusion gives rise to the formation of hydrogen bomb.
 Hydrogen bomb is based on the fusion of lighter nuclei (such as hydrogen) to form heavy nuclei
of helium.
 Energy released is so enormous that it is about 1000 times that of an atomic bomb.
 In a hydrogen bomb, a mixture of heavier isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium is
enclosed in a space surrounding an ordinary atomic bomb.

A diagrammatic representation of the hydrogen bomb is given in the Fig. The function of fission bomb
(atom bomb) here is to provide an atmosphere of the required high temperature.
The hydrogen bomb is a horrible thing, as its energy release is unlimited.

Differences between Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion

1. The process occurs only in the nuclei of heavy 1. the process occurs in the nuclei of light elements
elements.

2. The process involves the fission of the heavy 2. The process involves the fusion of the lighter
nucleus to the lighter nuclei of comparable nuclei to a heavy nucleus.
masses.

3. The process can takes place at ordinary 3. The process takes place at higher temperature.
temperature. (108 oC)

4. The energy liberated during the process is high 4. The energy liberated during the process is
(200 MeV per fission). comparatively low (3 to 24 MeV per fusion).

5. This process can be controlled for useful 5. This process cannot be controlled.
purposes.

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Stellar Energy

 Stellar energy is the energy of the sun and stars.

 It is proposed that the stellar energy is due to a series of nuclear reactions involving the fusion of
four protons to form one helium nucleus and two positrons with an evolution of tremendous
quantity of energy.
 On the sun the fusion of four H-nuclei into helium nucleus does not take place in a single step
but takes place through deuterium (1H2) as shown below.

Applications of Radioactive Isotopes

Radioactive nuclei or isotopes are useful because they are easy to follow. Their presence can be
detected even in traces with the help of the electroscope, the electrometer or the Geiger-Mullet
counter. Important uses of radioactive isotopes are:

1. C-14 Dating (Radio Carbon Dating)

 It is a method of determining the ages of the archeological objects (wood, dead plants and
animals).
 This technique was developed by Willard Libby. It helps in determining the date at which a
particular plant or animal died. Libby was awarded Nobel Prize for this technique.
 The principle of this technique lies in the fact that due to bombardment of cosmic rays, nitrogen
atoms present in the upper atmosphere are converted into radioactive carbon C 14 according to
the reaction:

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  Carbon-14 is radioactive and has half-life period of 5770 years. It is oxidized in the air to give
radioactive carbon dioxide.
 Thus, the atmospheric carbon dioxide contains a small proportion of C 14 carbon dioxide (14CO2)
which is assimilated by plants and animals.
 Living plants and animals have a definite and constant proportion of C 12 and C14. When plant or
animal dies, no fresh 6C14 nuclei as 14CO2 are received by the plant or animal.
 The C14 present in these, decays according to the reaction

 The amount of C14 in a sample can be accurately determined by counting the number of β-
particles emitted per minute by one gram of the sample.
 By knowing C14 content and half-life period, the age of the sample can be determined.
 It may be noted that older the sample is, smaller is 6C14 count rate. Ages of samples upto 50,000
years old can be determined accurately by this method.

2. Rock Dating (Age of minerals and rocks)

 The end product in natural radioactive disintegration series is an isotope of lead.

 Each disintegration step has a definite half-life and hence a definite decay constant (λ).
 Thus, by determining the amounts of parent radioactive element and the isotope of lead in a
sample of rock, the age of rock can be calculated.
 For example, if we wish to determine the age of rock containing 92U238 (half-life = 4.5 X 109 years),
we measure the ratio of the concentrations of 92U238 and its end product 82Pb206. We assume that
the rock did not contain any lead isotope initially.
 Suppose, the ratio of uranium-238 and lead-206 is unity, it implies that half of the uranium
originally resent has been converted into lead isotope. The age of rock must therefore be equal
to the half-life of uranium-238 i.e., 4.5 X 10 9 years.
 Pb/U ratio of most of the rocks is 1.33 X 10 -2 indicating that their age is of the order of 10 8 years.

3. As Tracers

 Each radioactive isotope has specific property and by which the isotope can be easily detected
and estimated quantitatively.
 Since the radioactive isotope possesses identical chemical properties, by mixing a small quantity
of radioactive isotope with non-radioactive elements, the course of a chemical reaction can be
studied. Thus, the radioactive isotope is acting as a tracer element.

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  The presence of radioactive tracer in the product can be detected and estimated quantitatively
using sensitive instruments. Some of the examples are given below.

(a) As a tracer in the photosynthesis reaction

 In photosynthesis, the green plants when exposed to sunlight, take up CO 2 and H2O which are
converted into sugars and starch.
 However, at the same time, plants give out oxygen, whether the oxygen produced by plants
originates from CO2 or from H2O or from both has been answered by the use of radioactive O 18


From this reaction it is clear that the evolved oxygen comes from water and not from CO 218

(b) As a tracer in Ester Hydrolysis reaction


Mechanism of ester hydrolysis has been studied by using O 18 isotope.

It is observed that when an ester is hydrolysed by water containing O 18 (i.e., H2O18), the alcohol
formed does not have any O18 while the acid has the whole of it.

The presence of O18 in the acid proves that the –OR ’ group in the ester is wholly replaced by –
O18H group in H2O18. Thus, the hydrolysis should correctly be shown as:

Use of tracers in the diagnosis of disease

Radioisotopes have proved very useful in the diagnosis and understanding many of the diseases.
Some examples are given below.

(a) Location and detection of brain tumour

 Labeled iodine has been used to locate and detect the presence of tumour. A small quantity of
radioisotope of iodine is mixed with an organic dye and this is injected into the body of the
patient.

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  Dye with radioisotope is strongly absorbed by the tumour and radiations are produced.
Detection of these radiations gives valuable information regarding the limits of the growth and
location of the tumour.

(b) Pumping action of heart

 Pumping action of heart has been studied by using radiosodium or radioiodine.

 A small quantity of labeled NaCl solution is injected into the blood stream. A detector, attached
to an automatic pen recorder, is placed on the heart.
 As radiosodium enters the right side of the heart (i.e., atrium, the pen of the recorder rises and
then drops as the venous blood enters the lungs for oxygenation.
 After some time, the radiosodium appears with the arterial blood on left side of the heart (i.e.,
ventricle) and there is another rise and fall of the recording pen.
 By examining the resulting curve, the pumping action of the two sides of the heart can be
compared and abnormalities, if any, can be discovered.

(c) Functioning of thyroid gland

 Radioisotope of iodine, I131 is given to a patient with thyroid disorders. It decays β-rays. Detection
of these rays gives an information regarding the functioning of the thyroid gland.

Uses of Radioisotopes in the treatment of diseases (Radiotherapy)

The treatment of a disease using radioisotope is called radiotherapy. Some of the examples of
radiotherapy are given below.

1. Treatment of cancer growth:- Radio cobalt (Co60) and radio gold (Au198) are used in the treatment of
cancer.

2. Treatment of hyperthyroidism:- Radioactive iodine (I131) is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism

and cancer of the thyroid.

3. Treatment of skin disorder:- Radio phosphorus (P30) is used in the treatment of skin disease.

4. Treatment of Leukemia (Blood cancer):- Radio isotope of phosphorous is being used in the treatment
of leukemia.

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Nuclear Reactors

 An equipment in which the nuclear chain reaction is carried out in a controlled manner is called
nuclear reactor.
 The energy liberated in a controlled manner is used to produce steam which can run turbines
and produce electricity.
 In nuclear reactors, the nuclear fission is controlled by controlling the number of neutrons
released during the fission.
 Controlling of neutrons is based upon the fact that cadmium and boron can absorb neutrons to
form the corresponding isotopes which are not radioactive.

 The main part of the nuclear reactor called the reactor core is shown in the Fig. It consists
essentially of the following parts :
(a) Fuel rods:
 The fissionable material used in the reactor called fuel. The fuel used is enriched
uranium-235 (in the form of U2O3).
 The solid fuel is made into rods or pellets, which are shielded by placing in stainless steel
tubes.
(b) Control rods:
 To control the fission process, rods made of cadmium or boron are suspended between
the fuel rods.
 These rods can be raised or lowered and control the fission process by absorbing
neutrons. That is why they are called ‘control rods’

(c) Moderator:

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  The speeds of the neutrons produced in the fission have to be slowed down so that they
are easily captured by the fuel and the fission process can take place most efficiently.
This is done by surrounding the fuel rods with heavy water (D 2O).
 The material used to slow down the neutrons without absorbing them is called a
‘moderator’. Besides heavy water, graphite is also a good moderator.
(d) Coolant:
 To carry away the heat produced during fission, a liquid is circulated in the reactor core.
This liquid enters the base of the reactor core and leaves at the top.
 The heat carried by the outgoing liquid is used for producing steam. As a result the liquid
cools down and is pumped back to the base of the reactor core. The liquid, thus, used is
called ‘coolant’. Usually the coolant used is heavy water so that it may also act as a
moderator.
(e) Shield:
 To prevent the losses of heat and to protect the persons operating the reactor from the radiation
and heat, the entire reactor core is enclosed in a heavy steel or concrete dome, called the
‘shield’.

Types of Nuclear Reactor

Nuclear reactors of many kinds, shapes and sizes have been designed, both for research
purposes and power generation. All these reactors can be classified into two groups depending mainly
on the type of the moderator and the fissionable material used.

1. Homogeneous Reactors

In such reactors, heavy water (D 2O) is used as the moderator. The fissionable material, say
uranium, can be taken in the form of solution of uranyl sulphate or the fuel can be suspended in D 2O in
the form of very small particles.

2. Non-homogeneous Reactors

In such reactors graphite is used as the moderator. The fissionable material is distributed
through graphite in a regular manner forming a lattice.

Uses of Nuclear Reactors

Nuclear reactors have been used :

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 (i) To produce Pu239 and other radioactive materials
(ii) To produce strong beam of neutrons, and
(iii) To generate power for driving the energies of ships, submarines etc.,

Nuclear Reactors in India

India is equipped with the five nuclear reactors, namely

1. Apsara
2. Cirus
3. Zerlina
4. Purnima, and
5. R-5

Purnima uses plutonium fuel while the others utilize uranium as fuel.

Nuclear Fuels

 Important nuclear fuels which are used for the production of nuclear energy in nuclear
reactors are U235 and Pu239.
 Uranium is extracted from pitch blende which is not available in India. But carnotite is
another mineral containing uranium. This occurs in Bihar.
 Plutonium does not occur in nature, it is produced from U. a big plutonium plant is in
Trombay, Mumbai, in Maharashtra state. India produces about 90 Kg of plutonium
annually.

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