sensors

Article
Overhead Transmission Line Sag Estimation Using a
Simple Optomechanical System with Chirped Fiber
Bragg Gratings. Part 1: Preliminary Measurements
Michal Wydra 1, * ID
, Piotr Kisala 2 , Damian Harasim 2 and Piotr Kacejko 1
1 Department of Power Systems, Lublin University of Technology, 20-618 Lublin, Poland; p.kacejko@pollub.pl
2 Institute of Electronics and Information Technology, Lublin University of Technology, 20-618 Lublin, Poland;
d.harasim@pollub.pl (P.K.); p.kisala@pollub.pl (D.H.)
* Correspondence: m.wydra@pollub.pl; Tel.: +48-815-384-738

Received: 27 November 2017; Accepted: 18 January 2018; Published: 20 January 2018

Abstract: A method of measuring the power line wire sag using optical sensors that are insensitive to
high electromagnetic fields was proposed. The advantage of this technique is that it is a non-invasive
measurement of power line wire elongation using a unique optomechanical system. The proposed
method replaces the sag of the power line wire with an extension of the control sample and then
an expansion of the attached chirped fiber Bragg grating. This paper presents the results of the first
measurements made on real aluminum-conducting steel-reinforced wire, frequently used for power
line construction. It has been shown that the proper selection of the CFBG (chirped fiber Bragg grating)
transducer and the appropriate choice of optical parameters of such a sensor will allow for high
sensitivity of the line wire elongation and sag while reducing the sensitivity to the temperature. It has
been shown that with a simple optomechanical system, a non-invasive measurement of the power
line wire sag that is insensitive to temperature changes and the influence of high electromagnetic
fields can be achieved.

Keywords: power system monitoring; power lines sag measurement; chirped fiber Bragg gratings;
quasi-periodic waveguide structures; strain measurement; elongation measurement

1. Introduction
Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors can be used to measure many physical quantities, such as strain,
stress, elongation, temperature [1], and refractive index [2]. The advantage of optical method based
research is the lack of influence on the tested object, the ability to perform non-invasive measurements
which can be performed in a wide variety of fields such as mechanical structures diagnostics or
even medicine [3]. Among the FBG structures are some significant gratings in which the period
is not uniform [4]. Many studies have been published demonstrating the promising properties of
periodic structures with non-uniform periods, especially chirped fiber Bragg gratings [5]. These
structures can be used for separated parameter monitoring [6], independent strain and temperature
measurement [5,7,8], dispersion compensation [9,10], or structural health monitoring [11]. Tapered
fibers with CFBG have significantly improved strain sensitivity [12]. The CFBG sensors can also
be used with inexpensive interrogators [13] and their specially-designed structures can be used as
optical filters [14–16]. The loads of the overhead power transmission lines can be measured using
a few uniform FBGs. In some embodiments, each grating is bonded directly to the conductor with
epoxy [17], which makes it difficult to disassemble when the sensor head cracks. There are also known
systems for distributed monitoring of overhead transmission lines with fiber Bragg grating sensor
networks [18]. Such systems are very promising because they can be used to provide multiple types
of information for smart grids. FBG sensors can be fairly used to monitor the strain of transmission

Sensors 2018, 18, 309; doi:10.3390/s18010309 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2018, 18, 309 2 of 14

line wire. In this case, the strain of the conductor is directly proportional to the ampacity of the
cable [19]. In such systems, the strain of the grating cannot be widely adjusted because the optical fiber
extends equally with the power line conductor. In this paper, the authors would like to present the
construction of sensing heads where the CFBG is attached to the so-called control sample steel plate
whose dimensional adjustment allows for the control of the sensitivity and measuring range. Among
the various methods of constructing these periodic structure based sensors, this is the first method
proposed to the best of our knowledge in which the CFBG can be implemented with the strain and
sag of power lines can be measured using a special optomechanical system and the control specimen.
Today, modern power systems and smart grids are required to have the operational flexibility of
electrical power transmission whilst preserving the appropriate safety margin [20,21]. In the context of
overhead transmission lines (OTL), the above approach can be implemented by dynamic line rating
(DLR) systems [22–25]. The DLR systems allow for the continuous monitoring of operating conditions
and the electromechanical state of the OTL span [20,26] or of the whole line [27]. The most important
parameters determining the safe operation of the OTL, among others, are the sag and strain of the
wire, which are direct functions of its actual temperature resulting from a load of electric current and
atmospheric conditions [28–30]. The unquestionable advantages of fiber-optic and FBG sensors are
the insensitivity of the measurement to the strong electromagnetic field, the speed of measurement,
the non-invasive installation of the sensor on the conductor, the small power demand for the supply
of the measuring system, and not needed a complex sensor or radio [31]. At present, the dynamic
development of the FBG based monitoring systems is observed [32,33]. Using OTL monitoring and its
actual state [28], the current wire elongation sag is a critical parameter in determining the distance
from the ground or obstacle [34] that is affecting the operational safety.
This article aims to present the results of the application of the CFBG-based sensor for power line
strain (relative elongation) to calculate its sag, as an alternative to the standard FBG sensors.

2. Materials and Methods

The chirped gratings, compared to conventional FBGs where the period of the refractive index
perturbations is constant along the grating length, are characterized by a variable period in the
internal structure. Chirps in gratings may take many different forms. The period may vary linearly
with the length of the grating, it may be quadratic, and so on. The chirp could also be symmetrical
where the period varies by increasing or decreasing around the pitch in the middle of a grating.
Generally, modifications applied to the internal structure of the gratings leads to a change of its spectral
characteristic. The most widely used CFBGs have a widened spectrum which makes them possible to
be used in many areas, including dispersion compensators, mirrors for specialized photonic sensing
systems, and sensing elements replacing conventional FBGs. Their widened characteristics allow them
to measure not only the wavelength shift, but also the width of the spectra [35]. The proposed method
for the power line sag estimation utilizes a simple optomechanical system which allows for the line’s
sag change to be converted to the CFBG optical parameter change. The idea of the system is presented
in Figure 1. Similar solutions were presented in [17,18] where a sensing head was mounted on an
energized power line conductor and the ground voltage was connected directly by fiber-optic cables in
the light spectrum processing devices.
The system shown in Figure 1 allows for the elongation and sag measurement of the OTL
wire. The light source was a superluminescent light emitting diode (SLED). The Thorlabs S5FC1005S
(Thorlabs, Newton, NJ, USA) was attached to a single-mode optical fiber used as a transmission
light-guide. The light emitted from the SLED source illuminated the sensing CFBG with a 1 nm/cm
chirp, inscribed on the hydrogen-loaded SMF-28 part at the end of the fiber. The optical fiber with
the CFBG sensor was connected/glued to a thinned plate which was 1 mm in thickness and made of
steel (1.0037 S235JR UNI according to the norm EN 10025). The shape of the control plate is shown
in Figure 2. The plate is screwed to the semi-circular clamps fixing the control plate with the CFBG
sensor to an OTL wire (Figure 2). The elongation of the OTL wire causes the clamps to move apart and
 Sensors 2018, 18, 309 3 of 14
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 3 of 14

increase the tension of the control plate, which is monotonically extending the length of its measuring
section with
Sensors 2018, 18,the
309 CFBG attached. 3 of 14

Figure 1. The overhead transmission line wire sag measurement system where: 1: the ACSR 26/7
Hawk conductor; 2: the measuring clamps/sensing head; 3a: the optical fiber; 3b: the inscribed chirped
fiber Bragg grating; 4: the light source with a stabilized super-luminescent diode; 5: the optical
circulator; 6: the optical spectrum analyzer; and 7: the computer/gateway.

The idea of the whole optomechanical system is illustrated schematically in Figure 2 and the
Figure
Figure 1.1. The
cross-section The overhead
is shown
overhead transmission
in Figure 3. Figure
transmission line2b
line wire sag measurement
shows
wire sag measurement
the proposedsystem system where:
shape where:
of 1:1: the
the sensingthe ACSR
ACSR 26/7
plate26/7
which
Hawk
provides conductor;
the 2: the
non-uniform measuring
strain clamps/sensing
while the wholehead; 3a:
section the
is optical fiber;
extended.
Hawk conductor; 2: the measuring clamps/sensing head; 3a: the optical fiber; 3b: the inscribed 3b:
The the inscribed
sensing chirped
grating was
fiber
attached Bragg
chirpedtofiber grating;
theBragg 4: the
plate grating; light
keeping4:the source
thedirection
light sourcewith a
of withstabilized
the chirp super-luminescent
shownsuper-luminescent
a stabilized in the figure below.diode;
diode; 5: the
Grating optical
sections
5: the optical
circulator;
with the most
circulator; 6: the
6: the optical
opticalperiods
extended spectrum
spectrum analyzer;
are placed and
analyzer; and 7: the
on the
7: the computer/gateway.
plate segment which is mostly elongated which
computer/gateway.
provides the best response to the spectrum FWHM in the case of wire elongation.
TheTheidea
lightoffrom
the the
whole
lightoptomechanical
source (SLED) was system is illustrated
directed to the CFBG schematically
sensor via anin Figure
optical 2 and the
circulator.
The idea of the whole optomechanical system is illustrated schematically in Figure 2 and the
cross-section is shown reflected
The optical spectrum in Figurefrom 3. Figure 2b shows
the elongated CFBG the was
proposed
returned shape of the
through thesensing
optical plate which
circulator
cross-section is shown in Figure 3. Figure 2b shows the proposed shape of the sensing plate which
provides the non-uniform strain while the whole section is extended.
to the optical spectrum analyzer (OSA). Thermal expansion and additional mechanical loads on the The sensing grating was
provides the non-uniform strain while the whole section is extended. The sensing grating was attached
OTL wire
attached cause
to the variations
plate keeping in the
the length
directionof the
of measured
the chirp wireshown section
in thesurrounded
figure below.by attached
Gratingclamps
sections
to the plate keeping the direction of the chirp shown in the figure below. Grating sections with the
as shown
with the most in Figure
extended 2. Inperiods
such cases, the response
are placed on theofplate
the single-mode
segment which fiber is
with the inscribed
mostly elongated CFBG
which
most extended
results in the periods
widening are
of placed
the on the
spectral plate segment
characteristics which
which is is mostly
caused by elongated
the whichofprovides
nonlinearity the strainthe
provides the best response to the spectrum FWHM in the case of wire elongation.
best response
applied to
to the the spectrum
transducer. FWHM in the case of wire elongation.
The light from the light source (SLED) was directed to the CFBG sensor via an optical circulator.
The optical spectrum reflected from the elongated CFBG was returned through the optical circulator
to the optical spectrum analyzer (OSA). Thermal expansion and additional mechanical loads on the
OTL wire cause variations in the length of the measured wire section surrounded by attached clamps
as shown in Figure 2. In such cases, the response of the single-mode fiber with the inscribed CFBG
results in the widening of the spectral characteristics which is caused by the nonlinearity of the strain
applied to the transducer.

Figure
Figure 2. 2.
(a)(a)
thethe optomechanicalsystem
optomechanical system using
using aa chirped
chirped fiber
fiberBragg
Bragggrating
gratingandanda amechanical
mechanicalstrain
strain
transformer where: 1: the ACSR 26/7 (Hawk) conductor; 2a: the optical fiber; 2b:
transformer where: 1: the ACSR 26/7 (Hawk) conductor; 2a: the optical fiber; 2b: the chirpedthe chirped fiber
fiber
Bragg grating; 3: the thinned steel plate; 4: the semi-circular screwed clamps, lref: reference sensing
Bragg grating; 3: the thinned steel plate; 4: the semi-circular screwed clamps, lref : reference sensing
head length; and (b) the strain distribution in the proposed steel testing plate while extending the
head length; and (b) the strain distribution in the proposed steel testing plate while extending the
measurement section.
measurement section.

The light from the light source (SLED) was directed to the CFBG sensor via an optical circulator.
Figure 2.
The optical (a) the optomechanical
spectrum reflected fromsystem using a chirped
the elongated CFBGfiber
was Bragg grating
returned and a the
through mechanical
optical strain
circulator
transformer where: 1: the ACSR 26/7 (Hawk) conductor; 2a: the optical fiber; 2b: the chirped fiber
Bragg grating; 3: the thinned steel plate; 4: the semi-circular screwed clamps, lref: reference sensing
head length; and (b) the strain distribution in the proposed steel testing plate while extending the
measurement section.
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 4 of 14

to the optical spectrum analyzer (OSA). Thermal expansion and additional mechanical loads on the
OTL wire cause variations in the length of the measured wire section surrounded by attached clamps
as shown in Figure 2. In such cases, the response of the single-mode fiber with the inscribed CFBG
results in the widening of the spectral characteristics which is caused by the nonlinearity of the strain
applied to the
Sensors 2018, transducer.
18, 309 4 of 14

Figure3.3.The
Figure Thecross-section
cross-sectionofofthe
thesensing
sensinghead
headofof
thethe power
power line
line sagsag measurement
measurement system
system where:
where: 1,
1, 2a,
2a, 3, and 4 are elements equivalent to those shown in
3, and 4 are elements equivalent to those shown in Figure 2.Figure 2.

The full-width half-maximum (FWHM) comparison of the spectral characteristics of the signals
The full-width half-maximum (FWHM) comparison of the spectral characteristics of the signals
reflected from the Bragg sensor with the value assigned to the reference length of the segment gives
reflected from the Bragg sensor with the value assigned to the reference length of the segment gives
information on the current elongation of the OTL wire. At the same time, changes in the wire
information on the current elongation of the OTL wire. At the same time, changes in the wire
surrounding temperature cause spectral shifts to the whole CFBG spectrum and do not affect the
surrounding temperature cause spectral shifts to the whole CFBG spectrum and do not affect the
FWHM. The linear relationship between the elongation of the conductor, its temperature, and its
FWHM. The linear relationship between the elongation of the conductor, its temperature, and its stress
stress allow for the determination of the elongation value. In the case of this sensor, the matrix
allow for the determination of the elongation value. In the case of this sensor, the matrix equation of
equation of the processing can be written as:
the processing can be written as:
 OP
# 1 "  SC11 SC12 #  " T  #
 ×  Tl 
"
OP1
=  SC
SC 11 SC12 (1)
(1)
OP2OP2  SC 22 22   ∆l
 21 21 SCSC
where SC
where SCij (i(i == 1–2,
1–2, jj == 1–2)
1–2) is
is the
the sensitivity
sensitivity coefficients
coefficients that
that are
are defining
defining the
the optical
optical parameters
parameters
ij
sensitivity of
sensitivity of the
theCFBG
CFBGsensor
sensorOPOPi onon the
the temperature
temperature TT along
along with
with thetheelongation
elongation∆l.Δl. Let
Let us
us denote
denote
i
the matrix of coefficients
the matrix of coefficients SC as: SC as:

SC
SC SC 12 
" #
=  = f f(∆l,
(lT, T) )
11 SC
MM 11 12 (2)
(2)
SC
SC SC
2121 SC 22 22 

The
The optical parameter OP
optical parameter OP11 denotes
denotes the
the full-width
full-width at
at half
half maximum
maximum (FWHM)
(FWHM) of of the
the measured
measured
CFBG
CFBGspectrum,
spectrum,while theOP
whilethe 2 parameter
OP 2 parameterreflects thethe
reflects spectral shift
spectral (SSH).
shift Thus,
(SSH). it can
Thus, it be
canassumed
be assumedthat
OP
that
1 and
OP 1 OP
and
2 depend
OP 2 upon
depend the
upon relative
the elongation
relative ∆l
elongation and
Δl temperature
and T
temperature (Equations
T (3)
(Equations and
(3) (4)):
and (4)):

OP
OP 
1 1=f 1f[1∆l,
Tl ,]T  (3)
(3)

OP2 = f 2 [∆l, T ]
OP2  f 2  l , T 
(4)
(4)
In this case, we will look for the temperature values and maximum stress without knowing the
valueIn
ofthis case,M.
matrix weLet
will
uslook for the
denote the temperature
vector of thevalues and values
searching maximum stress
as sv. Thiswithout knowing the
vector contains the
valueof
value ofthe
matrix M. Let us
engineering denote
strain e andthe
thevector of the searching
temperature values
T so that we can as sv. This vector contains the
write:
value of the engineering strain e and the temperature T so that we can write:
sv  [l , T ] (5)

The measurement values vector mv can be defined as follows:

mv  [OP1 , OP2 ]  FWHM CFBG , SSH CFBG  (6)
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 5 of 14

sv = [∆l, T ] (5)

The measurement values vector mv can be defined as follows:

mv = [OP1 , OP2 ] = [ FW HMCFBG , SSHCFBG ] (6)

where FWHMCFBG is the full-width at half maximum of the CFBG spectrum and SSHCFBG denotes its
spectral shift. Equation (1) can be written in the matrix form as follows:

mv = Msv (7)

The matrix M has 2 × 2 dimensions, is symmetrical for all vectors x ∈ R2 , and is real. As a result
of the measurements, the sensitivity matrix M is determined and the vector of searching values sv can
be calculated based on the measured magnitude vector mv. Measuring the optical parameters of the
CFBG, such as FWHMCFBG and SSHCFBG allows for the determination of the fiber temperature T and
elongation ∆l according to the matrix equation below:
" # " # " #
OP1 CSC11 CSC12 T
= × (8)
OP2 CSC21 CSC22 ∆l

where CSCij are the complex sensitivity coefficients (i = 1, 2, j = 1, 2). The value ∆l which appears
in Equation (8) is the relative elongation length measured between the clamps of sensing head (lref )
mounted on the conductor.
The conductor sag D can be calculated as a function of ∆l, according to the reference conductor
length Lref . The overhead transmission line conductor’s sag-tension calculations are typically based on
the catenary equation, which describes an entirely flexible rope rigidly fixed at both ends. The catenary
equation is defined using hyperbolic sine or cosine functions. However, it can be reliably approximated
by a parabola. The main difference between a catenary equation and the parabolic approximation is
that catenary assumes a constant weight per unit length through the conductor while the parabolic
equation assumes an invariable weight per unit horizontal length. This simplification causes the
sag calculation with the parabolic approximation to be smaller than when it is estimated with the
catenary equation.
The shape of a catenary is a function of the conductor weight per unit length weight w,
the horizontal component of tension H, span length S, and the maximum sag of the conductor D.
The exact catenary equation uses hyperbolic functions, as shown in Equation (9). The right side of the
Equation (9) is an approximation of the hyperbolic cosine using the Maclaurin series expansion:

w x2


H  w  
y( x ) = cosh x −1 = . (9)
w H 2H
For a flat span, the low point is at the center and the wire sag D is found by substituting x = S/2.
Exact and approximate formulas for the sag calculations is shown in Equation (10):

wS2
   
H wS
D= cosh −1 = . (10)
w 2H 8H

The parabolic approximation is sufficiently accurate as long as the sag in the span does not exceed
5% of its length [36]. The power line sag D varies with the conductor temperature, ice, wind loading,
and time as the conductor creeps. The horizontal tension H is equal to the conductor tension in the
middle of the span shown in Figure 4. At the endpoints where the wire is fixed to the insulators,
the conductor tension F is equal to the horizontal tension H plus the conductor weight per unit length
w multiplied by the sag D, according to Equation (11) [36]:
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 6 of 14

F = H + wD. (11)
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 6 of 14

The conductor
Figure 4. The
Figure conductor length,
length, sag,
sag, clearance, and tension in a transmission line span.

It
It is common to
is common to perform
performsag-tension
sag-tensioncalculations
calculationsusing
usingonly
onlythe
thehorizontal
horizontal tension
tension component
component H,
H, but the average of the horizontal and support point tension F is usually shown. The
but the average of the horizontal and support point tension F is usually shown. The conductor length conductor
length in the
in the span span
can can be calculated
be calculated with thewith the application
application of a catenary
of a catenary equation equation using Equation
using Equation (12).
(12). The right
The
side right side of (12)
of Equation Equation (12) corresponds
corresponds to a approximation
to a parabolic parabolic approximation of thefunction:
of the catenary catenary function:

 Sw    S2Sw2w 
2 2
2 H  Sw
LL=  S S1+
1  2 2.  .

2H sinh 
sinh = (12)
ww  2H 
2H  24H
24 H 
The total
The total conductor
conductor length
length can
can be
be expressed
expressed as
as aa function
function of
of sag D as
sag D as shown
shown in
in the
the Equation
Equation (13):
(13):

8D2 2
LL=SS+ 8D. (13)
(13)
3S .
3S
Using Equation (13), we can write the formula for the conductor sag dependence D upon the span
Using Equation (13), we can write the formula for the conductor sag dependence D upon the
length S and the conductor length L, shown below:
span length S and the conductor length L, shown below:
r
 
3S( L − S)
D= 3S 8L  S. (14)
D . (14)
8
The difference between the conductor length L and span length S is defined as the conductor
slack.The
Equation (14)between
difference shows that
thesmall changes
conductor in the
length slackspan
L and givelength
significant changes as
S is defined in the
the conductor
conductor
sag. As it was mentioned above, conductor sag depends mainly on the total conductor length
slack. Equation (14) shows that small changes in the slack give significant changes in the conductorL when
the span
sag. As itlength S remains above,
was mentioned constant. The temperature
conductor dependency
sag depends mainly onofthe
thetotal
conductor length
conductor L is typically
length L when
calculated using Equation (15):
the span length S remains constant. The temperature dependency of the conductor length L is
typically calculated using Equation (15):
L2 = α AS L1 ( T2 − T1 ) + β L1 (σ2 − σ1 ), (15)
 
L2   AS L1 T2  T1   L1  2  1 ,  (15)
where index 1 and 2 are the beginning and end states, respectively; L1 , L2 : the conductor length in the
span; Tindex
where 1 , T 2 are the2conductor
1 and temperature;
are the beginning and end is the respectively;
αASstates, thermal elongation coefficient
L1, L2: the for ACSR;
conductor length in
σ1,the
σ2
are the conductor stress; and and the wire elastic elongation coefficient.
span; T1, T2 are the conductor temperature; αAS is the thermal elongation coefficient for ACSR; σ1, σ2
β
The
are the typicallystress;
conductor temperature-tension
and β and the wire calculation of the power
elastic elongation line span is performed using
coefficient.
Equation (16) [36] and solved using iterative methods:
The typically temperature-tension calculation of the power line span is performed using
Equation (16) [36] and solved using iterative methods:
S2 g22 S2 g12 α
σ2 − 2 22 = σ1 − 22 − ( T2 − T1 ), (16)
24βSσ1g1 β 
2
S gσ22
T2  T1  ,
24β
2   1   (16)
24  22 24  12 
where S is the span length; σ1, σ2 = H/A is the wire stress; g = w/A is volumetric weight; A is the
wire cross-sectional area; and β = 1/γ is the wire elastic elongation coefficient. For ACSR 26/7 Hawk
conductors, typically α = 18.7 × 10−6 1/K, γ = 75,000 MPa, A = 276.2 mm2, w = 9.52 N/m,
and g = 34.47 N/(m.mm2) [37]. In such cases, we need to measure tension, stress, or the wire
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 7 of 14

where S is the span length; σ1 , σ2 = H/A is the wire stress; g = w/A is volumetric weight; A is the
wire cross-sectional area; and β = 1/γ is the wire elastic elongation coefficient. For ACSR 26/7 Hawk
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 7 of 14
conductors, typically α = 18.7 × 10−6 1/K, γ = 75,000 MPa, A = 276.2 mm2 , w = 9.52 N/m, and
g = 34.47 N/(m·mm2 ) [37]. In such cases, we need to measure tension, stress, or the wire temperature
temperature to estimate the total length of the wire in the span and then calculate sag. Sometimes, a
to estimate the total length of the wire in the span and then calculate sag. Sometimes, a calculation of
calculation of the bare conductor temperature can be done using the methods presented in [28–30]
the bare conductor temperature can be done using the methods presented in [28–30] based on weather
based on weather parameters, electric current, or conductor tension measurements. The algorithm for
parameters, electric current, or conductor tension measurements. The algorithm for conductor sag
conductor sag calculation was investigated by [26] and is presented in Figure 5.
calculation was investigated by [26] and is presented in Figure 5.

Tension Measurements

Weather Conductor Temperature Conductor

Parameters Calculation Current

Mechanical State
Estimation

Sag Estimation

Check for Clearance Operator

Violiations Dispaly

Figure 5. The sag estimation process reproduced from [26].

Figure 5. The sag estimation process reproduced from [26].

This paper introduces a direct method for calculation of the sag D based on a single spot conductor
This paper introduces a direct method for calculation of the sag D based on a single spot
elongation measurement with a CFBG sensor. Assuming that the horizontal tension H and conductor
conductor elongation measurement with a CFBG sensor. Assuming that the horizontal tension H and
thermal elongation is constant over the span, the relative elongation measurement ∆l of the selected
conductor thermal elongation is constant over the span, the relative elongation measurement Δl of
10 cm wire segment covered with the sensing head clamps provides the data required for the calculation
the selected 10 cm wire segment covered with the sensing head clamps provides the data required
of the total wire length L, as described with Equations (17)–(20). According to previous considerations,
for the calculation of the total wire length L, as described with Equations (16)–(19). According to
the relative wire elongation ∆l could be appointed as a function of the sensor FWHM spectral width as
previous considerations, the relative wire elongation Δl could be appointed as a function of the sensor
shown below:
FWHM spectral width as shown below:
∆l = COP1 · ∆FW HMCFBG , (17)
l  C
∆l COP1  FWHM CFBG , (16)
E= = OP1 · ∆FW HMCFBG , (18)
lre f lre f
l COP1
E  as a measured
where E is the relative elongation coefficient  FWHMFWHM function;
CFBG ,
COP1 is the experimentally
(17)
lref
evaluated elongation sensor sensitivity coefficient; lreflref is the reference distance of the installed sensor
clamps on the conductor; and ∆l is the elongation of the wire segment covered by the sensing head
where
and E is by
measured thetherelative elongation coefficient as a measured FWHM function; COP1 is the
CFBG sensor.
experimentally evaluated elongation sensor L =sensitivity
Lre f (1 + E)coefficient;
. lref is the reference distance of the
(19)
installed sensor clamps on the conductor; and Δl is the elongation of the wire segment covered by
the Assuming
sensing headtheand
above (Equation
measured by(19)), sensor. sag dependence D (Equation (14)) we acquire
the conductor
the CFBG
the following form:
u L  L 1 E .   
v 
u 3S L ref (18)
t re f (1 + E ) − S
D= . (20)
Assuming the above (Equation (18)), the conductor 8 sag dependence D (Equation (14)) we acquire
the According
following form:
to Equations (14) and (19), it is shown that for OTL wire sag calculation is enough to

3S  Lref 1  E   S 
measure an elongation of a particular section of the wire.

D . (19)
8
According to Equations (14) and (18), it is shown that for OTL wire sag calculation is enough to
measure an elongation of a particular section of the wire.
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 8 of 14

Sensors 2018, 18, 309 8 of 14

Sensors 2018, 18, 309 8 of 14
3. Results
3.3.Results
Results
The surveys were performed on a real overhead power transmission line. The measurement
The surveys were performed on
on akV
a real overhead power transmission line. The
The measurement
system Thewas surveys
mounted were performed
directly on a 110 real
OTL overhead
power linepower transmission
wire which wasline. measurement
energized. The proper
system
system was
was mounted
mounted directly
directly on
on aa 110
110 kV
kV OTL
OTL power
power line
line wire
wire which
which was
was energized.
energized. The
The proper
proper
construction
constructionof the
of optomechanical
the optomechanical system,
system, provided
provided its
its compact
compact size
size and
and weight,
weight, makes
makes it negligible
ititnegligible
construction
to to
thethe of the optomechanical
mechanical workings of the system,
power line. provided its compact
Figure 66 shows size and weight,
shows a photographofofthe makes negligible
the measurement
to the mechanical
mechanical workings
workings of
of the
the power
power line.
line. Figure
Figure 6 shows aa photograph
photograph of the measurement
measurement
system
systemmounted on an ACSR 26/7 Hawk wire.
systemmounted
mountedon onan
anACSR
ACSR26/726/7Hawk
Hawkwire.wire.

Figure 6. The CFBG based optomechanical system for the power line sag estimation in real conditions.
Figure
Figure 6. The
6. The CFBG
CFBG based
based optomechanicalsystem
optomechanical systemfor
forthe
the power line
line sag
sagestimation
estimationininreal
realconditions.
conditions.

The
The influence
influence of of temperature
temperature variations
variations onon the
the measurement
measurement systemsystem described
described aboveabove was
was
The influence
measured for a of temperature
short segment variations
of the poweronline
the measurement
wire with the system
mounted described
completeabove was(clamps,
system measured
measured for a short segment of the power line wire with the mounted complete system (clamps,
forsteel
a short segment of the power line wire with the mounted complete system (clamps, steel plate
steel plate
plate with
with attached
attached optical
optical fiber).
fiber). The
The OTL
OTL wire
wire segment
segment was was placed
placed inin aa climate-control
climate-control
with attached
chamber optical fiber). The OTL wire segment was placed in a climate-control chamber with
chamber with with aa temperature
temperature range range established
established
◦
at
at 10–90
10–90 °C.°C. Figure
Figure 7a7a shows
shows the the spectral
spectral
a temperature
characteristics rangethe established at 10–90 C. Figure 7a shows the spectralofcharacteristics of the
characteristics of of the CFBG
CFBG reflected
reflected signal
signal measured
measured for for border
border cases
cases of thethe surrounding
surrounding
◦ C and 90 ◦
CFBG reflected
temperature: signal
10 °C measured
and 90 °C. Thefor border
increase cases
of the of the surrounding
surrounding temperature:
temperature: 10 °C and 90 °C. The increase of the surrounding temperature of the wire changesthe
temperature of the wire10 changes the C.
TheCFBG
CFBG spectral
increase characteristic
of the
spectral surrounding
characteristic by
byshifting the
thewhole
temperature
shifting spectrum
of the
whole to
tolonger
wire changes
spectrum longer wavelengths.
the CFBG spectral
wavelengths. The
Thespectrum
spectrumisis
characteristic
bynot widened
shifting
not so
so the
the whole
widened FWHM
FWHM parameter
thespectrum to longer of
parameter of the
the sensor
sensor output
wavelengths. The
output characteristics
spectrum has
has aa quasi-constant
is not widened
characteristics so the FWHM
quasi-constant
character.
character. However, the shift of the spectrum could be distinguished and measured and inthis
parameter ofHowever,
the sensor the shift
output of the spectrum
characteristics could
has a be distinguished
quasi-constant and measured
character. However,and in
the paper
shift
this of the
paper
is called
spectrum SSH
is calledcould (spectral shift).
shift). and measured and in this paper is called SSH (spectral shift).
be distinguished
SSH (spectral

Figure 7. (a) a comparison of the spectra measured for the CFBG mounted in the proposed OTL wire
Figure
Figure 7. (a)
7. (a) a comparison
a comparison ofofthe
thespectra
spectrameasured
measuredforfor the
the CFBG mounted
mountedin inthe
theproposed
proposedOTLOTLwire
wire
monitoring system for 10◦ °C and 90◦°C surrounding temperatures; (b) a comparison of the spectra
monitoring
monitoring system
system forfor
1010C°Candand9090 C°Csurrounding
surrounding temperatures;
temperatures; (b)(b) aa comparison
comparisonofofthethespectra
spectra
measured for CFBG: FWHM_1 refers to the measurement directly after mounting the system on the
measured
measured forfor CFBG:
CFBG: FWHM_1refers
FWHM_1 referstotothe
themeasurement
measurement directly
directly after
after mounting
mountingthe thesystem
systemononthe
the
wire and FWHM_2 refers to the measurement after 0.1% relative elongation.
wire and FWHM_2 refers to the measurement after 0.1% relative
wire and FWHM_2 refers to the measurement after 0.1% relative elongation. elongation.
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 9 of 14

Sensors 2018, 18, 309 9 of 14

In the case of chirped Bragg gratings, distinguishing the center wavelength is difficult because of
SensorsIn the18,
2018, case
309 of chirped Bragg gratings, distinguishing the center wavelength is difficult because
the non-regular character of its spectra. In the processing characteristics shown in this paper,9 the of 14
SSH
of the non-regular character of its spectra. In the processing characteristics
parameter is calculated based on the half spectral width of the appointed FWHM. Another situation shown in this paper, the
SSH In the case of
parameter is chirped
calculatedBragg gratings,
based on thedistinguishing the center
half spectral width wavelength
of the appointedis FWHM.
difficult Another
because
occurs
of when the wirecharacter
length changes due toInthe mechanical elongation which is in
shown in Figure 7b.
situation occurs when the wire length changes due to the mechanical elongation which is shownthe
the non-regular of its spectra. the processing characteristics shown this paper, in
FWHM
The SSH value
parameter sharply increases
is calculated with
based on the growth
the halfwith of the
spectral measured
width of elongation, which promises that
Figure 7b. The FWHM value sharply increases the growth of the appointed elongation,
the measured FWHM. Another which
in the described
situation measurement system it could be used as a determinant of
promises that in the described measurement system it could be used as a determinant ofisthe
occurs when the wire length changes due to the mechanical the power
elongation which line shown
sag. Figure
powerin 8
shows the
Figure characteristics
7b. The FWHM of the
value dependency
sharply increases of SSH
with theon the
growth wire
of elongation
the measured and the
elongation,
line sag. Figure 8 shows the characteristics of the dependency of SSH on the wire elongation and the surrounding
which
temperature
promises
surrounding variations in thevariations
thattemperature
in the described selected ranges.
measurement
in systemranges.
the selected it could be used as a determinant of the power
line sag. Figure 8 shows the characteristics of the dependency of SSH on the wire elongation and the
surrounding temperature variations in the selected ranges.

Figure
Figure 8. The
8. The comparison
comparison ofofSSH
SSHdependency
dependency on
on (a)
(a) the
the elongation
elongationofofthe testing
the plate;
testing andand
plate; (b) the
(b) the
changes
changes of the
of the CFBG
CFBG sensor
sensor surroundingtemperature.
surrounding temperature.
Figure 8. The comparison of SSH dependency on (a) the elongation of the testing plate; and (b) the
changes of the
The graph CFBG sensor
depicted abovesurrounding
shows thattemperature.
the spectral shift calculated as a half wavelength width of
The graph
FWHM depicted
depends on bothabove shows that
elongation the spectral shift
and temperature. In thecalculated as a half wavelength
case of temperature width
variations, the
of FWHM The depends
graph on
depicted both elongation
above shows thatand
the temperature.
spectral shift In the
calculated
transformation of the measured temperature to SSH has a linear character. The temperature case
as a of
half temperature
wavelength variations,
width of
the FWHM depends
transformation on
of both
the elongation
measured and temperature.
temperature to SSH In the
has case
a of
linear temperature
character.
sensitivity of the considered monitoring system configuration is associated with a thermal expansion variations,
The the
temperature
transformation
sensitivity of the
coefficient of theofmaterial
the measured
considered which thetemperature
monitoring system
testing to SSH has
plateconfiguration
is made aislinear
of along character.
associated
with the with aThe
material temperature
thermal
of the OTL expansion
wire.
sensitivity
coefficient
The shift of the considered
of determined
the materialfor whichmonitoring
the testing
the different system configuration
plate isvalues
elongation made of is associated
along
results with the
directly with
from a thermal
material expansion
of the
the widening OTL
of thewire.
The coefficient
signal of the material
spectrum.
shift determined As the which
foropposed to the testing
theelongation
different platevalues
SSH parameter, is made of along
theresults
FWHM with the
spectral
directly material
width
from of theonly
thedepends
widening OTL wire.
of on
thethe
signal
The shift determined
elongation of the for the different
measurement sectionelongation
and is values results
practically directly
insensitive to from
the the widening
temperature of the
changes.
spectrum. As opposed to the SSH parameter, the FWHM spectral width depends only on the elongation
signal
Figure spectrum. As
the opposed
9 shows section changing tocharacteristics
the SSH parameter, of thetheFWHMFWHM spectral
width width depends
dependent the only
on Figure on the
changes of the
of the measurement and is practically insensitive to the temperature changes. 9 shows
elongation of the measurement section and is practically insensitive
elongation and temperature in the same ranges as in the case shown in Figure 8. to the temperature changes.
changing
Figurecharacteristics of the FWHM
9 shows the changing width dependent
characteristics of the FWHM on thewidth
changes of elongation
dependent on the and temperature
changes of
in the same ranges as in the case shown in Figure 8.
elongation and temperature in the same ranges as in the case shown in Figure 8.

Figure 9. The characteristics of the FWHM spectral width dependency on (a) the relative elongation;
and (b) the ambient temperature of the proposed system.
Figure
Figure 9. The
9. The characteristicsofofthe
characteristics theFWHM
FWHM spectral
spectral width
widthdependency
dependencyonon
(a)(a)
thethe
relative elongation;
relative elongation;
and (b) the ambient temperature of the proposed
and (b) the ambient temperature of the proposed system. system.
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 10 of 14
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 10 of 14
According to Figure 9, the total wire elongation in the span and the wire sag can be anticipated
as a function of FWHM and the initial state span parameters. Let us assume that the power line span
is S =According
300 m andto constructed
Figure 9, thewith
total ACSR
wire elongation
26/7 Hawk in conductors
the span andthat thehave
wire asag can
per be length
unit anticipated as
weight
awfunction of FWHM and the initial state span parameters. Let us assume that the power
= 9.75 N/m [37]. The mechanical characteristics of the span describe that, for a wire temperature of line span
10S°C,
is = 300
them and constructed
horizontal tension with
is H =ACSR
14,60026/7 HawkEquation
N. Using conductors (12),that
it ishave
thenapossible
per unitto length weight
calculate the
w = 9.75 N/m [37]. The mechanical characteristics of the span describe
reference wire length Lref (Equation (20)) and reference sag Dref (Equation (21)): that, for a wire temperature of
10 ◦ C, the horizontal tension is H = 14,600 N. Using Equation (12), it is then possible to calculate the
reference wire length Lref (Equation (21)) and reference
3002  9.75 sag Dref (Equation (22)):
2
Lref  300 1    300.502 m , (20)
 242146002 2 
300 · 9.75
Lre f = 300 1 + = 300.502 m, (21)
24 · 14, 6002
3  300  (300.502  300)
Dref  r 3 · 300 · (300.502 − 300)  7.514 m . (21)
Dre f =
8
8 = 7.514 m. (22)

The initial
The initial conditions
conditions shown
shown above
above are
are matched
matched for for an
an OTL
OTL span
span right
right after
after installing
installing the
the wire
wire
on the
on the poles.
poles. Weather
Weather conditions
conditions cause
cause changes
changes in in the
the elongation
elongation of of the
the wire
wire due
due to to icing,
icing, ambient
ambient
temperature, wind
temperature, wind speed
speed and
and angle,
angle, and
and solar
solar radiation.
radiation. TheThe elongation
elongation is is also
also associated
associated withwith the
the
conductor temperature
conductor temperature arising from the electric current flow. flow. As a result of the total wire length L,
changes in the power line
changes line sag
sag D
Dalso
alsovary.
vary.InInthe
theproposed
proposedoptomechanical
optomechanicalsystem, system, the variations
the variationsof
thethe
of length
lengthofofthethemeasured
measuredsection
section affect the measured
measuredCFBG CFBGFWHM
FWHM spectral width.
width. Characteristics
Characteristics
shownin
shown inFigures
Figures10 10and
and1111present
present how
how thethe power
power line
line sagsag
willwill be influenced
be influenced by the
by the elongation
elongation of
of the
the testing OTL wire segment and how the FWHM spectral width is affected
testing OTL wire segment and how the FWHM spectral width is affected by sag changes of the power by sag changes of the
power
line withline
thewith theparameters
initial initial parameters
describeddescribed by Equations
by Equations (21) and(20)
(22).and (21).

Figure 10. (a) The dependency of the OTL wire sag related with the elongation of the proposed
Figure 10. (a) The dependency of the OTL wire sag related with the elongation of the proposed
measurement system plate calculated for the initial conditions described in Equations (21) and (22);
measurement system plate calculated for the initial conditions described in Equations (20) and (21);
and (b) the dependency of the measured FWHM for different sag values of the monitored OTL line.
and (b) the dependency of the measured FWHM for different sag values of the monitored OTL line.

The coefficientsOP
Thecoefficients OP andOP
1 1and OP2 are two different parameters of the Bragg grating spectrum that will
2 are two different parameters of the Bragg grating spectrum that
change due to the induced elongation
will change due to the induced elongation or temperature changes. The
or temperature matrixThe
changes. equation
matrixof the temperature
equation of the
and elongation sensor processing will take the form of Equation (8). Taking into account
temperature and elongation sensor processing will take the form of Equation (8). Taking into account the results
obtained
the resultsfrom the measurements,
obtained it allows us
from the measurements, to writeusthe
it allows matrix
to write equation
the in the form
matrix equation below:
in the form below:

 FWHM  0.00010
" # " # " #
FW HM CFBG 0.000100.00603  T
0.00603
×
T
 SSH
CFBG
SSHCFBG  =
0.02261 0.00484 
   ∆l
,
, (23)
(22)
 CFBG   0.02261 0.00484  l 
where CSC11 is the sensitivity of FWHMCFBG to temperature (CSC11 = 0.1 pm/K), CSC21 is the sensitivity
where CSC11 is the sensitivity of FWHMCFBG to temperature (CSC11 = 0.1 pm/K), CSC21 is the sensitivity
of SSHCFBG to the temperature (CSC21 = 22.61 pm/K), CSC12 is the sensitivity of FWHMCFBG to the
of SSHCFBG to the temperature (CSC21 = 22.61 pm/K), CSC12 is the sensitivity of FWHMCFBG to the
elongation of testing section (CSC12 = 6.03 pm/µm), and CSC22 is the sensitivity of SSHCFBG to the
elongation of testing section (CSC12 = 6.03 pm/μm), and CSC22 is the sensitivity of SSHCFBG to the
elongation of the testing section (CSC22 = 4.84 pm/µm).
elongation of the testing section (CSC22 = 4.84 pm/μm).
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 11 of 14
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 11 of 14

12.00
11.50 11.14
10.83
11.00 10.52
10.50 10.19
OTL wire sag (m)
9.85
10.00 9.50
9.50 9.14
8.76
9.00
8.37
8.50
7.95
8.00 7.51
7.50
7.00
1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9
FWHM (nm)

Figure 11. The dependency of the OTL wire sag as a function of the measured FWHM.
Figure 11. The dependency of the OTL wire sag as a function of the measured FWHM.

By analyzing
By analyzingEquation
Equation(23), it could
(22), be seen
it could be that thethat
seen simultaneous measurement
the simultaneous of the temperature
measurement of the
and elongation
temperature and iselongation
possible if, for the proposed
is possible if, for the monitoring
proposed monitoringsystem, we designate
system, two different
we designate two
parameters of the CFBG which show different sensitivities for the measured
different parameters of the CFBG which show different sensitivities for the measured quantities. It is quantities. It is only possible
if the possible
only inequalityif condition OP1 6= condition
the inequality OP2 is alsoOP met, which is fulfilled because FWHMCFBG 6= SSH
1 ≠ OP2 is also met, which is fulfilled CFBG .
because
Analysis
FWHM of Equation (23) allows us to conclude that with the known (determined experimentally)
CFBG ≠ SSHCFBG. Analysis of Equation (22) allows us to conclude that with the known
FWHMCFBG andsensitivities
(determined ofexperimentally)
sensitivities SSHCFBG for of theFWHM
temperature and elongation, the measured quantities
CFBG and SSHCFBG for the temperature and
of CSC
elongation,
11 , CSC , CSC
the21 measured
12 , and CSC
quantities 22 could
of CSC11, CSC21, CSC12, and CSC22 The
be determined simultaneously. could matrix of algebraic
be determined
complements of The
simultaneously. all sensor of algebraicCSC
matrixsensitivities 11 , CSC12 along
complements of allwith
sensor CSCsensitivities
21 , CSC22 have CSCbeen calculated
11, CSC12 along
using Equation (24) and the received values have been shown in Equation
with CSC21, CSC22 have been calculated using Equation (23) and the received values have been shown (25):
in Equation (24):
d11 = (−1)1+1 · CSC22 = CSC22 , d12 = (−1)1+2 · CSC21 = −CSC21
1 . (24)
d21 = (− d111)2(+11)·1CSC  CSC
12 =  CSC2212,, dd1222=
22 − 1)1 12)2 +
( (− CSC 21  
2 · CSC
11CSC
= CSC
21 11
. (23)
d 21  ( 1)2  1  CSC12  CSC12 , d 22  ( 1)2  2  CSC11  CSC11
By the condition of the non-zero matrix determinant of Equation (24), it is possible to construct its
complementary
By the conditionmatrix ofbased on Equation
the non-zero matrix(24), which we of
determinant will now write
Equation initthe
(23), form: to construct
is possible
its complementary " matrix# based on Equation " (23), which we will # now " write in the # form:
T 1 0.00484 −0.00603 FW HMCFBG
∆lT  = −0, 100014  0.00484 −0.02261 0.000100.00603 × FWHM CFBG 
, (25)
SSHCFBG
    
   , (24)
 l  0, 00014  0.02261 0.00010   SSH CFBG 
where det: the matrix determinant form of Equation (23) moreover, equals:
where det: the matrix determinant form of Equation (22) moreover, equals:
det = CSC11 CSC22 − CSC21 CSC12 . (26)
det  CSC11CSC22  CSC21CSC12 . (25)
The fulfilled condition of the various sensitivity ratios of FWHMCFBG and SSHCFBG for the temperature
The fulfilled
and elongation condition
gives of the of
the possibility various sensitivity
simultaneous ratios of FWHM
determination CFBG and SSHCFBG for the
of both quantities by measuring
temperature and elongation gives the possibility of simultaneous determination
the spectrum shift (SSHCFBG ) and the spectral width of the CFBG characteristic (FWHM of both quantities by
CFBG ).
measuring the spectrum shift (SSHCFBG) and the spectral width of the CFBG characteristic
(FWHM CFBG).
4. Discussion
The proposed method has a low cross-sensitivity, as seen in the final matrix of the processing
4. Discussion
system in Equation (25). An analytical determination of the OTL sag was proposed based on the CFBG
Themeasurements
spectra proposed method has a directly
mounted low cross-sensitivity,
on the Hawk as seen
wire in the
using thefinal matrix
special of the processing
semicircular screwed
system
clampsin Equation
forming the(24). An sensing
whole analytical determination
head. Empirical of the OTL
studies havesagconfirmed
was proposed based
the low on the CFBG
cross-sensitivity
spectra measurements
values (CSC mounted
11 = 0.1 pm/K, CSC21directly onpm/K,
= 22.61 the Hawk
CSC12 wire using
= 6.03 the special
pm/µm semicircular
and CSC screwed
22 = 4.84 pm/µm).
clamps forming the whole sensing head. Empirical studies have confirmed the low
We have shown that such use of CFBGs and the suitable optomechanical system allows for the cross-sensitivity
values (CSC11 = 0.1 pm/K, CSC21 = 22.61 pm/K, CSC12 = 6.03 pm/μm and CSC22 = 4.84 pm/μm). We have
shown that such use of CFBGs and the suitable optomechanical system allows for the monitoring of
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 12 of 14

monitoring of the relative wire elongation and the OTL sag D. The presented method is non-sensitive
to temperature changes (the FWHM width used for the determination of elongation is practically
insensitive to thermal variations), provides repeatability of measurements (by the mechanical
construction of clamps and the whole sensing head) and it is non-invasive .
It is also worth mentioning that the design of the sensing head protects the optical fiber because
changing the wire length within the possible elongation range does not damage the optical fiber.
Additionally, the mass of the sensing head is negligible relative to the mass of the entire wire in the
span so the sensor does not affect the object being measured. Figure 11 shows the dependency of the
calculated sag of the power line with the assumed initial parameters on the measured FWHM spectral
width. The potential of the method is increased by the use of a chirped fiber Bragg grating CFBG
whose spectral characteristics are broader (more extensive) than in the case of a conventional FBG.
If the spectral response of the CFBG/FBG were to be measured using an interrogator (for example,
based on an FBG optical filter) and not using an OSA, the measurement would be more accurate since
the measured spectra would be broader and changes in its width would be measured more accurately
by the interrogator.

5. Conclusions
In this article, we have presented a method that monitors the state of an OTL and measures its
relative elongation and its actual sag. It is based on the new construction of CFBG sensors and is
insensitive to the ambient temperature, the electromagnetic field and any other external typically
influencing parameters. Insensitivity has been achieved by the structure of the sensing head that
consists of clamps and the special monotonically, non-uniformly extendable steel plate that the CFBG
is attached to. The proposed system can be non-invasively and directly embedded on the power
line wire. The use of the Bragg grating with a linearly variable period allows for more considerable
variation in the optical spectrum than standard FBGs, which translates into an increased sensitivity and
accuracy. The obtained sensitivity of the FWHM width to elongation was 0.00603 nm/µm, and at the
same time, the FWHM is practically insensitive to temperature changes (sensitivity coefficient reduced
to 0.0001 nm/K). This condition allows for the determination of the wire elongation independently
of temperature variations. In addition to the determination of the OTL wire extension, the proposed
method also allows for the measuring of the temperature around of power line wire by meeting the
conditions of the sensitivity matrix equation.
Furthermore, the use of chirped fiber Bragg grating with a broad spectrum is advantageous
because its spectrum is approximately ten times wider than the usual FBG. The measurements
using a CFBG will be more precise than the standard FBG which has a much narrower range.
Thus, the proposed system is entirely applicable in a configuration in which the spectra of the grating
are interrogated with an optical filter (for example, a filter based on homogeneous FBG). Such a
combination can be very interesting because it offers the possibility to eliminate the OSA and use a
simple interrogator based on an optical filter.
The measurement point fixing system is designed for use for an indefinite time, which is of crucial
economic importance. Additionally, such a designed system ensures the stability of its components
on the OTL wire without any adverse effect on its strength, mainly due to the non-invasive fixing
method. In the case of possible damages to the delicate components of the sensor system, it is possible
to replace them with new ones with the same parameters. An important feature is the independence of
the measurement from the influence of the outside temperature and the unavoidable electromagnetic
field at the measurement site.
It should be noted that all determined sensitivity coefficients and final results are also dependent
on the geometry of the transducer and the initial parameters of the CFBG sensor together with the
control plate. Future work will involve an investigation into a sensitivity analysis for the function of
changes of the parameters mentioned above and on the metrological conditions of the whole system.
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 13 of 14

Author Contributions: This work was realized with the collaboration of all authors. Michal Wydra, Piotr Kisala
and Piotr Kacejko contributed to the idea of this work. Michal Wydra, Piotr Kisala and Damian Harasim conceived
and designed the experiments; Damian Harasim and Michal Wydra performed the experiments; Piotr Kisala,
Michal Wydra and Damian Harasim analyzed the data. Michal Wydra wrote the biggest part of the article
and contributed all the work referred to the transmission lines and sag-tension calculations using presented
optomechanical measuring system designed by Piotr Kisala. Mechanical simulations and all the optical part of the
manuscript was contributed by Piotr Kisala and Damian Harasim. Piotr Kacejko provided the funding. All the
authors contributed to the production of the paper, the discussion of the results and the reviewing process of the
intellectual content of the article and finally approved the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Ci˛eszczyk, S.; Kisała, P. Inverse problem of determining periodic surface profile oscillation defects of steel
materials with a fiber Bragg grating sensor. Appl. Opt. 2016, 55, 1412–1420. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Ci˛eszczyk, S.; Harasim, D.; Kisała, P. A novel simple TFBG spectrum demodulation method for RI quantification.
IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 2017, 29, 2264–2267. [CrossRef]
3. Nowocień, S.; Mroczka, J. Hybrid model of arm for analysis of regional blood oxygenation in non-invasive
optical diagnostics. Proc. SPIE 2017, 10330, 103301A. [CrossRef]
4. Kashyap, R.; McKee, P.F.; Campbell, R.J.; Williams, D.L. Novel method of producing all fibre photoinduced
chirped gratings. Electron. Lett. 1994, 30, 995–996. [CrossRef]
5. Kisała, P. Generation of a zone chirp in uniform Bragg grating as a way of obtaining double functionality of
a sensor. Metrol. Meas. Syst. 2012, 19, 727–738. [CrossRef]
6. Palaniappan, J.; Ogin, S.L.; Thorne, A.M.; Reed, G.T.; Crocombe, A.D.; Capell, T.F.; Tjin, S.C.; Mohanty, L. Disbond
growth detection in composite–composite single-lap joints using chirped FBG sensors. Compos. Sci. Technol.
2008, 68, 2410–2417. [CrossRef]
7. Nand, A.; Kitcher, D.J.; Wade, S.A.; Baxter, G.W.; Jones, R.; Collins, S.F. strain-independent temperature
measurements using a standard and a chirped fibre Bragg grating. In Proceedings of the Australian
Conference on Optical Fibre Technology/Australian Optical Society (ACOFT/AOS 2006), Melbourne,
Australia, 10–13 July 2006; pp. 51–53. [CrossRef]
8. Maheshwari, M.; Tjin, S.C.; Yang, Y.; Asundi, A. Wavelength-shifted chirped FBGs for temperature
compensated strain measurement. Sens. Actuators A 2017, 265, 231–235. [CrossRef]
9. Chettouh, S.; El-Akrmi, A.; Triki, H.; Hamaizi, Y. Spectral properties of nonlinearly chirped fiber Bragg
gratings for optical communications. Optik 2017, 147, 163–169. [CrossRef]
10. Zhou, J.; Dong, X.; Shi, Z. Tunable chirped fiber Bragg grating based on the D-shaped fiber. Opt. Commun.
2008, 281, 2077–2082. [CrossRef]
11. Rito, R.L.; Crocombe, A.D.; Ogin, S.L. Health monitoring of composite patch repairs using CFBG sensors:
Experimental study and numerical modeling. Compos. Part A 2017, 100, 255–268. [CrossRef]
12. Osuch, T.; Markowski, K.; J˛edrzejewski, K. Fiber-optic strain sensors based on linearly chirped tapered fiber
Bragg gratings with tailored intrinsic chirp. IEEE Sens. J. 2016, 16, 7508–7514. [CrossRef]
13. Fröjdh, K.; Hedin, G.; Helmfrid, S. Strain and temperature measurement using a 9.5-m continuous chirped
fiber Bragg grating with millimeter resolution. Proc. SPIE 2017, 10323, 103238D-1–103238D-4. [CrossRef]
14. Guo, T.; Tam, H.Y.; Albert, J. Chirped and tilted fiber Bragg grating edge filter for in-fiber sensor interrogation.
In Proceedings of the CLEO: Science and Innovations 2011, Baltimore, MD, USA, 1–6 May 2011; pp. 1–2.
[CrossRef]
15. Liu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Bennion, I. Fabricating fiber edge filters with an arbitrary spectral response based on tilted
chirped grating structures. Meas. Sci. Technol. 1998, 10, L1–L3. [CrossRef]
16. Guo, T.; Tam, H.-Y.; Albert, J. Linearly chirped and weakly tilted fiber Bragg grating edge filters for in-fiber
sensor interrogation. Proc. SPIE 2017, 7753, 77537V-1–77537V-4. [CrossRef]
17. Bjerkan, L. Application of fiber-optic Bragg grating sensors in monitoring environmental loads of overhead
power transmission lines. Appl. Opt. 2000, 39, 554–560. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Huang, Q.; Zhang, C.; Liu, Q.; Ning, Y.; Cao, Y. New type of fiber optic sensor network for smart grid
interface of transmission system. In Proceedings of the IEEE PES General Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, USA,
25–29 July 2010; pp. 1–5. [CrossRef]
Sensors 2018, 18, 309 14 of 14

19. Rosolem, J. Smart fiber optic sensors for applications in electrical power systems. In Frontiers Science
Technology; De Gruyter: Berlin, Germany; Boston, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 97–109.
20. Ramachandran, P.; Vittal, V. On-line monitoring of sag in overhead transmission lines with leveled spans.
In Proceedings of the 38th Annual North American Power Symposium (NAPS 2006), Carbondale, IL, USA,
17–19 September 2006; pp. 405–409. [CrossRef]
21. Klein, K.M.; Springer, P.L.; Black, W.Z. Real-time ampacity and ground clearance software for integration
into smart grid technology. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2010, 25, 1768–1777. [CrossRef]
22. Seppa, T.O. Accurate ampacity determination: Temperature-sag model for operational real time ratings.
IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 1995, 10, 1460–1470. [CrossRef]
23. Black, C.R.; Chisholm, W.A. Key considerations for the selection of dynamic thermal line rating systems.
IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2015, 30, 2154–2162. [CrossRef]
24. Wydra, M.; Kacejko, P. Power system state estimation accuracy enhancement using temperature
measurements of overhead line conductors. Metrol. Meas. Syst. 2016, 23, 183–192. [CrossRef]
25. Wydra, M.; Kacejko, P. Power system state estimation using wire temperature measurements for model
accuracy enhancement. In Proceedings of the IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference
Europe (ISGT-Europe), Ljubljana, Slovenia, 9–12 October 2016. [CrossRef]
26. Ramachandran, P.; Vittal, V.; Heydt, G.T. Mechanical state estimation for overhead transmission lines with
level spans. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 2008, 23, 908–915. [CrossRef]
27. Malhara, S.; Vittal, V. Mechanical state estimation of overhead transmission lines using tilt sensors. IEEE Trans.
Power Syst. 2010, 25, 1282–1290. [CrossRef]
28. Mazur, K.; Wydra, M.; Ksiezopolski, B. Secure and time-aware communication of wireless sensors monitoring
overhead transmission lines. Sensors 2017, 17, 1610. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. IEEE. IEEE 738-2012 Standard for Calculating the Current—Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead Conductors;
IEEE Power and Energy Society: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2012.
30. Iglesias, J.; Watt, G.; Douglass, D.; Morgan, V.; Stephen, R.; Bertinat, M.; Muftic, D.; Puffer, R.; Guery, D.;
Ueda, S.; et al. Guide for Thermal Rating Calculations of Overhead Lines; CIGRE- International Council on Large
Electric Systems: Paris, France, 2014.
31. Chintakindi, R.; Srinath Rajesh, S.P. Vital role of FBG sensors—2012 developments in electrical power systems.
In Proceedings of the International Conference on Power, Energy and Control (ICPEC), Sri Rangalatchum
Dindigul, India, 6–8 February 2013. [CrossRef]
32. Mao, N.Q.; Ma, G.M.; Zhou, H.Y.; Li, C.R.; Li, B.Y. The online monitoring system of transmission lines weight
based on fiber sensing technology. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Condition Monitoring
and Diagnosis (CMD), Xi’an, China, 25–28 September 2016. [CrossRef]
33. Barón, F.E.; Álvarez-Botero, G.; Amortegui, F.; Pastor, D.; Varón, M. Temperature measurements on overhead
lines using Fiber Bragg Grating sensors. In Proceedings of the IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement
Technology Conference (I2MTC), Torino, Italy, 22–25 May 2017. [CrossRef]
34. Balangó, D.; Németh, B.; Göcsei, G. Predicting conductor sag of power lines in a new model of dynamic line
rating. In Proceedings of the IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference (EIC), Seattle, WA, USA, 7–10 June 2015.
[CrossRef]
35. Kashyap, R. Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings. In Fiber Bragg Gratings, 2nd ed.; Academic Press: Boston, MA,
USA, 2010; Chapter 7; pp. 301–345. ISBN 9780123725790.
36. Grigsby, L.L. Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution, 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Ranton, FL,
USA, 2012.
37. Power Cable Catalogue. Available online: http://www.fpe.com.pl/materialy/pliki/17.pdf (accessed on
8 November 2017).

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).