The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at The current issue and full text archive

hive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister www.emeraldinsight.com/0263-4503.htm

Green branding
Green branding effects on effects on
attitude: functional versus attitude
emotional positioning strategies
9
Patrick Hartmann, Vanessa Apaolaza Ibáñez and
F. Javier Forcada Sainz
Departamento de Economı́a de la Empresa y Financiación,
Universidad del Paı́s Vasco, Bilbao, Spain
Abstract
Purpose – Proposes a set of strategic options for green brand positioning, based either on functional
brand attributes or on emotional benefits. The aim of the study is to test the suggested green
positioning strategies against one another, assessing their effect on perceived brand positioning and
brand attitude.
Design/methodology/approach – A theoretical model of the dimensionality and attitudinal effects
of green brand positioning was developed. Both suggested alternatives to green brand positioning,
along with a combined functional and emotional strategy, were tested in an experimental online
setting. The hypothesized model was tested in the scope of exploratory factor analysis and structural
equation modelling.
Findings – Results indicate an overall positive influence of green brand positioning on brand
attitude. Further findings suggest distinct functional and emotional dimensions of green brand
positioning with the interaction of both dimensions in the formation of brand attitude. Highest
perceptual effects were achieved through a green positioning strategy that combined functional
attributes with emotional benefits.
Research limitations/implications – The measures used, while providing good reliability and
validity, have their limitations, especially in the case of the emotional dimension of green brand
associations. Future research should concentrate on the further development of the constructs used in
the study, particularly that of the emotional dimension of green brand associations and replicate the
study under “real-life” conditions within different product categories and with a representative sample.
Practical implications – A well implemented green positioning strategy can lead to a more
favourable perception of the brand, giving support to the green marketing approach in general. This
study supports significant attitude effects of both functional and emotional green positioning
strategies. Thus, brand managers should deliver emotional benefits through the brand, at the same
time making sure that target groups perceive real environmental benefits.
Originality/value – Although green marketing has been an important research topic for more than
three decades, hardly any research has been conducted that focuses specifically on green branding.
This paper analyses the dimensionality of green brand positioning, offers green branding insight and
suggests strategic tools for brand managers.
Keywords Brands, Product positioning, Green marketing
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Green marketing has been an important academic research topic for at least three
decades (Kassarjian, 1971; Kinnear et al., 1974; Coddington, 1993; Meffert and Marketing Intelligence & Planning
Vol. 23 No. 1, 2005
pp. 9-29
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
The authors wish to thank Susannah Persak for her comments and suggestions regarding the 0263-4503
technical review of the article. DOI 10.1108/02634500510577447
MIP Kirchgeorg, 1993; Hopfenbeck, 1993; Ottman, 1994; Peattie, 1995; Polonsky and
23,1 Mintu-Wimsatt, 1995; Schlegelmilch et al., 1996; Bigné, 1997; Fuller, 1999; Kalafatis
et al., 1999; Calomarde, 2000; Fraj and Martı́nez, 2002), but few studies have focused
specifically on green branding. At present, there is little doubt about the strategic
importance of a well-defined brand identity as a prerequisite for delivering brand value
(Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 2000; de Chernatony and Dall’Olmo Riley, 1998). A green
10 brand identity is defined by a specific set of brand attributes and benefits related to the
reduced environmental impact of the brand and its perception as being
environmentally sound. A well-implemented green brand identity should provide
benefits to environmentally conscious consumers. While there are some studies on the
perceived value of environmentally sound product attributes (Roozen and De
Pelsmacker, 1998), the role of emotional benefits in the case of green brands is still
largely unassessed.
Brand positioning is regarded a key tool for brand implementation in competitive
markets (Aaker, 1996; Hooley et al., 1998; Kotler, 2000). This paper proposes a set of
strategic options for green brand positioning, available to marketing planners and
brand managers, which are based either on functional brand attributes or emotional
benefits. The review of the literature on the subject of green marketing reveals different
opinions regarding the adequacy of either cognitive or emotionally oriented persuasion
strategies. The aim of this study is to test green positioning strategies by setting
functional attributes and emotional benefits against each other, assessing their effect
on perceived brand positioning and brand attitude. The research design is an
experiment in a setting that allowed for the selective and controlled exposure of
participants to advertising stimuli designed to implement different brand positioning
strategies.

Green brand positioning

Although there is general agreement on the strategic relevance of positioning in
modern marketing management, the concept of “positioning” itself still lacks a
coherent definition (Aaker and Shansby, 1982; Blankson and Kalafatis, 1999). Brand
positioning has been analysed both from a strategic standpoint (Ries and Trout, 1986;
Park et al., 1989; Hooley et al., 1998) and an analytical perspective (Hauser and
Koppelman, 1979; Caroll and Green, 1997; Hair et al., 1998). Kalafatis et al. (2000)
conceive of positioning as an iterative process, consisting of deliberate and proactive
actions aimed at the definition of distinct consumer perceptions. Aaker and
Joachimsthaler (2000) define brand positioning as the part of the brand identity and
value proposition that is to be actively communicated to the target audience.
Consequently, brand positioning is based on the interaction of all marketing tools, with
an accentuated role for marketing communications because of its relevance in the
process of shaping distinct consumer perceptions.
Thus, positioning a brand as a “green brand” entails an active communication
and differentiation of the brand from its competitors through its environmentally
sound attributes. Ecologically sustainable products will not be commercially
successful if green brand attributes are not effectively communicated (Pickett et al.,
1995). Coddington (1993) and Meffert and Kirchgeorg (1993) suggest that green
positioning as an essential factor in the success of green branding strategies.
Following classification schemes of generic positioning strategies (Aaker, 1996;
Tomczak et al., 1997), a brand can be positioned by functional attributes and/or by Green branding
emotional benefits. Green brand positioning strategies are here classified as effects on
functional or emotional.
A green positioning strategy based on functional brand attributes aims to build attitude
brand associations by delivering information on environmentally sound product
attributes. This positioning strategy should be based on relevant environmental
advantages of the product compared to competing conventional products, and may 11
refer to production processes, product use and/or product elimination (Meffert and
Kirchgeorg, 1993; Peattie, 1995). A car brand, for example, may be considered
environmentally sound if the models in question cause significantly lower emissions
than competors’. Several studies address the value perception of selected
environmental product attributes (Roozen and De Pelsmacker, 1998).
However, the success of a brand strategy which positions the product exclusively
by its functional attributes may be limited by the fact that the reduction of a product’s
environmental impact generally does not deliver individual benefits to its buyer.
Therefore, the perceived customer benefit may be insufficient as a motivating factor for
brand purchase (Belz and Dyllik, 1996). For most products, a consumer would
experience functional benefits (i.e. improvement of environmental quality) only in case
of generalized environmentally sound consumer behaviour. Furthermore, functional
positioning strategies can have some general disadvantages: they can often be easily
imitated, they assume rational buyer decisions and they may reduce the flexibility of
brand differentiation (Kroeber-Riel, 1991; Aaker, 1996).
As an alternative or complementary strategy, green positioning can be based on at
least three conceptually different types of emotional brand benefits:
(1) A feeling of well-being (“warm glow”) associated with acting in an altruistic
way (Ritov and Kahnemann, 1997). Environmentally conscious consumers
experience personal satisfaction by contributing to the improvement of the
“common good” environment.
(2) Auto-expression benefits through the socially visible consumption of green
brands (Belz and Dyllik, 1996). Environmentally conscious consumers
experience personal satisfaction by exhibiting their environmental
consciousness to others.
(3) Nature-related benefits stemming from sensations and feelings normally
experienced through contact with nature. These are the result of a sensation of
“emotional affinity towards nature,”, e.g. “loving nature” or “feeling one with
nature” (Kals et al., 1999). Most people experience feelings of wellbeing or even
happinesswhen they are in contact with natural environments. Past
communication campaigns for GM-Opel, BP and the Spanish power utility
Iberdrola have embedded the brand in pleasant imagery of natural
environments, aiming to evoke vicarious nature experiences as emotional
brand benefits.

Attitudinal effects of green brand positioning

Most of the research on attitude formation and change can be understood in light of
persuasion process paradigms such as the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) of Petty
and Cacioppo (1983) or, more recently, the affect-reason-involvement model (ARI)
MIP proposed by Buck et al. (1995, 2000). Both of these distinguish between at least two
23,1 conceptually different types of persuasion processes: central and peripheral modes of
persuasion in the case of the first model, and rational and emotional processes in the
second. In both models, a higher involvement of the subject subsequently leads to a
higher amount of cognitive elaboration. Additionally, in the ARI model a stronger
emotional involvement leads to a deeper emotional elaboration.
12 According to ELM, attitude formation through the central route takes place under a
high amount of cognitive elaboration. Attitude formation or change is a result of a
person’s diligent and rational consideration of information that is central to the object
(Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). On the contrary, attitude formation through the peripheral
route – that is, in the absence or reduction of cognitive elaboration of information –
occurs either through simple inference processes (Mitchell and Olson, 1981) or as a
result of feelings associated with the brand. A brand can be associated with emotional
contents through conditioning processes in consequence of exposure to emotional
brand advertising (Burke and Edell, 1987).
Numerous authors emphasise the efficiency of cognitive persuasion strategies in
green marketing, assuming the consumer’s high involvement regarding environmental
issues as a consequence of a growing environmental consciousness (Kinnear et al.,
1974; Cope and Winward, 1991; Hopfenbeck, 1993; Swenson and Wells, 1997; Fuller,
1999). As Ottman (1994, p. 78) points out: “Clearly, we need a more informed public
[regarding environmental topics] which is better equipped to make rational purchasing
and policy decisions about products, packaging, and manufacturing processes”. The
cognitive orientation of most green marketing research is based on studies showing a
significant influence of environmental knowledge and consciousness on consumers’
environmental attitudes (Hines et al., 1987; Stone et al., 1995). Consequently, many
authors recommend the use of rational persuasion strategies that implement brand
positioning by supplying detailed information on environmental product benefits,
capable of satisfying the consumer’s informational needs (Peattie, 1995).
However there is no general agreement on this question. Several studies show only a
limited influence of cognitive factors, such as environmental knowledge, while
demonstrating a significant influence of affective factors on environmental purchase
behaviour (Monhemius, 1993; Davis, 1993, Smith et al., 1994; Finger, 1994).
Consequently, these authors recommend affective persuasion strategies. As
Coddington (1993) points out, green brand positioning also implies satisfying
emotional needs and building an affective relationship with the customer.
A further controversy refers to attitude effects of green branding strategies in a
general way. Most studies show a growing environmental consciousness among
consumers, leading to generalized positive attitude effects on brands that are perceived
as environmentally sound (Bech-Larsen, 1996; Eagly and Kulesa, 1997; Swenson and
Wells, 1997; Benito Gómez et al., 1999). Nevertheless, some studies show that in certain
situations consumer attitudes can be less positive towards green brands as a
consequence of a perceived trade-off between functional performance of the brand and
its environmental impact (Coddington, 1993; Schlegelmilch et al., 1996; Fuller, 1999).

Hypotheses and research question

Persuasion models such as the ELM or ARI model imply that two conceptually
distinct processes in the perception of green brand attributes lead to the formation of
brand attitudes: the cognitive evaluation of functional brand attributes and the Green branding
emotional reaction to emotional brand benefits. Both cognitive and emotional brand effects on
associations can be analyzed and represented as associative networks (Keller, 1993;
Calder and Gruder, 1989) or by means of brand positioning models and perceptual attitude
mapping techniques (Hauser and Koppelman, 1979; Caroll and Green, 1997; Hair et al.,
1998). The dimensions of perceived brand positioning are generally extracted through
exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analysis (e.g. Kalafatis et al., 2000; Bhat and 13
Reddy, 1998).
The proposition of a two-dimensional functional/emotional green brand positioning
model is consistent with the revised models on persuasion and positioning (Figure 1).
Functional and emotional brand associations should be expected to form distinct
dimensions of the perceptual space in a model of perceived green brand positioning.
While a rational persuasion strategy such as green brand positioning by functional
attributes should enhance the brand’s perception as environmentally sound in the
functional dimension, an emotional green positioning strategy should lead to a shift
towards the emotional dimension of green brand associations:
H1. Perceived green brand positioning is formed by two distinct dimensions,
representing the perception of either functional environmentally sound
product attributes or emotional benefits related to the environment.
Two further research propositions concern the controversy on attitudinal effects of
green positioning strategies. First, the direction (positive/negative) of the effect of
green positioning on brand attitude is addressed. Based on the results of most revised
studies, a positive attitudinal effect of the perception of a brand as environmentally
sound should be expected:
H2. Green brand positioning leads to a positive effect on brand attitude.
Secondly, the study addresses the further controversy regarding the adequateness of
either rational or emotionally oriented persuasion strategies in green marketing. Thus,
one research aim is to assess the respective influence of functional or emotional green
positioning on brand attitude:
RQ. Which of the proposed green positioning strategies, i.e. green positioning by
functional attributes or green positioning by emotional benefits, has the
strongest effect on brand attitude?

Figure 1.
Hypothesised perceptual
effects of functional and
emotional green brand
positioning on brand
attitude
MIP Method
23,1 In line with this study’s main objective of exploring and testing the dimensions of
green brand positioning and its effects on brand attitude, scale items were developed to
measure a brand’s functional and emotional associations related to the environment.
These were validated by testing the scales’ ability to discriminate between
experimental brands designed a priori to implement a specific, either functional or
14 emotional, green brand positioning. They were applied in an experimental setting, to
allow the controlled exposure of the participants to the experimental stimuli, as well as
the assessment of the specific effects of the experimental factor. The influence of
external factors, such as the environmental consciousness of the participants, was
randomised.
Following the analysis method employed in recent studies of perceived positioning
(e.g. Bhat and Reddy, 1998; Kalafatis et al., 2000), exploratory and confirmatory factor
analysis of the data were used to investigate the dimensionality of perceived green
brand positioning. Attitudinal effects of extracted dimensions were assessed in the
scope of a structural equation model, developed from the measurement model.

Experimental design
The study was conducted in four simultaneous on-line sessions in the computer
laboratory of a university. Participants were instructed to connect through their
individual computer terminals to a specific website. They were then automatically
exposed for 30 seconds to each of a series of five advertisements, consisting of a single,
static image. Four of these stimuli were identical for the different experimental groups
and one was specific to each group, which formed the experimental factor. The four
related to known brands of small-sized cars; the fifth was specifically designed to
implement different positioning strategies of an experimental green car brand. After
exposure, participants completed an on-screen on-line questionnaire. All questions
could be answered by using the mouse alone. Data were automatically collected in an
on-line database.
The participants were 160 students in the final year of the Business Administration
degree at a university in the Spanish Basque Country. They were randomly assigned to
four experimental groups. Participants were 56 per cent female and 44 per cent male,
aged between 22 and 26. It is acknowledged that the use of student samples in
marketing research is controversial (Burnett and Dunne, 1986), but this experimental
design was realistically feasible only if that limitation was accepted. In fact, the sample
profile is not entirely inappropriate, since the brands in the experiment are marketed in
Spain to target groups with similar demographic characteristics.
Though brand positioning involves the whole of the marketing mix, an
experimental setting in which the sole contact with salient brand attributes takes
place through brand communications is not unrealistic. Even in real life conditions,
consumers often develop brand perceptions and attitudes mainly or even exclusively
through advertising exposure. While it is true that this does not normally occur as a
once-only exposure to an advertisement, several studies addressing this issue have
suggested that advertising effects can be achieved with only one exposure (Kim et al.,
1998; Gibson, 1996; Mandese 1995; Surmanek, 1995).
Independent variables Green branding
Each group of participants was exposed to visual stimuli in the form of total of five effects on
print advertisements, four of which were extracted from actual communication
campaigns for the SEAT Arosa, Fiat Punto, Renault Clio and Opel Corsa. The fifth, attitude
group-specific advertisement was, in the case of the three experimental groups,
purpose-designed to implement different green positioning strategies for the
hypothetical Mercedes ATMO. For the control groups, it was an actual, 15
conventional advertisement for the Mercedes A-Class.
The positioning strategies underlying the purpose-designed advertisement were
developed according to the concepts proposed in the theoretical part of this paper. The
Mercedes brand was chosen because no initial green brand associations were to be
expected. Associations with the umbrella brand of Mercedes were unlikely to interfere
with the purpose of the study, as perceptual and attitudinal effects of the experimental
brand positioning were assessed relative to the perception of the Mercedes A-Class
brand in the control group.
The first of the experimental advertisements was based on a functional brand
positioning strategy, based on the attribute “zero emission through new fuel cell
technology”. The copy gave detailed information on how emissions are reduced. There
were no further environmental or nature cues. The images were identical to those of the
advertisement implementing the conventional positioning of the “Mercedes A-Class”
brand and had no emotional connotations. The second experimental advertisement
was designed to implement an emotional positioning strategy. There were no cues to
functional environmentally sound attributes. The brand was embedded in pleasant
imagery of nature scenery aimed to evoke feelings experienced in the actual situation,
such as “breathing fresh mountain air” or “feeling as free as an eagle”. The third
advertisement combined both strategies, positioning the brand by its environmentally
sound product attributes and by emotional benefits. The former were specified in the
copy and the latter evoked through images of nature (see Appendix 1).

Dependent measures
As one major aim of the study was the construction of a positioning model, the
dependent measures were designed to assess relevant brand associations of all of the
competing brands included in the study. Brand perceptions were measured with two
different types of scale. The first part of the survey consisted of verbal statements and
scales. Participants used five point scales, from 5 ¼ “very much” to 1 ¼ “not at all”, to
rate how strongly they would associate the brand with certain attributes or brand
characteristics. Items included such characteristics as “safe” and “comfortable”. The
statements “environmentally sound” and “air pollution” were meant to assess the
functional dimension of the perception of the environmental soundness of each brand,
while the remaining statements were relevant to other aspects of brand perception but
not central to the subject of the study (see Table I).
The second set of items consisted of a battery of visual stimuli that addressed the
perception of emotional brand associations related to the brand’s environmental
soundness. Their development was based on several studies that show a generally
superior capacity of visuals in evoking an emotional response as compared to verbal
content, especially in situations with a brief exposure (Holbrook and Moore, 1981;
Childers and Houston, 1984; Childers et al., 1985; Louviere et al., 1987;
MIP PCFA 1: verbal indicators PCFA 2: visual indicators
23,1 Young Young Air
Factor Class 1 Environmental Nature 2 Urban pollution

Verbal indicators
Comfortable 0.78 0.02 0.01
16 High quality 0.87 20.06 0.09
Safe 0.81 20.06 0.10
Environmentally sound 0.33 0.03 0.77
Modern 0.63 0.37 0.10
Family car 0.59 20.40 20.04
Freedom 0.27 0.71 0.11
Young 2 0.38 0.78 0.04
Powerful 0.81 0.05 20.04
Sporty 0.35 0.46 20.20
Urban 2 0.25 0.60 0.13
Fun 0.09 0.76 0.08
High class 0.86 20.05 0.13
Party 2 0.18 0.79 20.02
Air pollution 2 0.16 0.06 20.80
Exclusive 0.78 20.15 0.15
High tech 0.84 20.09 0.14
Low fuel consumption 2 0.08 0.25 0.60
Prestigious 0.85 20.18 0.11
Accessibly priced 2 0.51 0.51 0.03
Visual indicators
Urban 1 0.12 0.11 0.73 20.03
Mountain 0.85 0.00 0.12 20.01
Family 0.41 2 0.48 20.02 0.42
Shoreline 0.86 0.14 0.09 0.04
Young couple 0.39 0.12 0.47 0.11
Friends 20.08 0.75 0.05 0.07
Air pollution 20.10 0.20 20.03 0.77
Urban 2 0.03 2 0.02 0.85 20.01
Waterfall 0.77 0.04 0.10 20.01
Urban 3 0.14 2 0.06 0.41 0.61
Sport 1 0.19 0.75 0.16 0.07
Urban 4 0.05 0.18 0.67 0.22
Sport 2 0.17 0.83 0.08 0.04

Variance extracted 0.35 0.18 0.09 0.19 0.17 0.17 0.09

Sample adequacy
Table I. (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) 0.915
Exploratory principal 12298.489
component factor Bartlett (Chi-square) (p ¼ 0:000)
analysis a (Cronbach, 1951) 0.8619

Grunert-Beckmann and Askegaard, 1997). In this study, the purpose of visual scale
development was limited to the measurement of emotions related to nature: that is,
feelings of unity with the environment, motivated by “affinity to nature” (Kals et al.,
1999). For the selection of the stimuli, 15 interviews were conducted with randomly
selected students who did not take part in the main study, to identify three from among Green branding
a selection of 12 images showing nature scenery which would best describe their effects on
feelings in contact with nature. The selected images were included in the questionnaire
together with the instruction to indicate on five-point scales, ranging from 1 ¼ “not at attitude
all” to 5 ¼ “completely”, how well they matched the eventual participants’ emotions
and feelings towards the brand in question. Additionally, “filler” pictures were
included in the item battery, which could lead to emotional associations such as “urban 17
feelings” or “feeling young”, with the aim of distracting from the images related to the
environment (see Appendix 2).
Attitude towards the brand was assessed as a construct of two indicators through
measures of overall evaluation of the brand and purchase intention, consistent with
accepted procedures in attitude research (Kim et al., 1998; Herr and Fazio, 1993; Allen
et al., 1992; Petty et al., 1991; Mitchell, 1986). Participants first rated their overall
impression of each brand on a five-point scale from 1 ¼ “very unfavourable” to
5 ¼ “very favourable” and then the likelihood of purchase of the brand, on a five-point
scale from 1 ¼ “definitely would not buy it” to 5 ¼ “would definitely buy it.”

Results
Perceptual dimensions of green brand positioning
Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to explore the
structure of perceived brand positioning. The results are shown in Table I. Seven
factors were identified in a two-step analysis of first the verbal and later the visual
items, among them two related to green brand associations. Extracted factors
explained 62 per cent of variance in both cases. Twenty verbal indicators were
subsumed into three factors and thirteen visual indicators to four. The results indicate
the existence of well-defined perceptual dimensions. The first factor extracted from the
set of verbal brand associations explains 35 per cent of variance and represents an
extended set of attributes including quality, power, comfort, safety, class and
exclusivity. The second verbal factor (18 per cent of variance) is highly loaded on items
such as “young” and “fun”. Finally, the third factor (9 per cent of variance) explains the
brand associations “environmentally sound,” “air pollution” (high negative loading)
and “low fuel consumption.” This factor represents the functional dimension of
environmentally sound brand perception.
The emotional dimension of green brand positioning, represented by the first factor
extracted from the set of visual items, is also the factor with the highest contribution to
the overall amount of explained variance (19 per cent). The second factor (17 per cent of
variance) refers to the emotional perception of the brand as “young” and “active,” while
the third factor reflects the association of the brand with urban or metropolitan
feelings. The last extracted dimension is related to the emotional association of the
brand with air pollution.
Perceptual mapping of the participants’ perceived green brand positioning
produced the pattern in Figure 2. The green positioning strategy produced an overall
perception of the experimental brand as more environmentally sound than the original
Mercedes A-Class brand, confirming the significant perceptual effect of its
implementation in the experiment (p ¼ 0:000). Furthermore, functional positioning
resulted in a stronger cognitive perception of the brand as environmentally sound,
while emotional positioning evoked an association with nature. At the same time, the
MIP
23,1

18

Figure 2.
Perceptual mapping:
functional and emotional
dimension of green brand
positioning

functional strategy produced a perceptual shift, albeit comparatively weak, towards

the emotional dimension, while an exclusively emotional positioning led to a slightly
augmented perception of the brand in the functional dimension. The strongest
perceptual effects relative to both dimensions were achieved with the combined
functional-emotional strategy.
Exploratory results were tested by confirmatory factor analysis (Arbuckle and
Wothke, 1999). Both of the latent dimensions of green brand positioning were formed
by the items with highest factor loadings in the prior exploratory factor analysis. Thus,
the functional factor was assessed by the indicators “environmentally sound” and “air
pollution” (negative loading), while the emotional factor was constructed by visual
indicators “mountain” and “shoreline” (both with factor loadings . 0:85 in the
exploratory analysis). The visual indicator “waterfall”, with a lower factor loading of
0.77, was not included in the analysis, since two indicators were considered sufficient
to assess latent variables. Finally, the attitude construct was formed by indicators
“overall evaluation” and “purchase intention” (see Table II).
Criteria for model adjustment (Hu and Bentler, 1995) indicate an adequate fit with
x2¼ 9.18 (p ¼ 0:164; df ¼ 6) and Root Mean Square Residual ðRMRÞ ¼ 0:012. Both the
goodness of fit index (GFI ¼ 0:996) and the adjusted goodness of fit index
(AGFI ¼ 0:987; Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1984) are close to 1.0, as is the compared fit
index (CFI ¼ 0:998; Bentler, 1990), indicating good fit. Also the root mean square error
of approximation (RMSEA ¼ 0:026; Steiger and Lind, 1980), indicates good fit with
values lower than 0.05 (Kaplan, 2000; Byrne, 2001).
 Factor
Green branding
Indicator Environment (functional) Nature (emotional) Brand attitude effects on
Environmentally sound 0.91
attitude
0.76
16.99*
Air pollution 2 0.63 19
2 0.48
2 13.97*
Mountain 0.87
1.02
22.98*
Shoreline 0.76
0.82
20.46*

Overall evaluation 0.91

0.74
25.06*
Purchase intention 0.83
0.93
25.06*

Correlations
Nature (emotional) 0.424
Brand attitude 0.352 0.504

Variance extracted 0.61 0.67 0.76

Construct reliability 0.75 0.80 0.86

Model fit
n 160
Chi-square 9.18
Df 6 Table II.
p 0.164 Confirmatory factor
Cmin/df 1.53 analysis: regression
RMR 0.012 coefficients
GFI 0.996 (standardized,
AGFI 0.987 unstandardized, z-values),
CFI 0.998 correlations, variance
RMSEA 0.026 extracted, construct
Note: * p ¼ 0:000 reliability, model fit

The dimensionality of green brand positioning and the attitude construct was
established following Anderson and Gerbing (1988). Factor loadings of all indicators
are significant (p ¼ 0:000) and exceed the minimum recommended value of 0.5.
Furthermore, the variance-extracted measures range from 0.61 to 0.76, exceeding the
square of the correlation estimate in all cases and suggesting adequate discrimination
and distinct factors. Also, variance extracted and construct reliability exceed the
recommended thresholds of 0.5 and 0.7 respectively (Fornell and Larker, 1981; Hair
et al., 1998).
MIP Attitudinal effects
After validation of the measurement model, structural equation analysis assessed the
23,1 effect of both extracted dimensions of brand positioning on the attitude construct.
Since the model was developed modifying only two latent variable correlations to
regression coefficients, the fit was equal to that of the measurement model indicated in
Table II and can be considered acceptable.
20 Results of the structural analysis of the effects of both dimensions of green brand
positioning on the attitude construct, shown in Table III, indicate significant positive
influences (p ¼ 0:000). The comparison of causal influences of both latent constructs
shows that the emotional dimension on brand attitude has a significantly higher effect.

Discussion
This study analysed perceptual and attitudinal effects of the implementation of
alternative green brand positioning strategies in advertisements. Results of
exploratory and confirmative factor analysis seem to support the hypothesis of two
distinct dimensions of perceived green-brand positioning (H1). The positioning
analysis extracted distinct dimensions, representing either functional or emotional
green brand associations. The data presented indicate that, as expected, a functional
positioning led to a heightened cognitive perception of the brand as environmentally
sound, while an emotional positioning strategy had a significant effect on the brand’s
positioning relative to the emotional dimension of green brand associations.
Furthermore, structural equation analysis supported an overall positive effect of
green positioning on brand attitude (H2), since both dimensions have a significant
positive influence on the attitude construct.
Regarding the research question addressing the issue of functional versus
emotional positioning strategies in green branding, results suggest a stronger
influence of the emotional latent dimension of green positioning on brand attitude in
this specific case. However, it cannot simply be concluded that an exclusively
emotional positioning will be the most effective positioning strategy in green
marketing, because the effect of both dimensions on brand attitude was positive.
Furthermore, the combined functional and emotional strategy led to the strongest
perceptual shift towards both dimensions of the positioning model.
These findings, together with the relatively high correlation of both perceptual
constructs, indicate an interaction between cognitive and emotional processes in the
formation of attitude toward green positioned brands. This is consistent with recent

Brand attitude

Environment (functional) 0.17*

0.20
3.83
(p ¼ 0:000)
Nature (emotional) 0.43*
Table III. 0.51
Regression coefficients 8.89
(standardized, (p ¼ 0:000)
unstandardized, z-values) Note: * Parameter difference: p ¼ 0:000 (CR ¼ 3:31)
research on brain functions, showing that cognitive and emotional mental processes Green branding
are highly correlated in the formation of brand attitudes (Franzen and Bouwman, effects on
2001). Consequently, functional and emotional strategies should be considered
complementary rather than alternative, as Bhat and Reddy (1998) have argued is the attitude
case with functional and “symbolic” brand positioning strategies. Thus, overall results
lead to the general conclusion that a combined strategy, which appeals to both
environmental consciousness and emotional benefits, will yield a stronger attitudinal 21
effect than either functional or emotional positioning strategies on their own.

Managerial implications
The findings of this study suggest that a well-implemented green positioning strategy
can lead on the whole to a more favourable perception of the brand, thus giving
support to the green marketing approach in general. However, there is still a certain
controversy about which kind of green persuasion strategy would be the most
effective. While most researchers in green marketing postulate functional positioning
strategies delivering detailed information on environmentally sound product
attributes, this study supports significant attitude effects for both functional and
emotional green positioning strategies.
An exclusively functional green brand positioning may fall short of delivering
individual benefits to customers, assuming rational decision processes and limited
capacity for brand differentiation. While emotional green branding has the potential to
overcome these limitations, a purely emotional green position could lead to weaker
attitude effects, caused presumably by a possible misinterpretation of vague green
claims (Pickett et al., 1995). Therefore communication campaign planners should deliver
emotional benefits through the brand, at the same time making sure that target groups
perceive real environmental benefits. Attitude formation most probably takes place
through an intensive interaction of cognitive and emotional processes. Thus, the most
effective brand strategy would be a green positioning, centred in the creation of emotional
benefits sustained by information on environmentally sound functional attributes.
Results of the study also underline the effectiveness of brand communications in the
implementation of green positioning strategies. There is a variety of well researched
approaches to the communicational implementation of emotional brand benefits, such
as transformational advertising (Aaker and Stayman, 1992) or emotional conditioning
(Kroeber-Riel, 1984; Kim et al., 1998). Green branding communication strategies should
be aimed at associating the brand with pleasant, emotional imagery of nature, while
presenting information on environmentally sound product attributes. Information
should be presented succinctly, so as not to interfere with the emotional conditioning
effects of the advertisement (Kroeber-Riel, 1996). On the other hand, there is a general
agreement that brand communication constitutes only one component of a successful
positioning strategy. There should be no doubt that a green brand positioning strategy
not supported by relevant environmentally sound product attributes will fall short of
success.

Future research
The research study reported here was conducted under laboratory conditions with
once-only exposure to brand communications, and focused on one brand in one product
category. The findings need to be confirmed for other brands and product categories in
MIP more real conditions. The measures used achieved good reliability and validity, but
23,1 have their limitations, especially in the case of the emotional dimension. Measures for
emotional reactions were specifically developed for the purpose of the present study,
and it is suggested that their potential outweighed the conceptual limitations. The
participants in the experiment were undergraduate students. The results are
nevertheless indicative of the responses of the target market in question, but a larger
22 and more varied sample is called for to reinforce the findings.
Future research might profitably concentrate on the further development of the
constructs used in the study, particularly the emotional dimension of green brand
associations. The method used could be combined with others, such as semantic
differential scaling or biometric measures, which should in turn result in a better
assessment of variables. This will in turn result in improved understanding of the
relationships between the considered constructs and other variables – particularly
involvement, which is considered a fundamental moderator of attitude formation
processes in revised models. Involvement with environmental issues constitutes an
essential factor in environmental behaviour. Future studies should aim to develop
standardized instruments for measuring the perceptual and attitudinal effects of
alternative green positioning strategies, which finally should lead to the development
of more competitive green branding initiatives.

References
Aaker, D.A. (1996), Building Strong Brands, The Free Press, New York, NY.
Aaker, D.A. and Joachimsthaler, E. (2000), Brand Leadership, The Free Press, New York, NY.
Aaker, D. and Shansby, J. (1982), “Positioning your product”, Business Horizons, Vol. 25,
May/June, pp. 56-62.
Aaker, D.A. and Stayman, D.M. (1992), “Implementing the concept of transformational
advertising”, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 9 No. 3, pp. 237-53.
Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (1980), Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Allen, C.T., Machleit, K.A. and Schultz Kleine, S. (1992), “A comparison of attitudes and emotions
as predictors of behavior at diverse levels of behavioral experience”, Journal of Consumer
Research, Vol. 18 No. 4, pp. 493-504.
Anderson, J.C. and Gerbing, D.W. (1988), “Structural equation modelling in practice: a review and
recommended two-step approach”, Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 103 No. 3, pp. 411-23.
Arbuckle, J.L. and Wothke, W. (1999), Amos 4.0 User’s Guide, SmallWaters Corporation,
Chicago, IL.
Bech-Larsen, T. (1996), “Danish consumers’ attitudes to the functional and environmental
characteristics of food packaging”, Journal of Consumer Policy, Vol. 19, pp. 339-63.
Belz, F. and Dyllik, T. (1996), “Ökologische positionierungsstrategien”, in Tomczak, T.R. and
Roosdorp, A. (Eds), Positionierung – Kernentscheidung des Marketing, Thexis Verlag,
St Gallen, pp. 170-9.
Benito Gómez, C., Noya, F.J. and Paniagua, A. (1999), “Actitudes y comportamientos hacia el
medioambiente en España”, Opiniones y Actitudes, Vol. 25, Centro de Investigaciones
Sociológicas, Madrid.
Bentler, P.M. (1990), “Comparative fit indices in structural models”, Psychological Bulletin,
Vol. 107, pp. 238-46.
Bhat, S. and Reddy, S.K. (1998), “Symbolic and functional positioning of brands”, Journal of Green branding
Consumer Marketing, Vol. 15 No. 1, pp. 32-43.
effects on
Bigné, J.E. (1997), “El consumidor verde: bases de un modelo de comportamiento”, Esic Market,
April-June, pp. 29-43. attitude
Blankson, C. and Kalafatis, S.P. (1999), “Issues and challenges in the positioning of service
brands: a review”, Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 8 No. 2, pp. 106-18.
Buck, R., Anderson, E., Chaudhuri, A. and Ray, I. (2002), “Emotion and reason in persuasion:
23
applying the ARI model and the CASC scale”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 57 No. 6,
pp. 647-56.
Buck, R., Chaudhuri, A., Georgeson, M. and Kowta, S. (1995), “Conceptualizing and
operationalizing affect, reason, and involvement in persuasion: the ARI model and the
CASC Scale”, Advances in Consumer Research, Vol. 22, pp. 440-7.
Burke, M.C. and Edell, J. (1987), “The power of feelings in understanding advertising effects”,
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 14, December, pp. 421-33.
Burnett, J. and Dunne, P.M. (1986), “An appraisal of the use of student subjects in marketing
research”, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 14, August, pp. 329-43.
Byrne, B.M. (2001), Structural Equation Modelling with AMOS, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
Calder, B.J. and Gruder, C.L. (1989), “Emotional advertising appeals”, in Cafferata, P. and Tybout,
A.M. (Eds), Cognitive and Affective Responses to Advertising, Lexington Books, Lexington,
MA, pp. 278-85.
Calomarde, J.V. (2000), Marketing Ecológico, Pirámide, Madrid.
Caroll, J.D. and Green, P.E. (1997), “Psychometric methods in marketing research: part II.
Multidimensional scaling”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 34, May, pp. 193-204.
Childers, T.L. and Houston, M.J. (1984), “Conditions for a picture-superiority effect on consumer
memory”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 11, pp. 643-54.
Childers, T.L., Houston, M.J. and Heckler, S.E. (1985), “Measurement of individual differences in
visual versus verbal information processing”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 12,
pp. 125-34.
Coddington, W. (1993), Environmental Marketing, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
Cope, D. and Winward, J. (1991), “Information failures in green consumerism”, Consumer Policy
Review, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 83-6.
Cronbach, J.L. (1951), “Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of test”, Psychometrika, Vol. 16,
pp. 297-334.
Davis, J.J. (1993), “Strategies for environmental advertising”, Journal of Consumer Marketing,
Vol. 10 No. 2, pp. 19-36.
de Chernatony, L. and Dall’Olmo Riley, F. (1998), “Modelling the components of the brand”,
European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 32 No. 11/12, pp. 1074-90.
Eagly, A.H. and Kulesa, P. (1997), “Attitudes, attitude structure, and resistance to change”, in
Bazermann, M.H., Messick, D.M., Tenbrunsel, A.E. and Wade-Benzoni, K.A. (Eds),
Environment, Ethics, and Behavior, The New Lexington Press, San Francisco, CA,
pp. 122-53.
Finger, M. (1994), “From knowledge to action? Exploring the relationships between
environmental experiences, learning, and behavior”, Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 50,
pp. 179-97.
MIP Fornell, C. and Larker, D.F. (1981), “Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable
variables and measurement error”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18, February,
23,1 pp. 39-50.
Fraj, E. and Martı́nez, E. (2002), Comportamiento del Consumidor Ecológico, Esic Editorial,
Madrid.
Franzen, G. and Bouwman, M. (2001), The Mental World of Brands, World Avertising Research
24 Center, Oxford.
Fuller, D.A. (1999), Sustainable Marketing, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Gibson, L.D. (1996), “What can one TV exposure do?”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 36,
March/April, pp. 9-18.
Grunert-Beckmann, S.C. and Askegaard, S. (1997), “‘Seeing with the mind’s eye’: on the use of
pictorial stimuli in values and lifestyle research”, in Kahle, L.R. and Chiagouris, L. (Eds),
Values, Lifestyles and Psychographics, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 161-81.
Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R. and Black, W.C. (1998), Multivariate Data Analysis,
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Hauser, J.R. and Koppelman, F.S. (1979), “Alternative perceptual mapping techniques: relative
accuracy and usefulness”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 495-506.
Herr, P.M. and Fazio, R.H. (1993), “The attitude-to-behavior process: implications for consumer
behavior”, in Mitchell, A.A. (Ed.), Advertising Exposure, Memory, and Choice, Lawrence
Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 119-40.
Hines, J.M., Hungerford, H.R. and Tomera, A.N. (1987), “Analysis and synthesis of research on
responsible environmental behavior: a meta-analysis”, Journal of Environmental
Education, Vol. 18, pp. 1-8.
Holbrook, M.B. and Moore, W.L. (1981), “Feature interactions in consumer judgements of verbal
versus pictorial presentations”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 8, pp. 103-13.
Hooley, G., Saunders, J. and Piercy, N.F. (1998), Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning,
2nd ed., Prentice-Hall, Hemel Hempstead.
Hopfenbeck, W. (1993), Dirección y Marketing Ecológicos, Ediciones Deusto, Madrid.
Hu, L.-T. and Bentler, P.M. (1995), “Evaluating model fit”, in Hoyle, R.H. (Ed.), Structural
Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues and Applications, Sage Publications, London,
pp. 76-99.
Jöreskog, K.G. and Sörbom, D. (1984), LISREL VI User’s Guide, Scientific Software, Mooresville,
IN.
Kalafatis, S.P., Tsogas, M.H. and Blankson, C. (2000), “Positioning strategies in business
markets”, Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, Vol. 15 No. 6, pp. 416-37.
Kalafatis, S.P., Pollard, M., East, R. and Tsogas, M.H. (1999), “Green marketing and Ajzen’s
theory of planned behavior: a cross-market examination”, Journal of Consumer Marketing,
Vol. 16 No. 5, pp. 441-60.
Kals, E., Schumacher, D. and Montada, L. (1999), “Emotional affinity toward nature as a
motivational basis to protect nature”, Environment and Behavior, Vol. 31 No. 2,
pp. 178-202.
Kaplan, D. (2000), Structural Equation Modeling: Foundations and Extensions, Sage
Publications, London.
Kassarjian, H.H. (1971), “Incorporating ecology into marketing strategy: the case of air
pollution”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35, July, pp. 61-5.
Keller, K.L. (1993), “Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity”, Green branding
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57, January, pp. 1-22.
effects on
Kim, J., Lim, J.-S. and Bhargava, M. (1998), “The role of affect in attitude formation: a classical
conditioning approach”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, Vol. 26 No. 2, attitude
pp. 143-52.
Kinnear, T.C., Taylor, J.R. and Ahmed, S.A. (1974), “Ecologically concerned consumers: who are
they?”, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 38, April, pp. 20-4. 25
Kotler, P. (2000), Marketing Management, Millennium ed., Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Kroeber-Riel, W. (1984), “Emotional product differentiation by classical conditioning (with
consequences for the ‘low-involvement hierarchy’)”, in Kinnear, T.C. (Ed.), Advances in
Consumer Research, Vol. 11, Association for Consumer Research, Ann Arbor, MI,
pp. 538-43.
Kroeber-Riel, W. (1991), Strategie und Technik der Werbung, Kohlhammer, Stuttgart.
Kroeber-Riel, W. (1996), Bildkommunikation: Imagerystrategien für die Werbung, Vahlen,
München.
Louviere, J.J., Schroeder, H., Louviere, C.H. and Woodworth, G.C. (1987), “Do the parameters of
choice models depend on differences in stimulus presentation: visual versus verbal
presentation?”, in Wallendorf, M. and Anderson, P. (Eds), Advances in Consumer Research,
Vol. 14, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT, pp. 79-82.
Mandese, J. (1995), “Revisiting ad reach and frequency”, Advertising Age, Vol. 66, November,
p. 46.
Meffert, H. and Kirchgeorg, M. (1993), Marktorientiertes Umweltmanagement,
Schaeffer-Poeschel, Stuttgart.
Mitchell, A.A. (1986), “The effect of verbal and visual components of advertisements on brand
attitudes and attitude toward the advertisement”, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 13,
June, pp. 12-24.
Mitchell, A.A. and Olson, J.C. (1981), “Are product attribute beliefs the only mediator of
advertising effects on brand attitude?”, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 18, August,
pp. 318-32.
Monhemius, K.C. (1993), Umweltbewusstes Kaufverhalten von Konsumenten, Peter Lang,
Frankfurt am Main.
Ottman, J.A. (1994), Green Marketing, NTC Business Books, Lincolnwood, IL.
Park, C.W., Jaworski, B.J. and McInnes, D. (1989), “Strategic brand concept-image management”,
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 50, October, pp. 135-45.
Peattie, K. (1995), Environmental Marketing Management, Pitman Publishing, London.
Petty, R.E. and Cacioppo, J.T. (1983), “Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: application to
advertising”, in Percy, L. and Woodside, A.G. (Eds), Advertising and Consumer
Psychology, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, pp. 3-23.
Petty, R.E., Unnava, R.H. and Strathman, A.J. (1991), “Theories of attitude change”, in Robertson,
T.S. and Kassarjian, H.H. (Eds), Handbook of Consumer Behavior, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 241-80.
Pickett, G.M., Kangun, N. and Grove, S.J. (1995), “An examination of the conserving consumer:
implications for public policy formation in promoting conservation behavior”, in
Polonsky, M.J. and Mintu-Wimsatt, A.T. (Eds), Environmental Marketing: Strategies,
Practice, Theory, and Research, The Haworth Press, New York, NY, pp. 77-99.
MIP Polonsky, M.J. and Mintu-Wimsatt, A.T. (Eds) (1995), Environmental Marketing: Strategies,
Practice, Theory, and Research, The Haworth Press, New York, NY.
23,1 Ries, A.L. and Trout, J. (1986), Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind, McGraw-Hill, London.
Ritov, I. and Kahnemann, D. (1997), “How people value the environment: attitudes versus
economic values”, in Bazermann, M.H., Messick, D.M, Tenbrunsel, A.E. and
Wade-Benzoni, K.A. (Eds), Environment, Ethics, and Behavior, The New Lexington
26 Press, San Francisco, CA, pp. 33-51.
Roozen, I.T.M. and De Pelsmacker, P. (1998), “Attributes of environmentally friendly consumer
behavior”, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 10 No. 3, pp. 21-41.
Schlegelmilch, B.B., Bohlen, G.M. and Diamantopoulos, A. (1996), “The link between green
purchasing decisions and measures of environmental consciousness”, European Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 30 No. 5, pp. 35-55.
Smith, S.M., Haugtvedt, C.P. and Petty, R.E. (1994), “Attitudes and recycling: does the
measurement of affect enhance behavioral prediction?”, Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 11
No. 4, pp. 359-74.
Steiger, J.H. and Lind, J.C. (1980), “Statistically-based tests for the number of common factors”,
paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Iowa City, IO.
Stone, G., Barnes, J.H. and Montgomery, C. (1995), “Ecoscale: a scale for the measurement of
environmentally responsible consumers”, Psychology & Marketing, Vol. 12 No. 7,
pp. 595-612.
Surmanek, J. (1995), “One-hit or miss: is a frequency of one frequently wrong?”, Advertising Age,
Vol. 66, November, p. 17.
Swenson, M.R. and Wells, W.D. (1997), “Useful correlates of pro-environmental behavior”,
in Goldberg, M.E., Fishbein, M. and Middlestadt, S.E. (Eds), Social Marketing, Theoretical
and Practical Perspectives, Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 91-109.
Tomczak, T., Esch, F.R. and Roosdorp, A. (1997), “Positionierung – von der Entwicklung über
die Umsetzung bis zum Controlling”, in Belz, C. (Ed.), Suchfelder für innovatives
Marketing: Kompetenz für Marketing-Innovationen, Schrift 1, Thexis Verlag, St Gallen,
pp. 61-83.

Further reading
Bagozzi, R.P. and Yi, Y. (1994), “Advanced topics in structural equation models”, in Bagozzi, R.P.
(Ed.), Advanced Methods of Marketing Research, Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 1-51.
Fishbein, M. and Middlestadt, S. (1995), “Noncognitive effects on attitude formation and change:
fact or artifact?”, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol. 4 No. 2, pp. 181-202.
Smith, S.M. and Haugtvedt, C.P. (1995), “Implications of understanding basic attitude change
processes and attitude structure for enhancing pro-environmental behaviors”, in
Polonsky, M.J. and Mintu-Wimsatt, A.T. (Eds), Environmental Marketing: Strategies,
Practice, Theory, and Research, The Haworth Press, New York, NY, pp. 155-76.
Wiener, J.L. and Doescher, T.A. (1991), “A framework for promoting cooperation”, Journal of
Marketing, Vol. 55, April, pp. 38-47.
Appendix 1 Green branding
effects on
attitude

27

Figure A1.
Communicational
implementation of the
experimental green brand
positioning
MIP Appendix 2
23,1

28

Figure A2.
Visual stimuli used for the
measurement of emotional
brand associations
Green branding
effects on
attitude

29

Figure A2.