z
SPE 49069
Integration of Discrete Feature Network Methods with Conventional
Approaches
Bill Dershowitz, Paul LaPointe, Thorsten Eiben and Lingli Wei, Golder Associates
Copyrighl 1998, Society of Petroleum Enginwrs, Inc.
ThlSpayr Wss prepar~ fw preaentafim al me 1996 SPE AnmJaI ‘rech”ical Co”ferenm
EWibition bald in New Orleans, Louis!ana, Z7~–Septembar 19913,
This paper was seTected Tor p~esentetion by an3~rcgram Commiltaa following review OT
information cmfained in sn Astract su~ by the author(s). Cwlenta of the paper, ss
presented. have not bean reviewed by the society of Pelrdeum Enginears and are subpct to
mrracum by the author(s). The material. as presanted, dms not necessarily reffacf any
posltl~ of t~ *WIY of Pefrc4eum Engineers, its offimrs. w mambars, Papers presented at
SPE m%ings are sub@ to pubficatiw review by Editorkl Commitfws of the Smiefy of
Petroleum Enginaers. Siectrmic reprtiuti~, disfr~ufi~, w storage of sny parf of this Wpar
for nmerclal purposes without M written consen! of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is
prtibitad, Parmissicm to r~oduce in prhf ls restricfad to an abstract of not more then s00
wards: illusfratis may not h ~ied. The abstract must cwtain cwspicuous
acknowledgment of Mere and by *M the pa~r was presented Write Libfarian, SPE, PO,
Sox 822826, Richardsm TX 75083-~8. U-. fsx 01-972-052-94S5.
Abstract
The discrete feature network (DFN) approach offers many key
advantages over conventional dual porosity (DP) approaches,
particularly when issues of connectivity dominate recovery
and reservoir stimulation in fractured and heterogeneous
reservoirs. DP models have been developed for complex
multiphase and thermal effects, and have been implemented
for basin scale modeling. However, DP models address only
the dual porosity nature of fractured reservoirs, generally
simplifying connectivity and scale-dependent heterogeneity
issues which are modeled efficiently and more accurately by
the DFN approach.
This paper describes the development of techniques to
integrate DFN and DP approaches. These techniques allow the
analyst to maintain many of the advantages of the DP
simulator approach without losing the realism of complex
fracture system geometry and connectivity, as captured by
DFN models,
The techniques described are currently used within a DOE
funded research project for linking a DFN and a DP thermal
simulation model for the Yates Field, Texas. The paper
describes some of the geological and engineering aspects of
the Yates Field and gives two examples how DP parameters
for the thermal simulation can be derived using DFN modeling
techniques.
Introduction
Reservoir simulation can be significantly more challenging for
fractured reservoirs than it is for conventional elastic
reservoirs. The dual porosity (DP) approach for the simulation
of fractured reservoirs adds a second interacting continuum to
Simulator
reflect storage and permeabilityy characteristics but does not
a“d adequately address connectivity issues. These effects, which
play a key role in fractured reservoirs are generally better
addressed by discrete feature network (DFN) models
(Dershowitz and LaPointe, 1995),
Despite the significant simplifications made regarding the
geometry of the fracture network in equivalent porous medium
DP models (Figure 1) and the recent progress made in
developing powerful DFN modeling software, DP models still
offer advantages regarding model size, speed, accuracy of
multiphase flow or EOR calculations. As a result, there is a
need to link DP and DFN models to be able to take maximum
advantage of each approach.
This paper presents a series of techniques, which can be
used to develop DP models that more accurately reflect the
anisotropy, heterogeneity, and most importantly, the scale-
dependent connectivity structure of fractured reservoirs. These
techniques will allow the DP approach to take advantage of
some of the features of the DFN approach. The approach
adopted is to derive grid cell and well parameters through
DFN models.
The first section of this paper discusses which parameters
can be derived for DP models from DFN models and how they
are derived. The second section describes different techniques
that can be used to link DP and DFN models. At the end of the
paper two examples are given based on data from the Yates
Field, Texas.
DP Input Parameter from DFN Modeling
Fracture System Porosity
The fracture system porosity $F can be directly calculated as
the product of the fracture intensity expressed as fracture area
per unit volume (P32) and the storage aperture of the fractures
(e):
where:
fPF = fracture system porosity
v~ = fracture system volume, [L3]
vce// = grid cell volume, [L3]
AF = fracture area, [L2]
e = fracture storage aperture, [L]
351
2 DERSHOWITZ
Pjz = fracture intensity as fracture area per unit
volume, [L2/L3]
Because the fracture system porosity depends on the number
of fractures per unit volume, the fracture size distribution and
the fracture aperture distribution, a different porosity needs to
be calculated for every portion of the continuum model where
these parameters vary. Using a full field DFN model, the
fracture system porosity can be calculated separately for each
grid cell.
The primary issue in definition of fracture porosity from
fracture intensity P32 is the selection of an appropriate
measure for storage aperture, e. Possible measures include:
● aperture derived from transient hydraulic response
● mechanical aperture
● aperture derived from fracture permeabilityy or
transmissivity (“cubic law”)
● aperture derived from geophysical measurements (gamma
density, matrix porosity)
● correlations to fracture size and orientation.
Directional Fracture System Permeability
The permeability of the fracture system depends on the
fracture intensity, the connectivity of the fracture network and
the distribution of fracture transmissivities. Approaches for
calculation of approximate measures of grid cell effective
directional permeability include the tensor approach of Oda
(1984), and the use of DFN simulations with a range of
orientations for a unit gradient.
Oda’s (1984) method begins by considering the orientation
of fractures in a grid cell, expressed as a unit normal vector n.
Integrating the fractures over all of the unit normals N, Oda
obtained the mass moment of inertia of fracture normals
distributed over a unit sphere:
N = jninjE(n) dQ
% equivalent directional permeability based on Darcy’s Law.
where:
N= number of fractures in fl
nl, Ilj = the components of a unit normal to the
fracture n
E(n) = probability density function that describes
the number of fractures whose unit vectors n
are oriented within a small solid angle dQ.
Q= entire solid angle corresponding to the
surface of a unit sphere
For a specific grid cell with known fracture areas, Ak, and
transmissivities, Tk, obtained from the DFN model, an
empirical fracture tensor can be calculated by adding the
individual fractures weighted by their area and transmissivity:
352
ET AL. SPE 49069
where:
Fu = fracture tensor
v= grid cell volume
N= total number of fractures in grid cell
A~ = area of fracture k
T~ = transmissivity of fracture k
nib njk = the components of a unit normal to the
fracture k
Oda’s permeability tensor is derived from Fij by assuming that
Fij expresses fracture flow as a vector along the fracture’s unit
normal. Assuming that fractures are impermeable in a
direction parallel to their unit normal, Fij must be rotated into
the planes of permeability
where:
kti = permeability tensor
Fu = fracture tensor
~j = Kroenecker’s delta
Oda’s solution has the advantage that it can be calculated
without requiring flow simulations. However, it does not take
fracture size and connectivity into account, and is therefore
limited to well-connected fracture networks.
The use of DFN simulations to calculate permeability
tensors (Figure 2) has been addressed by a number of authors,
including Dershowitz, 1984; Long, 1984; Clemo and Smith,
1997; and Doolin and Mauldon, 1995.
For this approach the discrete fracture objects in the DFN
model are discretized into a finite element mesh. Constant
pressure boundary conditions are defined for two opposite
faces of a box representing the DP grid cell. The steady state
flow through the box is calculated and used to derive an
The biggest advantage of simulation-based approaches is
that they not only incorporate the fracture network
connectivity but also directly solve the flow at the grid cell
scale for the respective directions that are used in the DP
simulation.
Optimum Grid Cell Size
The equivalent porous medium approach assumes that a
representative elemental volume (REV) exists at the size equal
to or smaller than the grid cell size used for the simulation.
While the REV scale permeability can seldom be determined
by field tests, DFN models provide an excellent way estimate
the scale of REV behavior, if it exists, and to optimize the grid
cell size for the DP simulation.
The most accurate way to evaluate REV sizes is to carry
out directional flow simulations for different grid cell sizes.
This approach however, can be very time consuming.
Therefore, an alternative approach that does not require the
use of flow solutions was developed (Figure 3).
SPE 49069 INTEGRATION OF DISCRETE FEATURE NETWORK METHODS ...
A DF’N representation of the reservoir is implemented at a
scale significantly greater than the grid cell sizes under
consideration. Within this DFN, connectivity calculations are
then carried out to determine the probability of hydraulic
connection between adjacent grid cells as a function of grid
cell dimension, In general, the proportion of grid cells
hydraulically connected to most of their neighbors increases
with grid cell size. This is different from the conventional
REV criteria since no assertion is made that the grid cells are
at a scale .suff~ient to avoid heterogeneity issues. Rather, the
grid cell is selected to insure that a. heterogeneous field could
be created with consistent connectivity.
Matrix-Fracture Interaction Parameters (Spacing and a-
factor)
The typical fracture spacing describes the average distance
between two fractures or expressed in a different way, the
average thickness of a matrix b!ock not disturbed by fractures.
This parameter gives information about the average distance a
fluid has to move before reaching the higher permeability
fracture system in which it is traveling to (or from) a well,
Hence, it is a measure of the accessibility of the matrix system
through the fracture system, Kazemi (1969) introduced the o-
factor, which combines average distances in three
perpendicular directions to describe this characteristic of
fractured reservoirs.
The typical fracture spacing and the resulting c-factor can
be calculated in the exact directions of the continuum model
grid to be used later. Hence, the main directions of the
continuum model grid must be known at the time of this
exercise. The fracture spacing is independent of the grid cell
size.
The average fracture spacing is related to various aspects
of the fracture system such as orientation, number of fracture
sets and intensity. Fracture spacing and ~-factor can be
:alculated by calculating intersections between imaginary
lines in three orthogonal directions and the fractures of the
DFN model (Figure 4).
Permeability Barriers
4dvanced DP simulation sofiware allows for the effects of
heterogeneous connectivity through the definition of
permeability barriers between adjacent cells. The use of these
%atures can potentially help to address connectivity issues
.vhen the optimum grid cell sizes cannot be used because of
]ther restrictions (e.g. well spacing), and can significantly
reprove modeling of compartmentalized reservoirs.
The DFN approach is used to define permeability barriers
)y carrying out graph theory analysis of each grid cell to
jetermine which calls are not hydraulically connected to
neighboring cells. These cells can be marked as inactive or
permeability barriers based on the connectivity of the DFN
mplementation of the model. This analysis can also be carried
)ut either for specific grid cells, or in a statistical sense, to
iefine the percentage of permeability barriers for each grid
iirection.
353
3
Well Permeability Thickness
The permeability thickness is one of the key parameters for
the determination of well inflow, i.e., the “quality” of a well
connection to the reservoir. For existing wells, this parameter
is derived from well test analysis.
If the performance of planned wells is to be studied in
predictive DP models, this parameter is often calculated from
the grid cell properties in which the well is to be completed.
For fractured reservoirs, the DFN approach can be used to
determine the permeability thickness in a more accurate way
for all potential well locations and directions (Figure 5).
To achieve this, a DFN model is developed at the scale of
the well, describing the conductive fractures intersecting the
well. The well permeability thickness is calculated as the sum
of the “transmissivities of each of the fractures intersecting the
well. The resulting permeability thickness is then entered
directly into the DP model, overwriting the permeability
thickness calculated from grid cell properties.
The results derived by the approach described above are a
function of fracture intensity and fracture transmissivity. The
approach is fast because it does not require a flow solution.
However, the connectivity of the fracture network is not taken
into consideration. This can be achieved using the technique
described in the next section.
Well Productivityflnjectivity Index
The well productivity/infectivity index, J, also describes the
connection between a well and the reservoir. It is defined as,
J=Q
/ Ap
where:
J = productivitylinjectivity index
= production/injection rate
%= pressure difference between well and
reservoir.
Constant rate DFN flow simulations can be used to derive J
from the resulting pressure field in the surrounding fracture
networks (Figure 6). Unlike the permeabilityy thickness
calculations this approach adequately models the connectivity
of the fracture network. Because a flow simulation is required,
this approach is more time consuming.
Linking the DFN and the DP model
The DFN approach is based on the stochastic modeling
concept. Hence every realization of the discrete fracture
network will produce different results. Currently most
continuum models use single ‘best guess’ or bracketing
realizations, i.e., only a few geological models are developed
which are then history matched. For these cases the results
from the multiple DFN model realizations are used to derive
representative input parameters (e.g., the mean porosity from
all DFN model realizations).
4 DERSHOWITZ
In the future, more reservoir studies will use probabilistic
simulation methods (Eiben et al., 1996; Lia et al., 1997). In
this case, multiple realizations of the continuum model are
used to honor uncertainties in the input parameters. For those
studies there are two possible ways to link the models:
c draw input parameters forthe DP model from parameter
distribution derived with the DFN model
● sample cell parameters directly from underlying discrete
fracture network
The ongoing research project for the Yates Field will
eventually use all three methodologies. The following sections
wiII discuss some geological and engineering aspects of the
Yates Field and provide two examples for Iinking the DFN
model with a THEMK dual porosity continuum model.
Field Case - Yates Field, Texas
The Yates F1eld is located in Pecos and Crockett Counties of
West Texas, approximately 80 miles south of Midland. It was
discovered in 1926 and had produced nearly 1.3 billion barrels
of oil through the beginning of 1993. The recovery at that time
was approximately 30%” of the estimated OOIP. At the end of
1992, a total of 1100 production and 57 injection wells were
active.
Geology
The Yates Field produces from four formations (Seven Rivers,
Queen, Grayburg and San Andres). The San Andres is the
thickest and most prolific formation within the Yates HeId.
The unique reservoir quality of the San Andres is a function of
depositional carbonate shoal facies, extensive natural
fracturing, karst, dolomitization, and precipitation of
secondary calcite cement.
Geological analysis of fracturing in the Yates Field
suggests that a major component of the fractures were formed
by differential compaction and folding in the Middle and Late
Permian. As a result, the orientations of these fractures relate
to bedding curvature. The present-day curvature of the San
Andres reservoir relates only in part to the drape folding,
having been affected by later karsting. The present-day
curvature of the overlying Seven Rivers “M” horizon is
thought to be a better representation of the bending-induced
stresses that may have produced fractures in the San Andres,
since it was less affected by karsting and other
sedimentological processes.
Tinker and Mruk (1995) discussed the relation between
shale content and porosity in the San Andres, and fracture
intensity. They showed that fracture intensity begins to
decrease as matrix porosity approaches 20%, reducing to
roughly half of its peak value for the dolomitic reservoir
lithologies.
Shale content also influences fracture intensity. As the
percentage of shale increases, the rock tends to behave more
ductilely, reducing the amount of brittle strain, or fractures
propagating in the dolomites terminate prematurely against the
shales, likewise reducing fracture intensity. Tinker and Mruk
(1995) showed that the fracture intensity in the more
354
ET AL. SPE 49069
argillaceous units was about haIf that in the cleaner doIomitic
units.
Production History
Since 1992 the natural fracture network within the Yates Field
has been studied in detail (Fitzsimmons et al., 1997, Wadleigh
et al., 1997). It was shown that all the wells in the field receive
matrix fluids from conduits in the extensive natural fracture
network. By focusing on the areas where the fracture network
is most developed, and by lowering well completions below
the fracture water-oil contact, it was possible to take
advantage of the natural drainage system by maximizing
withdrawals from high rate, high efficiency wells. Between
1992 and 1994 almost 400 wells where shut in while keeping a
stable total daily oil production rate.
For the existing wells it was possible to identify those
located in highly fractured areas of the reservoir based on their
production history. In 1993 and 1994, more than 30 new short-
radius horizontal wells were drilled for which such data was
not available (Tank et al., 1997). A discrete fracture network
modeling approach was used to study the spatial distribution
of fractures in the field and to optimize location and
orientation of new horizontal wells.
Thermal Recovery Process
For Yates, an additional opportunity exists to exploit the oil
potential remaining beyond the scope of the secondary
recovery process. The reservoir has a large gas cap containing
slowly draining oiI in the matrix system, above a thin fractured
oil column. Improved recovery processes to take advantage of
this situation are limited by the fractured nature of the
reservoir that makes displacement processes ineffective,
Oil flow from the matrix into the fracture system is
controlled by gravity drainage, The physical properties
controlling this process are matrix permeability, density
contrast, relative permeabilityy and viscosity. The relative
permeability and the viscosity are parameters that can be
changed using EOR methods. Heat flow through the fracture
system (and thus heat transfer from the fractures into the
matrix system) will assist oil drainage by reducing oil
viscosity and improving the oil relative permeability. Because
of the fractured nature of the reservoir this process can not be
designed as a classic thermal flood. Instead Marathon Oil Co.
devised a process called Thermally Assisted Gravity
Segregation (TAGS, Wadleigh, 1996).
Simulations
Although for the Yates Field DFN modeling plays an
important role in studying certain aspects of the TAGS
process, it lacks the ability to be used directly for thermal
simulations. Therefore the DFN model is used to derive input
parameters for a THERM/DK reservoir simulation model,
which more accurately simulates the important thermal
effects.
SPE 49069 INTEGRATION OF DISCRETE FEATURE NETWORK METHODS ... 5

Tract 17 Discrete Fracture Network Model development. The DFN approach can also be used to derive
A DFN model was generated for the current TAGS study area model conventional parameters describing permeability and
in Tract 17 based on the available geological information anisotropy.
(Figure 7). The model contains large-scale deterministic faults
located during seismic surveys, smaller scale deterministic Acknowledgements
fractures representing features located during borehole logging The research described in this paper was supported by the US
and stochastic fractures generated with a correlation to Department of Energy through BDM-O~IPER Contract
curvature and shale content. The input parameters for this G4S51728.
model are summarized in Table 1. The authors would also like to thank Gene Wadleigh, Suzie
The model was calibrated by modeling a tracer test that Thompson and Jon Snell of the Marathon Oil Company,
was conducted in Tract 17 at the beginning of 1996. The Midland, for their support.
calibrated Tract 17 DFN model was used to derive equivalent
properties for the current 11,250 cell THERM/DK grid (Figure References
8). Clemo, T. and L. Smith, 1997. A Hierarchical Model of Solute
Transport in Fractured Media. Water Resources Research, Vol
Example 1: Vertical Permeability Field 33, No 8, pp 1763-1784.
Dershowitz, W. S., 1984. Rock Joint Systems. Ph.D. thesis,
Directional grid cell permeability simulations were carried out
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.
by dividing the DFN model region into 11,250 cells according Dershowitz, W. and P. LaPointe, 1995. Discrete Fracture Approaches
to the THERM/DK model. At the location of each cell face a for Oil and Gas Applications, Proceedings, NARMS ’94,
constant pressure boundary was defined within the DFN Northern American Rock Mechanics Symposium, Austin, TX.
model and the steady state flow through each grid cell was Balkema, Rotterdam
calculated in each of the three grid directions. The resulting Doolin, D. and M. Mauldon, 1995. Anisotropy and Heterogeneity in
flow was then used to derive equivalent porous medium Conasauga Group Rocks Near Oak Ridge Reservation,
permeabilities for each cell. Tennessee. University of Tennessee Technical Report.
As an example of the resulting permeability fields the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Eiben, Th., P. LaPointe and M, Jefferies 1996. Probabilistische
vertical permeabiiit y for one THERM/DK model layer is
Lagerstattensimulation - ein neuer Weg sur Beficksichtigung
shown in Figure 9. The permeability values depicted in Figure von Unsicherheiten bei der Feldesplanung, DCiMK
9 can be used directly for the respective grid cells for one Ftihjabrstagung, Celle, Germany.
realization of a probabilistic THERM/DK simulation. Fitzsimmons, T. E., E.E. Wadleigh, B.C. Curran and T.P. Kacir, 1997.
FIowing Fracture Identification For Massive Carbonates: A Real
Example 2: Equivalent Fracture System Directional Opportunity. SPE Paper 37741.
Permeability and Porosity Distributions Kazerni, H., 1969. Pressure Transient Analysis of Naturally Fractured
The range of fracture system parameters such as eqivalent Reservoirs with Uniform Fracture Distribution. SPE Paper
permeability, equivalent porosity, etc., was calculated for the 2156A. SPE, Houston.
Lia, O., H. Ornre, H. Tjelmeland, L. Holden and Th, Egeland, 1997.
11,250 grid cells. The cumulative probability density functions
Uncertainties in Reservoir Forecasts, AAPG Bulletin 81, No. 5,
for these parameters are shown in Figures 10 and 11, pp. 775-802.
respectively. Long, J., 1984, Investigation of Equivalent Porous Media
The variability shown is for one realization of the DFN Permeability in Networks of Discontinuous Fractures. Ph.D.
model, and illustrates the spatial variability of the underlying Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
fracture model. which in turn is a function of the variability in Oda, M,, 1984. Permeability Tensor for Discontinuous Rock Masses.
curvature. matrix porosity and shale content. Geotechnique, Vol 35, pp 483-495.
To complete the modeling process, results from multiple Tank, W. J., B.C. Curran and E.E. Wadleigh, 1997, Efficient Oil
DFN realizations are stored as probability density functions Capture and Fracture Insights. SPE Paper 37751.
Tinker, S.W., and D.H. Mrtrk, 1995. Reservoir characterization of a
for each unique model region (domain) Depending on the
Permian giant: Yates field, west Texas, in E. Stoudt and P.M.
heterogeneity of the fracture system, a domain can be the Harris, eds., Hydrocarbon reservoir characterization, geologic
whole model. a reservoir layer, a facies or as for the Yates framework and flow-unit modeling SEPM Short Course 34,
THERM/DK model only one grid cell. The modeler can then pp.51- 128.
select mean, median or random values for each domain to Wadleigh, E. E., 1996. Process for recovering hydrocarbons by
produce input for the DP model. thermally assisted gravity segregation. United States Patent
5,503,226, April 2, 1996.
Conclusions Wadleigh, E. E., C.I. Paulson and R.P. Stoltz, 1997. Deeper Com-
The development of approaches to derive parameters for DP pletions Really Lower Water-Oil Ratios! SPE Paper 37763.
continuum models from more geologically realistic DFN
models provides an opportunity to significantly advance the
state of the art in reservoir modeling, These techniques can
improve modeling of connectivity and heterogeneity, which
are frequently the key factors in successful reservoir

355
6 DERSHOWITZ ET AL. SPE 49069

● ✍✎✍✍☛

DFN 50m

Figure 1- Dual Poroalty and Discrete Fracture Network Concepts

4
Pout

m= Pin. Pcut
Figure 2- Equivalent Porous Medium Permeability Calculations
using DFNModels

o~
0123456
Connecting Cells
m T357m17 w

Figure 3- Grid Cell Size Calculations

z
.

s,

.. ... .-.
.,
- ti,nm>sw

Figure 4- Calculating Fracture Spacing and cr-Factor

356
SPE 49069 INTEGRATION OF DISCRETE FEATURE NETWORK METHODS ... 7

Porous Medium

Number of Intersections

............— ...

AP=Pd-Pw
w i3$7f?091b
— —.
. . ....% ~~~ Figure 6- Calculating the Productivity/in jectlvity Index
I I Fraoture Transmissivity

Fractured Reservoir
$63
1357~1S ti

Figure 5- Permeability Thickness (kh) Calculations

Figure 7- Yates Tract 17 Dlscreta Fracture Network Model

357
8 DERSHOWITZ ET AL. SPE 49069

1.0 ---—----..-.-.-–-–---— ------------- ---

1888
. g 0.9- -1 — PermX
1618 ~ 0.8 - .---. -PerrnY /
le8s
●
.0 0.7 - /
1867
● ● /
$069
~ 0.6-
● a 0.5 f
*A?
.& 0.4 /
+ 0.3 /
E 0.2 /
17 ~ 0.1 /
1772 0.0 ~
●
t 721
●
1.E+OO 1.E+02 1.E+04 1.E+06
17
1771 Permeability, mD
●
17a
1?s3 ●

. Figure 10- Equiveient Porous Medium Directional Permeabiiities

Distributions

*
* 2:
“25s3
a. 243
2416
●
-
●
.

Figure 8- THER~K Simulation Grid

0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Equivalent Fracture System Porosity, Y.

Figure 11 Cumulative Probability Function for Fracture System

Porosity

Figure 9- Example of Verticsl Permeability Field

358
SPE 49069 INTEGRATION OF DISCRETE FEATURE NEWORK METHODS ,.. 9

Table 1- DFN Model Input Parameters

- ---------- .
..”UW. moo”l,lp .1”,,

Discrete Features Large scale deterministic faults located during seismic surveys are
modeled deterministically.
Fractures representing features located during borehole logging are
modeled by conditional simulation with correlation to curvature and
shale content.
Orientation Distributions The deterministic fault orientation is taken from the interpretation of
the seismic survey and all faults are assumed to be vertical. The
stochastic fracture strike is correlated to curvature, and the dip is
assigned using a Fisher distribution with =8.
Size Distribution Power Law distribution D= 1,81, minimum radius= 0.3048 m,
(Stochastic Fractures) truncated between 10 m and 50 m.
Intensity Intensity of stochastic fractures P32 is 0.105 to 0.21 m2/m3, depending
(Stochastic Fractures) on shale content and porosity. This corresponds to a vertical borehole
fracture intensity of 1/30 to 1/60 m.
Transmissivity Lognormal distribution, Deterministic Faults have log mean =
-4 and log std.dev. = 1, while stochastic fracture have log mean= -4.5
and log std.dev. = 1 (all units in log m2/s)
Aperture Correlated to fracture transmissivity using the cubic law, such that a =
0.01 1P33
hlodel Dimensions and Model is 2130 m x 2130 m x 350 m deep. The top and bottom
Boundary Conditions boundaries are defined by San Adres surfaces.

359