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Hybrid Electric Powertrain
Comparative Study
Friday, June 29, 2012
Rémy Laporte
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Abstract
New trends for environmentally‐friendly mobility are rising and expectations derived from customers
are significant. Urban areas such as London or even Stockholm are starting to build urban tolls by
charging conventional vehicles while full‐electric powered vehicles are exempted. Carbon taxes will
be certainly introduced at the EU scale in the next decade, which will strengthen those expectations
of transportation changes especially regarding private vehicles. High electrification degree of
conventional vehicles has to be performed to answer to those expectations. To avoid range
restriction mainly related to the energy content limitations in battery electric vehicles (BEV), fuel
tank has to be kept in conjunction with internal combustion engine. Thereby, according to this
statement, the design of either a plug‐in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) or a range extender (REX) in a
second extent with an extensive full‐electric range is relevant in the next decade.
Figure 1: Peugeot 208 (side view)
The conventional vehicle here considered as reference is the Peugeot 208 manufactured by PSA
Peugeot Citroën since April 2012 and depicted in Figure 1. This vehicle will be transformed in a PHEV
according to four hybrid electric powertrains considered as relevant: Parallel hybrid topology, Series
hybrid topology, Power‐Split hybrid topology, and Series/Parallel hybrid topology. Energy
consumptions i.e. electric or fuel consumptions, performances such as top speed capabilities and
acceleration capabilities, and even manufacturing cost assessment are discussed in this material.
Advantages and drawback of the four hybrid drivetrains are highlighted regarding those
specifications. The Series hybrid topology is definitely more suitable for urban areas, whilst the
Parallel hybrid topology is more dedicated for road and highway driving conditions both regarding
energy conversion efficiency. The Power‐Split and the Series/Parallel hybrid topologies are more
multipurpose regarding energy consumptions. Basically carbon dioxide emissions are significantly
reduced for all the hybrid topologies in the same magnitude due to the similar extensive range
capability in full‐electric mode derived from the large battery pack implemented (PHEV/REX design).
Performances of the hybrid drivetrains are either enhanced especially regarding acceleration
capabilities mainly owing to power addition capabilities or degraded especially regarding top speed
capabilities mainly due to the vehicle gross mass increase. Manufacturing costs are significantly
increased since electrical machines, wirings, power electronics, battery pack and so on are added.
The most affordable PHEV/REX regarding exclusively manufacturing costs is the Parallel hybrid
topology for which the electrical machine is mounted on the front wheel.
‐i‐
Keywords
Hybrid electric vehicle, Range extender, Plug‐in hybrid, Parallel hybrid electric topology, Parallel
hybrid electric topology, Series hybrid electric topology, Power‐split hybrid electric topology, Peugeot
208, Emission reduction, Fuel consumption, Performances, Powertrain, Three‐cylinder engine,
Electrical Machine, Electrochemical battery, Planetary gear set, Atkinson, Matlab, Simulink.
Thanks
My 6‐month Master Thesis was carried out at PSA Peugeot Citroën Company in the Vélizy facilities in
southwestern Paris suburb. First of all I wish to thank a lot my company supervisor M. Ardeshir
GOLGOLAB to bring me supports and advice throughout my internship. In addition, I thank also a lot
all the staff members of the DPVE department at PSA which have pleasantly hosted me. Besides, I
thank M. Mats LEKSELL, teacher at the KTH Electrical Engineering department, who will recognize in
this material a relevant continuation of his course “Hybrid Vehicle Drives” [1]. Finally, I thank a lot my
academic supervisor, Ms. Annika STENSSON TRIGELL, teacher at the KTH Vehicle Engineering
department, for her support despite the distance.
‐ii‐
Content
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... i
Keywords .................................................................................................................................................. ii
Thanks ...................................................................................................................................................... ii
Content .................................................................................................................................................... iii
1 Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Context .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Aims & Purposes ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Scopes ...................................................................................................................................... 1
2 Basics of Electrical Hybridization ..................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Electrical Hybridization Topology ............................................................................................ 3
2.2 Electrical Hybridization Degree ............................................................................................... 5
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................................................. 7
3 Presentation of Vehicle Components .............................................................................................. 8
3.1 Internal Combustion Engines .................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Electrical Machine & Power Electronics ................................................................................ 11
3.3 Battery Pack ........................................................................................................................... 13
3.4 Transmissions ........................................................................................................................ 18
4 Design & Modeling ........................................................................................................................ 22
4.1 Vehicle Specifications ............................................................................................................ 22
4.2 Reference Vehicles ................................................................................................................ 23
4.3 Power Preliminary Design of Hybrid Electric Powertrains .................................................... 30
4.4 Parallel Topology ................................................................................................................... 31
4.5 Series Topology ..................................................................................................................... 39
4.6 Power‐Split Topology ............................................................................................................ 45
4.7 Active Strategy Control .......................................................................................................... 50
4.8 Series/Parallel Topology ........................................................................................................ 53
5 General Comparisons .................................................................................................................... 58
5.1 Gross Mass Comparisons....................................................................................................... 58
5.2 Energy Consumptions ............................................................................................................ 58
5.3 Performances ........................................................................................................................ 62
5.4 Powertrain Manufacturing Cost Assessment ........................................................................ 63
6 Conclusion & Discussion ................................................................................................................ 64
‐iii‐
Appendix 1: Driving Cycles .................................................................................................................... 66
Appendix 2: Optimum Operating Line .................................................................................................. 69
Appendix 3: Energy Consumptions: Case Studies ................................................................................. 71
Appendix 4: Atkinson Cycle for Spark‐Ignition Internal Combustion Engine ........................................ 75
References ............................................................................................................................................. 78
Tables & Illustrations ............................................................................................................................. 79
Nomenclature ........................................................................................................................................ 83
‐iv‐
1 Background
1.1 Context
Transportation is fundamental for societal and economic growth. However, nowadays,
transportation is mainly based on fossil fuels such as oil and coal which are used through combustion
process which is both not so efficient and generator of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. In
addition, those fuels are considered as non‐renewable energy that mankind is depleting faster than
the necessary time to aggregate the energy in them. Therefore, the exclusive use of those fuels will
lead to a quick overall depletion and major emission of greenhouse gases, which will induce both a
global warming hastiness and significant societal risks of instability. Accordingly, changes to a more
sustainable society less dependent on fossil fuels have to be operated, and consist of both pollutant
emission reduction and use of more environmentally‐friendly fuels for transportation purposes.
Here only the issues related to pollutant emission reduction are going to be discussed. The first
statement related to emission reduction can be achieved by improving energy conversion efficiency
of the various types of engine used today. One way to do that is to use energy buffering devices to
support the internal combustion engine during peak power requirements by making it operate at
higher efficiency without load amplitude requirements. Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) are induced
by this statement where the most known and simplest energy buffering system is implemented, the
so‐called electric battery.
1.2 Aims & Purposes
HEVs are characterized by their on‐board battery energy content and power capability, their
electrical machine power, and their powertrain layout. The first two features are more related to
vehicle performances such as acceleration capability, whilst the last feature is more related to the
core of the hybrid electric system. The aims and purposes of this material are to draw up a
comparative investigation between the main hybrid electric powertrains and the equivalent
conventional vehicle regarding energy conversion efficiency, performances, and costs.
1.3 Scopes
The comparative study drawn up in this material is focused on the Peugeot 208 (cf. Figure 2). Two
vehicles based on this car model powered either by the 1.0‐litre 3‐cylinder in‐line gasoline EB0
engine or by the 1.2‐litre 3‐cylinder in‐line gasoline EB2DT turbocharged engine are going to be
discussed and will be considered as reference vehicles in this study. The Peugeot 208 is considered as
a car from the B segment as the Volkswagen Polo for instance.
Figure 2: Peugeot 208 (rear view)
‐1‐
In addition, the comparative study regarding energy efficiency is going to be drawn up exclusively
through the WLTP (World harmonized Light‐duty Test Procedure) driving cycle, even though some
specific model validations and power designs are going to be made through other driving cycles:
NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) and INRETS UL1 cycle. Those three driving cycles are presented
with their respective details in Appendix 1.
Furthermore, only four hybrid electric powertrain families were considered to be relevant according
to HEV market today, technical feasibility, and development maturity. They are going to be
investigated in this material. In addition to those hybrid electric powertrains, only an application
plug‐in hybrid (PHEV) or range extender (REX) in a larger extent related to the electric hybridization
degree of the Peugeot 208 is going to be studied.
Finally, acceleration performance assessment is going to be carried out only according to the two
major performance tests: standing start testing up to 100 km/h, and acceleration testing from 80 up
to 120 km/h.
Handling and vehicle dynamics will not be discussed in this material.
‐2‐
2 Ba
asics of Ellectrical Hybridizzation
As preseented previo
ously, the aim of vehiclee electric hyybridization is
i to improvve energy co
onversion
efficienccy by supportting engine dduring peak load, and then reduce em missions succh as CO2. In addition,
the impllementation of electrical machines b brings new ccapabilities to the vehiclee such as full‐electric
propulsion mode and d regenerative braking.
Electric Hybridizatio
on is defineed both by its topologgy related to
t its dedicated hybrid d electric
powertrain and its degree regard ding its relative electrical machine poower for insttance. The re
eader has
to underrstand that bboth fields arre clearly ind
dependent.
2.1 Electrrical Hybrridization
n Topolog
gy
Hybridization topoloogy is the firsst feature related to HEV Vs. Any HEV iis first characterized by iits hybrid
electric powertrain. Plenty of various
v electtric hybrid drivetrains
d arre either un
nder develop
pment or
already purchasable today. How wever, all of tthem can be e gathered in n four main families accoording to
three specific featurees which aree the followin ng:
‐ ICE speed ad
djustment caapability
‐ ICE torque adjustment caapability
‐ Power addition capabilitty (engine & EM power addition)
The firstt hybrid electtric family in
n term of veh hicles sold to power‐split ttopology whose main
oday is the p
featuress are ICE torq
que & speed adjustmentt capability in n conjunction with poweer addition capability.
The powwer‐split topo ology is depiicted in Figure 3. It consists of two eelectrical maachines, a po ower‐split
device (assumed to be a planettary gear seet as implem
mented in th
he Toyota Prrius), two electronics
power devices, and aa battery pacck. More dettails, especiaally regardingg related formula, will be e given in
the dedicated part.
Figure
e 3: Power‐Splitt Hybrid Electriic Powertrain Figure 4: P
Parallel Hybrid Electric Powerttrain
‐3‐
reduction gear set if required, a power electronics device, and a battery pack. Two layouts for the EM
implementation are today established:
‐ EM mounted between the engine shaft and the gearbox (or the CVT) after the gearbox clutch
‐ EM mounted somewhere between the gearbox (or the CVT) and the transaxle gear set
The first layout allows the vehicle to recharge its battery at standstill in neutral position of the
gearbox or the CVT. In addition, the EM mounted after the gearbox clutch allows the vehicle to be
propelled in full‐electric mode without engine friction. Note that the reduction gear set is potentially
not required for this layout since the shaft is rotating at high speed (engine speed). The second
layout does not allow the vehicle to recharge its battery at standstill, but nonetheless allows
smoothing breaking torque during gear change if a gearbox is implemented. In addition, mechanical
transmission efficiency is closely similar with this derived from the first layout in full‐electric mode
since the gears of the gearbox have to rotate partially. Finally the second layout with a 5‐speed
automated gearbox was selected as the reference parallel topology as pictured in Figure 4 for similar
concept development purposes with the hybrid system already developed by PSA Peugeot Citroën
under the name of “HYbrid4” [2] and the slightly better mechanical transmission efficiency in full‐
electric mode. Here the EM is mounted on the front transaxle gear set, whilst this is mounted on the
rear transaxle in the HYbrid4 system to get four wheel drive capability. Both are basically similar to
the second layout though the EM is not mounted on the shaft between the transaxle and the
gearbox (or the CVT). More details, especially regarding related formula, will be given in the
dedicated part.
In addition, the series topology defined as an electric generator for propulsion purposes, is the third
hybrid electric family in term of vehicles sold today (currently only sold by Fisker). The series
topology is depicted in Figure 5. Here only ICE torque & speed adjustment capability related to the
hybridization topology is achievable. The series hybrid electric powertrain consists of two EMs, one
defined as generator and another defined as traction machine, a reduction gear set for EM speed
adaptation purposes for the traction machine since the generator speed is assumed to fit with engine
speed, two power electronics devices, and a battery pack. More details will be given in the dedicated
part.
Figure 5: Series Hybrid Electric Powertrain Figure 6: Series/Parallel Hybrid Electric Powertrain
‐4‐
Finally, the
t last hybrid electric family
f is thee Series/Paraallel topology, whose feaatures are either
e ICE
torque & & speed adjuustment capaability or ICEE torque adju ustment capability in con njunction witth power
addition capability. Those featuures are nott exactly simmilar to them m presentedd in the casse of the
Power‐SSplit topologgy since theey cannot be performed d at the saame time. TThe Series/P Parallel is
picturedd in Figure 6.. It consist o
of two EMs, an automate ed gearbox w with only th
hree speed related to
the equiivalent seconnd, fourth an nd fifth gearr ratios, a red duction gearr set for the orange EM mounted
on the trransaxle geaar set, two po ower electro onics devicess, and a batteery pack. Mo ore details, eespecially
regardinng related forrmula, will be given in th he dedicated part.
Thereforre, hybrid eleectric powerrtrain topologies were inttroduced and are gatherred accordingg to their
specific ffeatures succh as power addition cap nstance in Figure 7. The Power‐Split topology
pability for in
is the on
nly one whicch can both aadjust engine operating points and aallow power addition. To opologies
are arran hat the colorr code for each hybrid eleectric powerrtrain will
nged by feattures in Figurre 7. Note th
be kept afterwards.
Figure 7: Principle Diagrram of Electric Hybridization TTopologies
2.2 Electrrical Hybrridization
n Degree
Hybridization degree is the seccond featuree related to
o HEVs. Acco
ording to reelevant specifications
regardin
ng various eleectrification degrees, thee HEV is deffined differenntly. Those sspecifications are the
followingg:
‐ Power ratio between ICEE power and EM power
‐ S
Stop & Start capability
‐ Regenerativee braking capability (limited or expan nded)
‐ Power assisttance to the ICE (limited or permanen nt)
‐ Full‐electric propulsion ccapability (lim
mited or expanded)
‐5‐
Those specifications are closely dependent on the electrification degree of the vehicle since this
latter has to be increased through higher EM power design or/and larger battery pack for instance to
achieve them. Five main hybridization degrees can be highlighted according to both their
specifications and their respective electrification degree and are depicted in Figure 8. Each
hybridization degree is discussed below in details:
‐ Micro Hybrid related to Stop & Start capability through the implementation of an ISG
(Integrated Starter Generator), and limited or optional regenerative braking capability
‐ Mild Hybrid related to Stop & Start capability, limited regenerative braking capability, and
limited power assistance to ICE
‐ Full Hybrid related to Stop & Start capability, expanded regenerative braking capability,
power assistance to ICE, and limited full‐electric propulsion capability
‐ Plug‐in Hybrid and Range Extender related to Stop & Start capability, expanded regenerative
braking capability, power assistance to ICE, and expanded full‐electric propulsion capability
Ab ICE power
sol
ut
e
Po EM power
w
er0% Electrification Degree 100%
Range Extender
Conventional
Battery
Micro Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid Plug‐in Hybrid
Vehicle Electric
Hybrid
Vehicle
The list above is indexed from the lighter electrification degree to the more advanced electrification
degree as shown in Figure 8. Indeed, the micro hybrid is the first step of electric hybridization of a
vehicle, whilst the plug‐in hybrid is the final one since the next step of electrification leads to remove
the engine and therefore to design a BEV. A range extender in this classification is basically similar to
a plug‐in hybrid about both electrification degree and specifications but is derived from a BEV whom
the need of a longer autonomy was resolved by adding a combustion engine. In addition, the relative
power curves related to both ICE & EM given in Figure 8 have to be considered as indicative.
Nonetheless, the slope changes for both curves pictured in Figure 8 are representative of the design
requirements of such‐and‐such HEV in conjunction with their respective electrical hybridization
degree.
‐6‐
2.3 Summary
To design a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), two fields have to be taken into consideration
independently: the electrical hybridization topology and the electrical hybridization degree. On the
one hand, the electrical hybridization topology deals with powertrain layout, which induces specific
capabilities such as power addition capability for instance. On the other hand, the electrical
hybridization degree deals with electrification degree related to both electric power capability
through the EMs and energy storage capability through the battery. This electrification degree allows
the vehicle to get specifications such as stop & start capability, more or less extensive full‐electric
driving mode, and so on.
Through this introduction of Electrical Hybridization, the reader could accordingly get a better
understanding of both the aims and the scopes of this comparative study of hybrid electric
powertrains. Thereby, a significant battery content capacity in conjunction with high relative EM
power has to be considered since the main scope of this study is to design either a plug‐in hybrid or a
range extender in a larger extent. In addition, the four main hybrid electric families derived from the
Chapter 2.1 and their respective powertrain layout were introduced. Those four hybrid electric
powertrain families presented as another scope of this comparative study will be discussed later on
with more details regarding their respective energy efficiency, performances and costs.
‐7‐
3 Presentation of Vehicle Components
The main vehicle components and their related efficiencies are going to be discussed in details in this
section. First of all, the internal combustion engines used in this study are going to be introduced,
and then the electrical machine in conjunction with its related power electronics is going to be
presented. Finally, battery pack and mechanical transmission devices are going to be discussed.
3.1 Internal Combustion Engines
Internal combustion engines and related specifications are going to be discussed here. In the context
of electrical hybridization, the internal combustion engine is considered as the primary energy
converter. As specified in Chapter 1.3, the engines used in this study are the so‐called EB0 and EB2DT
engines manufactured by PSA Peugeot Citroën since the first quarter of 2012.
3.1.1 EB0 Engine
The EB0 engine is a 1.0‐litre 3‐cylinder in‐line spark‐ignition engine which delivers 50 kW peak power
(about 65 hp). This peak power provided by the engine allows the Peugeot 208 to reach a top speed
of about 170 km/h over a road gradient of 0%.
90
0. 2
0.35
0.3
50
0.15
0.32
1 .32
80 0. 0
0.35
0.3
70 40
0.25
0.2 0.22
0.27
0.32
60
Torque [Nm]
Power [kW]
30
0.15
50
32
0.3
0.
0.1
40
27
20
0.
0.3
30
5
0.2
00. .2
0.27
252
20 0.22 0 10
0
10 0. .2 0.15
15
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 2000 4000 0 2000 4000
Speed [rpm] Speed [rpm]
Figure 9: Efficiency Map, Full‐Load Line (left) & Maximum Power Diagram (right) of the EB0 Engine
The efficiency map and the full‐load line of this engine are presented on the left side in Figure 9,
whilst the engine power diagram is presented on the right side. The engine idle speed is of 1000rpm,
whilst the idle fuel consumption is of 0.28l/h. The red line corresponds to the engine full‐load line,
which corresponds to highest delivering engine torques for a given engine speed. The maximum
torque delivered by this engine is equal to 95Nm. The engine peak power of 50kW is reached for the
engine top speed of 5500rpm as depicted in Figure 9. In addition, the highest energy conversion
efficiency achieved by the EB0 engine is about 35%.
For both hybridization and gear shifting strategy purposes, the OOL (Optimum Operating Line)
related to this engine has to be drawn up. The OOL gathers the most efficient operating points of this
‐8‐
engine for a specific load requirement. The blue line in Figure 10 shows the OOL related to the EB0
engine. More information about the OOL and its purposes are depicted in Appendix 2.
0.3
90
0.35
1
0.3
0.
2
0. 3
257
80 00.2.
22
0.2
0.
0.3
0.15
5
70
3
0.
32
0.1
60 0.
0.32
Torque [Nm]
50
3
0.
0.25
0.27
0.22
40 0.32
0.2
0.3
0.15
0.3
30 7 0
0.2
0.27 0.25 0.
0.1
20 0.25 0
0.22 0.2 2
0.2 0.2
10 0.15
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Speed [rpm]
Figure 10: Efficiency Map, Full‐Load Line & OOL of the EB0 Engine
3.1.2 EB2DT Engine
The EB2DT engine is a 1.2‐litre turbocharged 3‐cylinder in‐line spark‐ignition engine which delivers
75kW peak power (about 100 hp). This engine is implemented in the sportive version of the Peugeot
208. The peak power provided by the engine allows the Peugeot 208 to reach a top speed of about
195km/h over a road gradient of 0%
80
0.1
180
0.35
0.37 0.36
0.35
160 70
00. 3
0.32
0.3
0.27
140 5 60
0.25
0.3
0.22
0.36
0.37
0.2
0.36
0.15
120
50
Torque [Nm]
Power [kW]
100
0.1
40
3
0. 35
0
80
3 30
0.302.3
0
0.2
60
0.25
0.2
7 2
7 20
0.2
0.2
0.15
40 5
0. 2
0.22 10
20 0.2
0.1
0.15
0 0
0 2000 4000 0 2000 4000
Speed [rpm] Speed [rpm]
Figure 11: Efficiency Map, Full‐Load Line (left) & Maximum Power Diagram (right) of the EB2DT Engine
The efficiency map and the full‐load line of this engine are presented on the right side in Figure 11,
whilst the delivering engine power is on the left side. According to its related engine efficiency map,
the best energy conversion efficiency achieved by the EB2DT engine is equal to 37% i.e. 2% higher
‐9‐
than the EB0 highest efficiency owing to the turbocharged feature. The engine peak power equal to
75kW and is achieved at top engine speed i.e. 5500rpm. In addition, the maximum torque delivered
by this engine is of 187Nm as depicted by the full‐load line. Finally, the idle engine speed is equal to
1000rpm, whilst the idle fuel consumption is of 0.47 liters per hour.
The OOL of the EB2DT engine was also drawn up for both hybridization and gear shifting strategy
purposes. The blue line in Figure 12 corresponds to the OOL related to the EB2DT engine, whilst both
engine efficiency map and engine full‐load line are also depicted. More information regarding the
OOL and its purposes are located in Appendix 2.
0.
180 0. 32
0.27
35
0.25
0.3
0.22
7
0.3
160
0.2
6
36
0.35
0.15
0.35
0.
0.1
140 0.3
0.320.3
0.37
120
35
0.
Torque [Nm]
100 0. 36
0.27
0.25 2
5
0.3
0.2
80
0.2
2
0.3
0.15
60
0.1
0.32 0.3
0.3
40 0.27
0.27 0.25
0.25 0.22
20 0.22 0.2
0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Speed [rpm]
Figure 12: Efficiency Map, Full‐Load Line (blue line) & OOL (red line) of the EB2DT Engine
3.1.3 Dynamic Operation of Internal Combustion Engines
The engine operating points vary as quickly as the power requirement is varying. All the engine
efficiency maps presented previously are related to combustion performances in stationary
operation. Thereby, the same maps are not clearly similar in transient transition when changing from
one stationary operating point to another. Indeed there are several phenomena related to change of
operating point which impact combustion performances such as [3]:
‐ Air and exhaust gas flow changes i.e. “plug” effect of these gases
‐ Injection of more or less fuel leads to wall‐wetting phenomenon i.e. partial condensation of
injected fuel to the inlet manifold, which reduces fuel that reached combustion chamber
The engine control system associated with a rate of change of operating point via the means of a first
order time constant allows the operation of the ICE to avoid dynamic effects. Thereby, if an internal
combustion engine is used with limited dynamics owing to e.g. a 1‐second time constant, then the
stationary maps presented above are more accurate to describe engine combustion performances.
The motivation beyond better accuracy is that the intended use in a hybrid electric powertrain in a
natural way allows limitation of engine dynamics. Note that this dynamic limitation is not possible
with conventional powertrains since the engine has to supply power at any time according to the
very variable road power requirements. Thereby, those engine efficiency maps will be assumed to be
enough correct for simulation purposes even for the two reference vehicles powered by a
conventional powertrain and presented later on.
‐10‐
3.2 Electrical Machine & Power Electronics
3.2.1 Electrical Machine
The electrical machine (EM) used in this material is the so‐called EHA machine manufactured by the
BMW/PSA Joint Venture (BPCE). This machine is a radial three‐phase permanent magnet
synchronous machine whose rotor consists of an alloy of neodymium, iron and bore. In addition, the
EM full‐load line is depicted as a red line in Figure 13. In addition to the full‐load line, the efficiency
map pictured in corresponds to the EM efficiency by including power electronics efficiency as well.
Thereby, copper losses, iron losses (hysteresis losses and eddy current losses), friction and windage
losses of the machine [4] coupled with conduction and switching losses of the power electronics [5]
are depicted in this efficiency map. Note that beyond the full‐load line the efficiency map was
expanded in order to avoid computing failures. The maximum torque delivered by the machine is
equal to 170Nm and is achievable up to the base speed. The base speed of this machine is equal to
200rad/s.
Field weakening operation is included in the full‐load line depicted in Figure 13. However, the field
weakening used with the EHA machine is not equivalent to an ideal field weakening since the
machine mechanical power is not constant beyond its base speed. Figure 14 depicts this difference
caused by EM design limitations and EM control strategies between ideal field weakening operation
and real operation through both a ωT diagram on the left side and a ωP diagram on the right side.
Therefore, the peak power delivered by the EHA machine is equal to 43kW and is only reachable for
a speed of about 400rad/s. The mechanical power released at EM top speed is equal to 32.5kW i.e.
almost one quarter less than its peak power. In addition, a maximum energy conversion efficiency of
93% is achievable by the EHA machine.
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
160
0.9
0.8
0.9
0. 7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.9
140
120
0. 85
100
Torque [Nm]
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.5
80
0.4
0.9
60
0. 9
0.9
0.92
0.85
40
0.9
0.92 0.9 0.09.9
0.8
20
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.9
4
0.92 0.92
0.
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.850.4
0.5 0.9
0.7
0.8
0.850.4
0.6
0.5 0.850.4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Speed [rad/s]
Figure 13: Efficiency Map & Full‐Load Curve (red line) of the EHA Electrical Machine
Both the efficiency map and the full‐load curve of the EHA machine were considered as reference for
either upsizing or downsizing purposes through machine torque and speed distortions according to
power design of various hybrid electric powertrains. Note that the value of 35kW was considered as
the EM reference power for upsizing/downsizing purposes. This reference power value is closer to
the top speed power than the peak power since the designed vehicles in this material have to be
‐11‐
designed for relatively high top speed in full‐electric driving mode as discussed later on in the
Chapter 4.1.
0.9
45
0.9
0.9
160
0.9
0.85
40
140
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
35
120
0.9
0.9
30
100
0.9 0.9
Torque [Nm]
Power [kW]
0.9
0.9
25
0.9
80
0.85
20
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
60
15
0.9
40 0.9
0. 10
92
0.9
9
Efficiency Map 0.
20 5
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.7
0.6
85
0 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0 4 0.4
0.5 0
0 500 1000 0 500 1000
Speed [rad/s] Speed [rad/s]
Figure 14: Ideal & Real Field Weakening Operations related to the EHA Electrical Machine
3.2.2 Power Electronics
Power electronics used in conjunction with the EM are four‐quadrant AC‐DC converters since the
battery pack used in this material supplies a DC current, whilst reverse and braking capabilities have
to be carried out by the EM through an AC current. The AC‐DC three‐phase converter consists of a
three parallel‐connected full‐bridge converters, as depicted in Figure 15. Power electronics efficiency
is already included in the EM efficiency map presented previously.
Figure 15: Three‐phase ac‐dc Converter [5]
In addition, pulse width modulation (PWM) is the method used for controlling the output voltages in
this three‐phase AC‐DC converter through the three power transistor devices. Power MOSFETs
(Metal‐Oxide‐Semiconductor field‐Effect Transistor) are usually the best candidates as transistor
devices in applications below 400V as assumed here. Indeed, in this voltage range, power MOSFETs
have lower on‐state voltage drop, faster‐switching speeds and are easier to control in comparison
with IGBTs (Insulated‐Gate Bipolar Transistors). Figure 16 depicts the circuit symbol of both a power
MOSFET and an IGBT.
‐12‐
Figure 16: Circuit Symbols of Power MOSFET (left) & IGBT (right) [5]
In addition to the AC‐DC converter whose efficiency is included in the EM efficiency map depicted
previously, a DC‐DC converter has to be implemented between the battery pack circuit and the DC
circuit dedicated for the auxiliaries. This converter has a given conversion efficiency between 95 and
98% and was assumed to be negligible in this study. Thereby, the DC‐DC converter efficiency
implemented in all the hybrid electric powertrains was assumed to be equal to 100%, and therefore
was not taken into consideration for modeling.
3.2.3 Regenerative Braking Capability
One of the main advantages of the design of EMs implemented in vehicles is the capability to recover
energy during braking, the so‐called regenerative braking. Here full capability to recover braking
energy was assumed in all this material since four‐quadrant power electronics were assumed to be
implemented in conjunction with suitable motor control system and braking management system
such as the so‐called EHB system (Electronic Hydraulic Brake). Note that this full capability is however
limited by the design regarding torque, speed, and power of the reference EM depicted previously by
assuming that both the full‐load line and the efficiency map are similar between the quadrants.
3.3 Battery Pack
Plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles and related issues are going to be discussed in this material. As
depicted in the part “Context”, one way to improve efficiency of the ICE‐powered vehicles is to
implement a buffering energy system in order to handle energy consumption variations such as
absorbing braking energy or supporting the primary energy converter (internal combustion engine).
Here in the electrification context, the secondary energy storage i.e. the battery pack is in most cases
electrochemical.
First of all, a short overview of the electrochemical storage systems related to the battery pack
technologies are going to be introduced. The aim of this first part is to warrant the finally selected
battery technology. In addition, the battery simulation model is going to be discussed. And finally,
the three battery strategy managements considered as relevant are going to be depicted in details.
3.3.1 Electrochemical Storage
An overview of the technologies of electrochemical storage related to the electrical battery pack is
going to be introduced in this part.
Numerous battery types have been developed, but only a small number of them can be taken into
consideration for traction purposes. Four main features are related to the battery technology. The
energy density (Wh/kg) gives a relation between battery weight and battery energy content. This
parameter allows usually assessing vehicle range. The power density (W/kg) is a measure of the peak
power capability related to the maximum available electrical current that the battery can deliver as a
function of its weight. This parameter is directly connected to both the vehicle acceleration capability
‐13‐
and its achievable top speed. In addition to those two features, the cycle life is the number of
discharge/charge cycles a battery can sustain. The cycle life capability is closely related to many
factors such as power level at which the battery operates, the temperature, the depth of discharge,
and so on. The cycle life feature is given in number of cycles i.e. a charge followed by a discharge
according to specific charging and discharging degrees. Here the life cycle is considered as
terminated when the battery capacity falls under 70% of its nominal energy capacity. Finally, the last
battery feature is its cost given per kWh. Table 1 gathers all the main electrochemical battery
technologies used today and their respective features. The energy content values given in Table 1
have to be compared with those from both the gasoline and the diesel which are both equal to about
12kWh/kg.
High power density is required for power assistance to the engine and high energy recovering
capability during braking in battery charge sustaining mode. In addition to this specification, high
energy content is also required since one of the scopes of this study is to design a PHEV with an
extensive full‐electric mode i.e. an extensive battery charge depleting mode capability. Finally, the
battery cycle life has to be as high as possible since the full‐electric driving mode will be regular.
Therefore, according to those requirements, only the nickel‐metal hydride and the lithium
technologies are likely to be used as secondary energy storage system in a PHEV. The main
advantage of the NiM‐H technology is its cost in comparison with this related to the Lithium
technology. However, its high energy content capability in conjunction with its higher power density
makes the lithium technology as electrochemical energy storage the best candidate for the design of
a PHEV.
According to the Vehicle Specifications, by assuming in a first extent an electric consumption of
about 120Wh/km, a requirement of about 9kWh lithium‐ion battery pack whose 85% is considered
as useful is implemented in each hybrid electric powertrain with an energy content of 80Wh/kg
(battery packaging mass included).
3.3.2 Battery Model
The battery model depicts the battery losses that are dissipated through heat. A battery model can
be made very complex, since many factors have to be taken into consideration such as the SOC
(State‐Of‐Charge), the temperature, the electrical current, the SOH (State‐Of‐Health), and so on. In
‐14‐
this comparative study, a simple battery model was implemented which is characterized by both a
constant internal resistance and a constant battery voltage. This battery model is one of the simplest
one, but is well suitable for comparison purposes, and allows also the simulation computing times to
be shorter. This battery model is depicted in Figure 17.
Ploss
ibatt
Rbatt
Figure 17: Schematic Model of the Battery used in this material
Here a battery voltage of 300V was assumed coupled with a battery loss at nominal power
(PtermMAX=50kW) equal to 10%. This value of 50kW is derived from the electrical machine power
requirement according to the Vehicle Specifications discussed later on. By taking into consideration
those two assumptions, a battery resistance can be computed by taking into consideration Equations
( 1 ), ( 2 ) and ( 3 ). Here the battery resistance is thereby equal to 0.22Ω. Note that all parameters
are described in the
Nomenclature.
. . ( 1 )
In addition to those two main assumptions, the battery efficiency can be computed owing to
Equations ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) . Finally, the battery efficiency as a function of the battery terminal power is
depicted in Figure 18. Negative power corresponds to battery discharging, whilst positive power
corresponds to battery charging. Moreover, the battery efficiency values in the battery discharging
area have to be understood by comparing them with two, which leads to get a battery efficiency of
about 60% as battery discharging level of 50kW.
2. 2. ( 4 )
.
( 5 )
Note finally that the assumption of a constant battery terminal voltage is not so aberrant since the
related power electronics converter is usually used to adapt the battery to a fixed voltage in order to
‐15‐
ensure right operation of the traction system components. The most aberrant assumption in this
battery model is the constant resistance. Indeed, this latter parameter is significantly dependent on
the battery SOC, its temperature, and the battery terminal power level. However, the value of 0.22Ω
for the battery resistance taken into consideration in this material is not so aberrant. Indeed, this
value is close to the overall resistance value of the 192‐cell lithium‐ion battery whose 96 cells are in
series studied currently at PSA Peugeot Citroën. This specific battery delivers an overall voltage of
almost 345V for a nominal voltage of 3.6V per cell while its overall capacity is of 15kWh. The nominal
cell resistance is about equal to 2.5mΩ at 20°C and equal to 3.5mΩ at 10°C. Thereby, the overall cell
resistance of this battery is included between 0.12Ω and 0.17Ω respectively. Even though this specific
battery pack is slightly different to this implemented in this study especially regarding its capacity,
the magnitude is similar since windings and connectors were not taken into consideration previously.
Windings and connectors have to be taken into consideration. That is why a slightly higher overall
resistance of 0.22Ω was finally chosen afterwards.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Efficiency
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Battery Power [W] 4
x 10
Figure 18: Battery Efficiency as a function of Battery Terminal Power
3.3.3 Battery Strategy Managements
Two basic battery charge modes are implemented for the design of a PHEV. Those two basic modes
are depicted in Figure 19. The main purpose of a PHEV is to get the capability to recharge the battery
directly from the grid and therefore consume first cheap electricity. This capabilty is depicted
through the charge depleting mode from a maximum SOC value (100%) up to a specific reference
SOC value considered as 5% in this material. When the battery SOC reaches the reference SOC value,
the SOC value has to be maintained around the reference SOC value. The battery is never emptied
completely. Here the second battery charge mode, the so‐called charge sustaining mode, is
implemented as depicted in Figure 19.
‐16‐
Charge Depleting
mode
SOC Max
Charge Sustaining
mode
SOC sustMax
SOC sustRef
SOC sustMin
Distance
Figure 19: Principle Chart of the Battery Charge Modes for a PHEV
As discussed, the battery charge sustaining mode is dedicated to maintain the SOC value around the
reference SOC value. In this material, two charge sustaining strategies were implemented in order to
assess more accurately and without bias the energy conversion efficiency capabilities related to each
hybrid electric powertrain investigated in this material.
The first sustaining mode, the so‐called “sustaining I”, corresponds to a basic controller whose
reference value is equal to the reference SOC value. In all the Simulink models related to each
powertrain topology, a basic proportional controller was introduced in order to adjust power
requirement derived from the battery. Thereby, a continuous power balance over the battery has to
be performed and the main adjustment variable is to change the power delivered by the engine by
taling into consideration the road power requirements as well. This specific sustaining mode is
depicted in Figure 20.
ICE on @
highest
efficient
operating
SOCsustMax
point
SOCsustMin
SOCsustRef
SOCsafety ICE off
ICE on @
highest
power
Distance Distance
Figure 20: Principle Charts of “Sustaining I” mode (left) and “Sustaining II” mode (right)
In addition to the “sustaining I” charge sustaining mode, a second sustaining mode, the so‐called
“sustaining II”, was introduced and corresponds to an alternation of short charge depleting mode
followed by short recharging mode. The main idea of this charge sustaining mode is to make the
engine operate at its highest efficiency when this latter is turned on. The power related to this best
efficient operating point is called PiceOPTIMAL and is derived from ωiceOPTIMAL and TiceOPTIMAL. Obviously
when the power delivered by the engine at its highest efficient operating point is not enough to keep
‐17‐
the SOC value around the reference SOC value, the engine has to operate at its maximum power.
Thereby, three parameters related to respective SOC values were introduced in this charge sustaining
mode under the names of SOC max, SOC min, and safety SOC. A basic algorithm was implemented
through Simulink in order to make this mode operate properly as depicted previously (cf. Equation
( 6 ) where P*iceDEPLETION is the reference engine power requirement when ICE turned on). The basic
principle of this algorithm is presented in Figure 20. This particular charge sustaining mode is more
dedicated for specific hybrid electric powertrains such as Series hybrid powertrain which have the
capability to make the engine to operate along its OOL. Note however that basically this strategy is
based also on a power balance over the vehicle, only the SOC target is changed regularly and this
induces high power requirements to charge and then discharge the battery. Thereby the engine will
not operate all the time at its highest efficiency especially when the SOC value is close to the SOC
max value since the engine power requirements might be lower than PiceOPTIMAL. However
experiments have shown that most of the time the engine is operated at its highest efficient
operating point owing to the battery charge controller design especially.
0
. ( 6 )
The reader has to understand that CO2 emissions related to fuel consumption is closely dependent
on the battery strategy implemented in charge sustaining mode. Thereby, specific driving conditions
such as urban conditions are more beneficial for such‐and‐such battery strategy management, whilst
highway conditions would be rather more beneficial for the other one. Switch between the two
battery strategies in charge sustaining mode was taken into consideration in this material and was
called “Active Strategy Control”. This active battery management will be discussed more in details
later on.
3.4 Transmissions
3.4.1 Reduction Gear Set
In each hybrid powertrain topologies, one reduction gear set at least was implemented in order to
adjust the EM top speed with the vehicle top speed. Thereby, reduction gear ratio issues are going to
be discussed later on according to the power design for each hybrid electric powertrain layout. This
reduction gear ratio corresponds also to the final gear ratio derived from the transaxle gear set in the
conventional vehicles as the reference EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 for instance.
A reduction gear set is characterized by a fixed‐gear ratio (gr). Torque and speed relations over a
reduction gear set are depicted in Equations ( 7 ) and ( 8 ). Those two formulas are based on the
principle sketch presented below in Figure 21. In this material, a constant transmission efficiency of
98% was assumed for a reduction gear set.
( 7 ) ( 8 )
‐18‐
gr
Tinput
ωinput
Toutput
ωoutput
Figure 21: Principle Sketch of a Reduction Gear Set
3.4.2 Gearbox
Both gear ratios and gear shifting strategy are going to be discussed in this section. Two gearboxes
are going to be considered in this study. A first one dedicated for the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208, and
another one dedicated for the EB2DT‐powered Peugeot 208. Those gearboxes introduced in this
material have to be considered as automated gearboxes i.e. with automatic gear selection according
to a specific gear shifting strategy. The mechanical efficiency of this transmission is assumed to be
equal to 96% with transaxle gear set efficiency included.
3.4.2.1 Gear Ratios
The term “gearbox” here gathers the automated 5‐speed gearbox coupled with a transaxle gear set.
Table 2 shows the gear ratios and the final gear ratio derived from the transaxle gear set for the EB0‐
powered Peugeot 208. In addition, gear ratios and final gear ratio for the EB2DT‐powered Peugeot
208 are depicted in Table 3. All those ratios were given in vehicle speed according to an engine
reference speed of 1000 rpm. Note that the gear ratios are similar, which implies that the two
gearboxes are basically similar. Only the final gear ratios are different, and reflect the higher
available engine torque delivered by the EB2DT engine in comparison with the less powerful EB0
engine.
3.4.2.2 Gear Shifting Strategy
The main issue related to a gearbox is to know when to change speed. The aim of this gearbox has to
be an eco‐gearbox related to emission reduction in the context of this study. Therefore, the main
purpose of the gear shifting strategy is to maximize engine efficiency in order to reduce fuel
consumption, and then restrict CO2 emissions. Thus, the engine OOL is going to be used in order to
find the most appropriate gear ratio to maximize energy conversion efficiency through the engine.
The gear selection strategy related to the gear shifting strategy is depicted in Figure 22 and was used
in each powertrain equipped with a gearbox. First of all, the given road power requirement (velocity
and wheel torque are given respectively by the driver model) allows getting access to engine speed
and torque related to the engine OOL. Then, the ideal gear ratio is computed and corresponds to the
‐19‐
speed ratio between the wheel speed and the engine speed derived from its OOL. Later on, gear
selection is carried out through a Look‐up Index block by selecting the closest gear ratio to the ideal
ratio. Therefore, the real engine speed can be computed and the real engine torque is then derived
from a power balance over the gearbox. Finally, the real engine operating point is thereby known.
Wheel Torque Requirement Vehicle Velocity
Traction Power Requirement
0.1
90
0.3
0.32
0.35
80
0.32
0.3
0. 35
0.25
0.22
70
0.27
0.2
0.15
0.32
60
Torque [Nm]
0.1
32
50
0.3
0.
40
7
0.3
0.2
0.25
30
0.22
5
0.27
0.2
0.2
0.15
20 2
0.2
0.2
0.1
10 0.15
0
0 200 400
Speed [rad/s]
Ideal Engine Torque Ideal Engine Speed
OOL
Ideal Gear Ratio
u k
k
f
Gear Selection
f
Prelookup
(Look‐up Index)
real Engine Torque real Engine Speed
Energy Balance
Figure 22: Gear Shifting Strategy related to Gearbox
Note that when a need of acceleration is required, gear position is likely to be reduced. Indeed, the
vehicle speed is relatively low at the beginning, whilst the engine speed has to be high according to
its OOL in order to get enough power to propell the vehicle.
3.4.3 Planetary Gear Set
A planetary gear set is used in general as a power‐split device in the power‐split hybrid electric
powertrain. Thereby, this mechanical transmission device is going to be discussed in this part and is
highly related to the power design of the power‐split hybrid electric powertrain discussed more in
details later on.
In this material, the power‐split powertrain layout corresponds to one introduced by Toyota with its
Prius i.e. the ICE connected to the carrier wheel, and the two electrical machines EM1 and EM2
connected respectively to the solar wheel and the ring wheel [6]. In addition, the ring wheel is
connected to the vehicle wheels through the transaxle gear set. This specific layout is depicted in
Figure 23. The way how this transmission device is working in the case of the power‐split topology is
going to be discussed later on.
‐20‐
Figure 23: Plane
etary Gear Set a
and Basic Layout
A planettary gear sett is characterized by its rratio betwee en the ring wwheel radiuss and the sollar wheel
radius. TThis ratio is d
depicted in EEquation ( 9 ) and is called kpl. A torq
que applied on the carriier wheel
leads to be altered o on the solar wheel accorrding to Equation ( 10 ). This same to orque applieed on the
wheel leads tto be altered
carrier w d on the ring wheel accorrding to Equaation ( 11 ).
( 9 )
( 10 ) ( 11 )
In addition to those relations, sp
peed relation n between planetary wheeels is depictted in Equattion ( 12 )
as a funcction of the p
planetary gear ratio (kpl)..
( 12
2 )
By assum ming that the transmisssion losses of a planettary gear seet are purely related to
o friction
between n gears, a mechanical
m transmission efficiency of
o 97% for this
t device w
was assume ed in this
material. This value included beetween thosse derived frrom the reduction gear set and thee gearbox
reflects tthe limited aamount of geears operated in this mecchanical tran nsmission device.
‐21‐
4 Design & Modeling
This part is dedicated to the power design of each hybrid electric powertrain and the related
justifications according to the vehicle specifications. In addition, modeling is going to be discussed
meanwhile for each investigated powertrain.
4.1 Vehicle Specifications
Vehicle specifications regarding top speed, acceleration, ranges, and so on have to be presented in
order to make the power design feasible for each hybrid electric powertrain. Those specifications are
depicted in and are indexed according to either ideal specifications (top edges) or admissible
specifications (limit edges). In addition, three driving modes are discussed in Table 4. The “electric
mode” corresponds to a full‐electric traction mode where the engine is turned off. The “hybrid
mode” corresponds to a battery charge sustaining mode where both ICE and EMs are working.
Finally, the “Unavailable battery mode” is related to a driving mode where the battery reaches its
minimum SOC and cannot assist any more the engine. Long slope and extreme temperature
conditions are the typical example of this latter driving mode.
One of the main scopes of this study is to design either a plug‐in hybrid or a range extender. Thereby,
the related electrification degree has to be high, which means high EM power and high battery
energy content for extensive full‐electric mode purposes. In Table 4, the specifications related to the
electric mode and to the hybrid mode are similar. To reflect this, the design of a high electrified
vehicle where the driver cannot feel the driving mode shift is considered. The values regarding
performances are directly derived from the Nissan Leaf in the Ideal column and from the Peugeot Ion
‐22‐
in the Admissible column. In addition, most of the required top speeds are given with a road gradient
of 4% in order to make the designed vehicles to get robust features regarding gradeability for
instance. Note also that top speeds in “Unavailable Battery” mode are basically similar to those
derived from the Hybrid mode since the speed has to be maintained and that involves no battery
power assistance. Performances related to acceleration ability are also discussed through two
standard acceleration tests: standing start testing up to 100km/h, and acceleration testing from 80
up to 120km/h.
4.2 Reference Vehicles
In this part, the two reference vehicles, the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 and the E2DT‐powered
Peugeot 208, are going to be introduced with more details especially regarding modeling.
4.2.1 Power Design
Basic technical parameters of the Peugeot 208 powered by either the EB0 engine or the EB2DT
engine are depicted in Table 5. The wheel radius of those two vehicles was induced owing to
Equation ( 13 ) where Rwheel and Iwheel stand respectively for the wheel radius and the wheel involute.
Note that a Stop&Start system, also called Stop&Go system, is introduced in term of weight in Table
5 for energy efficiency comparison purposes.
( 13 )
2.
In addition to the wheel radius, both rolling resistance coefficient and drag resistance coefficient with
related surface are also given. All those parameters allow acceding to the so‐called road resistance
force. A road power requirement can be derived from this road resistance force and is depicted in
Equation ( 14 ) where α is the road angle.
1
. . . . . . . ( 14 )
2
Power requirement for both reference vehicles with 75kg of cargo are depicted in Figures 24 and 25.
Note that the power requirements for those two car models are very close due to a relative similar
vehicle mass. In addition, the road power requirements were also drawn up for various road
gradients from 0% up to 7%. Thereby, as a first approach the top speeds achievable are respectively
145km/h and 175km/h for the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 (50kW) and the EB2DT‐powered Peugeot
208 (75kW) for a road gradient of 4%. Note here that the gearbox ratios are not taken into
consideration and are closely related to the top speed capability. The gearbox ratios are taken into
consideration in Figures 26 and 27. Thereby, the top speed of the reference vehicle powered by the
‐23‐
EB0 engine is of 140km/h for a road gradient of 4%, whilst the top speed of the second reference
vehicle is decreased to 170km/h.
100 100
0% gradient 0% gradient
90 4% gradient 90 4% gradient
7% gradient 7% gradient
80 80
70 70
Road Power [kW]
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Vehicle Speed [km/h] Vehicle Speed [km/h]
Figure 24: Road Power Requirement for the EB0‐ Figure 25: Road Power Requirement for the EB2DT‐
powered Peugeot 208 powered Peugeot 208
80 80
5th 5th
70 4th 70 4th
3rd 3rd
2nd 2nd
60 60
1st 1st
Road Power Road Power
50 50
Power [kW]
Power [kW]
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 50 100 150 200 250
Vehicle Velocity [km/h] Vehicle Velocity [km/h]
Figure 26: Top Speed Capability (Road Gradient of 4%) Figure 27: Top Speed Capability (Road Gradient of 4%)
of the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 of the EB2DT‐powered Peugeot 208
1800 3000
5th 5th
1600 4th 4th
3rd 2500 3rd
1400 2nd 2nd
1st 1st
1200 Maximum Wheel Torque 2000 Maximum Wheel Torque
Wheel Torque [Nm]
1000
1500
800
600 1000
400
500
200
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 0 50 100 150 200 250
Vehicle Speed [km/h] Vehicle Speed [km/h]
Figure 28: Wheel Torque Diagram for the EB0‐powered Figure 29: Wheel Torque Diagram for the EB2DT‐
Peugeot 208 powered Peugeot 208
In addition to the top speed definition for both reference models, performances of the two reference
vehicles have to be assessed owing to wheel torque diagrams. Note that acceleration performances
‐24‐
are assessed according to a road gradient of 0%. Maximum wheel torque is depicted in Figures 28
and 29 respectively for the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 and the EB2DT‐powered Peugeot 208. Note
that the engine top speeds were intentionally slightly reduced (blue lines) since the required ideal
top speed according to the Vehicle Specifications is only of 145km/h. Since the maximum available
wheel torque is known for any vehicle speeds, the acceleration performances can be computed
owing to Equation ( 15 ) (force balance over the vehicle). Twheel stands for the wheel torque provided
by the engine while Froad is the road resistance force (rolling and drag resistance forces). Note that
inertia masses for all the topologies derived from rotating parts were neglected in this study as
depicted in Equation ( 15 ) since considered as negligible compared with the vehicle gross mass.
. ( 15 )
Performances regarding numerical values related to those two reference vehicles are gathered later
on in 8 in the section 4.2.3. The related acceleration performances were computed instead by the
Simulink models by introducing speed echelons as reference speeds. By using models, delay times
such as gear shifting times and time constant responses are here taken into consideration through
the Simulink modeling.
4.2.2 Modeling
4.2.2.1 Driver Model
The driver model is designed as a simple PI‐controller with anti‐windup on the integrator to prevent
saturation in the actuator. The required wheel torque (Twheel) to perform the requested vehicle speed
(v*) is computed owing to Equation ( 16 ). Note that the requested vehicle speed is provided by the
driving cycle speed‐point diagram through a look‐up table.
1
. . ( 16 )
.
The parameters of the PI controller (K and τ) are going to be discussed through a simple closed loop
speed control system (cf. Figure 30). The poles of this system were placed at the limit to oscillatory
poles i.e. poles equal to 0. This choice gives rather good dynamic performance without an oscillatory
behavior.
* *
v + Speed F F 1 v
1
Controller
‐
Figure 30: Simple Driver Model
The basic speed control transfer function is depicted in Equation ( 17 ) where Kv is the static gain and
Ti is the integration time constant.
1
1 ( 17 )
‐25‐
Thereby, the closed system transfer function and its related poles are presented respectively in
Equations ( 18 ) and ( 19 ). As discussed previously, by placing the poles at the limit to oscillatory
poles i.e. the equation discriminant equal to zero for dynamic purposes, the static gain of the speed
controller has to be related to its integration time constant as depicted in Equation ( 20 ).
1
( 18 ) ( 19 )
2 4
4
( 20 )
Thus the gain is proportional to the vehicle mass. Finally, the integration time constant has to be
selected as Ti = 3s in this material. This value is dedicated for a 1000kg vehicle and is then
proportional to the vehicle weight. The basic relation between Ti and Mv is depicted in Equation ( 21 )
and was used for all the models designed in this material. Thereby, for a 10000kg vehicle, the
integration time constant is equal to 10s instead of 3s. In addition the integration time constant
corresponds also to a fraction of the acceleration time to 100km/h that can be expected.
1000
3 7. ( 21 )
9000
The driver model implemented in all the Simulink models is depicted in Figure 31. Note the anti‐
windup on the integrator through the capabilities to initialize the controller integral to a desired
value (initial condition equal to 0), to disable the integral function until the to‐be‐controlled process
variable has entered the controllable region (closed loop applied on the wheel torque difference
through the “Max Wheel Torque” saturation block), and to apply saturation limits over the
integration block.
|u|
Kv
1 Integration
v* 1/Ti 1 rw 1
s Ttot*
F * -> T * Max Wheel Torque
2 |u|
v
Abs Close the integral action
at standstill Driver is modelled as a PI controller
Tactive torque is computed by the controller
Figure 31: Simulink Model of the Driver Model
4.2.2.2 Model of ICE Operating Point Selection
As described previously, the gear shifting strategy related to the gearbox is based on the engine OOL.
Thereby, ideal engine torque and speed according to the engine OOL as a function of the traction
power requirement derived from the Driver Model has to be computed.
‐26‐
This ICE operating point selection is ensured by two Look‐up Table blocks as depicted in Figure 32. In
addition, Saturation blocks were also added in order to reflect engine torque and speed limitations. A
Min/max block was also added in order to reflect torque limitation as a function to engine speed.
min
Topt_ice
1
MinMax
Torque Tice*
limitation -> T
2
wice*
wopt_ice
Figure 32: ICE Operating Point Selection according to its OOL
4.2.2.3 Gearbox Model
The gearbox model implemented in the two reference models and also in all the powertrains
requiring a gearbox with more and less gears is going to be depicted in this part. The gear shifting
strategy was discussed previously and is presented in Figure 22.
The core issue of this strategy is to select the right ratio according to the methodology derived on the
ideal gear ratio. This selection is carried out by a Look‐up Index Search block in conjunction with a
Direct Look‐up Table block as depicted in Figure 33. One of the inputs of this Simulink model is the
ideal gear ratio computed upstream. The closest gear is then selected owing to the Look‐up Index
Search block which locates the input’s relative position within a specific range of number (here the
gear ratios derived from the gearbox). An interval index (here the gear position) and a distance
fraction (here the gear ratio distance expressed in percentage between the selected ratio and the
next one) are returned by this block. In addition, gear shifting hysteresis is introduced through a
Relay block applied on the distance fraction. Finally the gear position is known and the related gear
ratio has to be computed owing to the Direct Look‐up Table block located upstream.
Hybrid
wice_new
1 Switch4
2
10s+1
Downshift
u 1-D T[k]
1 k em
f
Ideal_ratio
Saturation
Direct Look-Up
PreLook-Up Relay
Table (n-D)
Index Search
3
Scope
SOC
OOL_Follower
Number_of_gears
0
Figure 33: Gear Ratio Selection Model
Note that a so‐called “Speedy” variable was introduced in the Simulink model through a Relay block
called “Downshift”. The aim of this variable is to make the gear shifting strategy be more sportive i.e.
a “one gear down” strategy. As long as the new ICE speed reference is low, a one gear ratio higher
i.e. a lower gear position than the ideal one is selected. This strategy is given up when the engine
speed reaches 85% of the engine maximum speed, and is reengaged when the engine speed drops
below 55% of the engine maximum speed.
‐27‐
Furthermore, a second Direct Look‐up Table block in conjunction with a Compare To Constant block
was added in order to avoid the engine to operate at higher engine speed than its related maximum
speed. This second loop is not depicted in Figure 33 and is located just downstream.
4.2.2.4 Road Model
The road resistance force derived from Equation ( 14 ) was modeled in Simulink through the
following model (cf. Figure 34). The input data of this model are the vehicle velocity (only variable
input), the air density, S.Cx, Cr, the road gradient given in %, the vehicle mass, the gravitational
constant, whilst the only output is the road resistance force. This output data is then used to
compute the new vehicle velocity through a force balance over the vehicle, which induces vehicle
acceleration calculation.
Air resistance
rho_air
S.Cx
1/2
v
1 |u|
Abs
-1 1
Sat +/-1
Froad
Mv
grav
Roll resistance
Cr
-K-
u2 Slope
sqrt
2
u 100
Figure 34: Road Model
4.2.2.5 Stop&Start Model
The reference vehicles can be equipped with a Stop&Start system, also called Stop&Go system. This
system can turn off the engine as a function of a dedicated methodology: the engine is turned off if
both the wheel speed is low and the wheel torque requirement derived from the driver model is
equal to zero. This system was introduced in order to make more relevant energy conversion
efficiency comparisons between powertrain topologies. The Simulink modeling of the Stop&Start
system is depicted in Figure 35. This Simulink model consists of a “NAND” logical operator box in
conjunction with two Relay blocks.
2 Turn off ICE @ low speed and low torque if StopAndGo option is on
NAND
Twheel*
1 @ Twheel=0
1 @ standstill StopAndGo
with T*wheel >1 Switch2
1
1
wwheel
1 @ wwheel low
Figure 35: Stop&Start Model
4.2.2.6 Model Validation
Model validation is going to be discussed in this part in term of energy conversion efficiency
expressed as C02 emission per kilometer in the case of the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 in comparison
‐28‐
with the official emission value. The emission value related to this specific conventional powertrain is
of 100gCO2/km over the NEDC cycle [7].
A fuel consumption of 4.37l/100km over the NEDC cycle through the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208
model was computed. Thereby, the CO2 emissions related to the Simulink model are equal to
100gCO2/km for an auxiliary load of 100W (instead of 200W). This specific choice concerning the
auxiliary load allows getting results closer to the official emission certification. Therefore, a load of
100W was applied for all the powertrains depicted in this material later on.
Thereby, the conventional Simulink model related to both the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 and the
more sportive EB2DT‐powered Peugeot 208 is validated and was used as a basis for model creation
of all the hybrid electric powertrains.
4.2.3 Results: Energy Consumptions & Performances
This last part dedicated to the two reference vehicles gathers the gasoline consumptions over the
European cycle and the WLTP cycle. In addition to those figures, those derived from the
implementation of a Stop&Start system are also depicted in this part. Gasoline consumptions given in
liter per 100 kilometers for both car versions are depicted in Tables 6 and 7. Those results will be
compared with those coming from hybrid electric powertrains later on.
Fuel consumptions are higher over the WLTC cycle in comparison with those derived from the
European cycle. Higher severity regarding acceleration requirements related to the WLTP cycle is
reflected in those results and is discussed in more details in Appendix 1. Note that the fuel saving
capability owing to the implementation of a Stop&Start system is significantly reduced over the
WLTC cycle. In addition, larger fuel saving capability is noticed in the case of the EB2DT engine with
‐29‐
the implementation of a Stop&Start system. This extensive fuel saving is explained by a higher idle
fuel consumption for the EB2DT engine.In addition to energy consumptions, performances regarding
acceleration and tops speeds of both reference vehicles are depicted in 8. Figures in Tables 6, 7 and 8
are gathered in Chapter 5 with those derived from the other investigated drivetrains to ease the
comparisons.
4.3 Power Preliminary Design of Hybrid Electric Powertrains
This part is dedicated to the preliminary design for the various hybrid electric powertrains according
to the Vehicle Specifications in order to get basic assumptions related to their power requirements.
The vehicle gross mass assumed in this part for calculation purposes and its related parameters such
as drag coefficient and rolling resistance coefficient are directly derived from the EB0‐powered
Peugeot 208 as depicted previously in Table 5. Specific power margins were added in order to offset
the gross mass differences between the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 and the various hybrid electric
powertrains. Note that the powers computed in this part have to be considered exclusively as
indicative powers regarding the different driving modes and their related top speed requirements
since the gross mass of each PHEV are not yet known.
80
4% gradient
70
60
50
Road Power [kW]
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Vehicle Speed [km/h]
Figure 36: Power Requirement in Electric & Hybrid Modes
According to the Vehicle Specifications, a top speed of at least 130km/h along a road gradient of 4%
is expected in full‐electric mode, hybrid mode (battery charge sustaining mode) and unavailable
battery mode. Thereby, by applying a relative power margin of 25% since vehicle gross mass increase
not taken into consideration in a first extent, a power of 50kW is required (cf. Figure 36).
‐30‐
Preliminary design of power requirements are gathered in Table 9 according to the three driving
modes depicted in the Vehicle Specifications.
Preliminary Design of Power Requirements
Electric Mode Hybrid Mode Unavailable Battery Mode
50kW 50kW 50kW
Table 9: Preliminary Design of Power Requirements for the Various Hybrid Electric Powertrains
4.4 Parallel Topology
In this part, the Peugeot 208 parallel hybrid electric topology powered by the EB0 engine is going to
be discussed in details regarding power design and modeling. In addition to those two topics, basic
results of this hybrid topology will be depicted such as energy consumptions and performances.
4.4.1 Operating Principle
This part is dedicated to the operating principle of a parallel hybrid electric powertrain. Various
parallel hybrid electric powertrains with various layouts exist. The selected parallel topology layout
for similar concept development purposes is depicted upstream in this material in Figure 4.
120
100
80
Speed [km/h]
60
40
20
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time [s]
. 0
ICE Efficiency Map
0.2225
90
0.27
0.
0.2
0.35
0.3
0.15
0.32
0.
0.1
32
80
0.35
0.3
70
60
0.32
0.270.25
0.22
0.2
OOL
Torque [Nm]
0.15
50
2
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.27
40
0.3
&
30
0.25
0.27
20 0.22
0.25
0.2
0. 0.2
22
0.15
10 0.15
0.1
0.1
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Speed [rad/s]
Fuel consumption
& & CO2 emission
& .
Figure 37: Operating Principle of the Parallel Hybrid Electric Powertrain
Operating principle related to the selected parallel hybrid topology is depicted in Figure 37. The
traction wheel torque (Twheel) and then the traction power (Ptraction) are computed by the Driver
Model. A basic energy balance over the vehicle is depicted in the first equation where the part
related to the battery power is reflected as a SOC difference. The ideal engine power requirement
(PICE) is then computed. According to the engine OOL, ideal engine torque (TICE) and speed (ωICE) are
computed. The Gear Shifting Strategy related to the gearbox is then applied through the gear
‐31‐
selection n (grx). The real enginee torque annd speed are
a then computed (TICCEreal & ωICErreal). Fuel
consump ption and CO O2 emissionss is finally deerived from the real ICE operating p point. Finallyy, the EM
fills in w
what the engiine cannot d due to dynam mic limitation and operation only at high efficien ncy. Note
that gr corresponds tto a reductio on gear set aand its value
e is fixed for speed adapttation of the e EM as a
function of the vehicle top speed requirem ment. Note that
t no inerttia was takeen into consideration
such as sshaft inertia in order to rreduce comp puting time.
4.4.2
2 Power D Design
This parrt is dedicatted to the power desiign of the Parallel Peu
ugeot 208 PPHEV by takking into
considerration both tthe EB0 engine as primaary energy co onverter andd a 2/3 EB0 engine (dow wnsizing).
Mass assessment fo or two parallel scenarios is going to be first carried out. Theen justificatio
on of the
power design is goin ng to be discu ussed accord
ding to the V Vehicle Speciifications by adjusting meanwhile
the gearr ratio of the transaxle geear.
4.4.2.1 Mass Assesssment
As said ppreviously, two basic power designs regarding the primary eenergy converter are going to be
discussed. Mass asssessments off those two scenarios are
a depicted in Table 10 0. Thereby, the
t mass
differencce between those two power design n scenarios iss equal to 144kg only. Notte here that the issue
discussed is the enggine downsiizing capabillity despite the power requirementts of 50kW depicted
previoussly since thee vehicle gro
oss masses are
a now kno h scenarios. In addition, a 50kW
own in both
electricaal machine with
w its relatted mass off 45kg for both scenarioos was implemented to o suit the
power p preliminary d design in electric mode. Finally, a 9kkWh lithium‐‐ion technolo ogy battery pack was
also impplemented acccording to tthe assumpttion regardin ng full‐electrric range speecifications e
expressed
in Batterry Pack. The row “Mass increase” in n Table 10 is computed aas a function n of the vehiicle gross
mass of the EB0‐pow wered Peugeot 208 i.e. 10 001kg.
Table 10: Gross Masss of the EB0‐po
owered Parallel Topology (leftt) and Gross Mass of the 2/3 EB0‐powered P
Parallel
T
Topology (rightt)
4.4.2.2 Scenario Seelection
Since grross mass of
o each scen nario are kn
nown and are
a slightly different, the two road power
requiremment along a road gradient of 4% related to each
e scenariio can be drrawn (cf. Figgure 38).
Thereby to reach a ttop speed of at least 1300km/h along a road gradiient of 4%, aan engine power of at
least 42//43kW is reqquired for bo
oth scenarioss (overlappin ng curves). Th
he reader haas to understtand here
that the top speed oof any hybrid
d electric toppology is given by the po ower exclusively delivere ed by the
‐32‐
engine (primary energy converter) since only this latter is working at constant speed in battery
charge sustaining mode (hybrid mode). Obviously, this top speed is purely indicative and can be
overtaken with the EM boost but only during a short time since the battery charge has to be kept
around a specific SOC value as discussed in Chapter 3.3.3.
60
Parallel Hybrid Topology powered by EB0 (4% gradient)
Parallel Hybrid Topology powered by 2/3 EB0 (4% gradient)
50
40
Road Power [kW]
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Vehicle Speed [km/h]
Figure 38: Road Power Requirements respectively for 2/3 EB0‐powered and EB0‐powered Parallel Hybrid Electric
Scenarios
Therefore, the 2/3 engine downsizing scenario is finally given up due to top speed limitation in
comparison to the Vehicle Specifications, and only the EB0‐powered scenario is thereafter kept.
In addition, the 50kW EM implemented according to the power preliminary design is kept also since
this power allows the vehicle to reach top speed specifications in full‐electric mode. Thereby, the EM
presented in Electrical Machine was upsizing of 1.4 regarding its torque magnitude.
4.4.2.3 Transmission Adaptation
The parallel hybrid electric powertrain discussed in this part consists of an EM used both for
regenerative braking and for acceleration requirements (electric boost). Thereby the gearbox and the
transaxle gear basically designed for the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 (reference vehicle) have to be
adapted in order to enhance energy conversion efficiency and to keep in parallel admissible
performances. Here only the transaxle gear ratio i.e. the final gear ratio is going to be adapted for
cost effective purposes.
The method used to solve this issue was to make a Matlab program where the value of the final gear
ratio related to the transaxle gear varies between 1 up to 5 with a step of 0.5 knowing that the initial
final gear ratio for the mechanical transmission of the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 is equal to 4.92.
Here the limit case is that related to the Unavailable Battery mode for which the EM boost is not
available. However both driving modes, Hybrid mode and Unavailable Battery mode, related to
engine turned on operation were investigated. Fuel consumptions over the WLTP cycle and
performances for both driving modes are depicted in Figures 39 and 40. Note that the fuel
consumptions in Hybrid mode presented in Figure 39 are corrected with respect to the SOC
reference value since this specific driving mode corresponds to a battery charge sustaining mode
(“sustaining I” here). Note also that the top speed is equal to 130km/h along a 4% road gradient in
‐33‐
Hybrid mode, whilst this is only 90km/h along a 0% road gradient in Unavailable Battery mode
(admissible vehicle specifications). Owing to the EM boost capability, no transaxle adaptation
limitations regarding performances are highlighted in Hybrid mode. Only limitations regarding
performances for transaxle gear adaptation appear in Unavailable Battery mode. Those limitations
allow determining the adequate final gear ratio. Thereby, according to the diagrams, the best final
gear ratio value regarding energy conversion efficiency by keeping admissible performances will be 3
for both the Hybrid mode and the Unavailable Battery mode.
6 16 6 50
Vmax Vmax
0->100 km/h 45 0->100 km/h
14 80->120 km/h 80->120 km/h
5.5 5.5
40
Fuel Consumption [l/100km]
Time [s]
10 30
4.5 4.5
25
8
20
4 4
6
15
3.5 4 3.5 10
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Final Gear Ratio Final Gear Ratio Final Gear Ratio Final Gear Ratio
Figure 39: Corrected Fuel Consumption (left) & Figure 40: Fuel Consumption (left) & Performances
Performances (right) as a function of Final Gear Ratio in (right) as a function of Final Gear Ratio in Unavailable
Hybrid mode Battery mode
10,00
Fuel Consumption [l/100km]
9,00
8,00
7,00 Conventional
6,00 Stop & Start
5,00
Parallel (kgear = 2.5)
4,00
3,00 Parallel (kgear = 3)
2,00 Parallel (kgear = 3.5)
1,00
0,00
INRETS UL1
Figure 41: Fuel Consumptions over INRETS UL1 cycle
However, beyond performance verifications, fuel consumptions over very slow driving cycles such as
the INRET UL1 cycle (cf. Appendix 1) have to be computed to know if the transaxle gear elongation is
not too much. Corrected fuel consumption over this specific cycle with a final gear value of 3 is
slightly higher than this given by the EB0‐powered Peugeot 208 with the initial final transaxle gear
equipped with a Stop&Start system. Two other final gear ratios were considered 2.5 and 3.5 as
depicted in Figure 41. The final gear value of 3.5 allows the parallel PHEV to achieve lower fuel
consumption than this given by the Stop&Start system. Note that the slightly over fuel consumptions
of the various parallel PHEVs are mainly caused by the gross mass increase, the transaxle gear
elongation and the bad efficiencies of the EM operating points (black points on the EM efficiency
map) due to low‐speed conditions as depicted in Figure 42.
‐34‐
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
200
0.85
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
150
0.9
Torque [Nm]
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
100
0.9
0.9
0.85
0.92
0.9
0.9
0. 8
0.9
50
0.9
0.7 0.92
0.6
0.5
0.4
Since the fuel consumption difference is limited, the initial transaxle gear adaption from a ratio value
of 4.92 to 3 could be finally kept afterwards for energy consumption purposes. However a transaxle
gear ratio of 3.2 was finally preferred for performance purposes especially regarding top speed
capability i.e. to reach at least 130km/h over a road gradient of 4%. Indeed a top speed of only
132km/h is reachable and considered as too close to the related admissible specification (cf. Vehicle
Specifications) due to the gearbox ratios for a transaxle gear ratio of 3 as depicted in Figure 43.
90
5th
80 4th
3rd
70 2nd
1st
60 Road Power
Power [kW]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Vehicle Velocity [km/h]
Figure 43: Top Speed Capability (Road Gradient of 4%) for the EB0‐powered Parallel Topology with a Transaxle Gear Ratio
of 3 instead of 4.92
4.4.3 Modeling
Many models such as the Model of ICE Operating Point Selection, the Gearbox Model and the Road
Model used in the models of the two reference vehicles equipped with a conventional basic
powertrain are also used in the parallel PHEV model. However, here power balance has to be carried
out according to the battery power requirements and the road power requirements. In addition, the
selection of the EM operating points has to be made and its related model will be also presented.
4.4.3.1 Power Flow Control
The Power Flow Control block depicted in Figure 44 is dedicated for the power balance calculation
and consists of the Battery Charge block (green block), the ICE Operating Point Selection block (red
‐35‐