MD E-Note 22092018 125841PM PDF

1
GEAR DESIGN
Course Contents
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Spur Gear Terminology
1.3 Beam Strength of Spur Gear
Teeth
1.4 Design For Dynamic Load
1.5 Design For Wear
1.6 Gear Tooth Failures
Examples
1.7 Helical Gears
1.8 Helical Gears Terminology
Examples
1.9 Introduction to Bevel Gears
1.10 Bevel Gear Terminology
1.11 Virtual Number of Teeth
Examples
1.12 Worm Gears
1.13 Worm Gears Terminology
1.14 Efficiency of Worm and
Worm Gear Drive
1.15 Thermal Capacity of Worm
Gears
Examples
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.1
1. GEAR DESIGN MACHINE DESIGN (2171909)
1.1 Introduction
 Any toothed member designed to transmit motion to another one, or receive
motion from it, by means of successively engaging tooth is called a (toothed)
gear.
 A gear is a toothed wheel with teeth cut on the periphery of a cylinder or a
cone.
 Teeth of one gear meshes with teeth of the other gear, hence it is called a
mesh drive or positive drive.
 It is preferred when medium or larger power is to be transmitted.
 Rotation of one gear will cause rotation of the other in the opposite direction.
 Fig. 1.1 shows two spur gears in mesh, the smaller gear is called the pinion and
the bigger one the gear wheel.
Fig. 1.1 Spur Gears in Mesh

1.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF GEARS
Gears offer the following advantages:
I. Compact drive on account of small centre distance.
II. High efficiency, reliable service and simple operation.
III. Positive drive due to negligible slip between contacting surfaces.
IV. Give higher speed ratio and can transmit higher power.
V. It is possible to transmit power between parallel, non-parallel, intersecting,
and nonintersecting shafts.
VI. Power can be transmitted at higher speeds.
1.1.2 LIMITATIONS OF GEARS
The limitations of gear drive are:
I. The error in tooth meshing may cause undesirable vibrations and noise
during operation.
II. Costlier than belts and chain drives.
Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Page 1.2 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
MACHINE DESIGN (2171909) 1. GEAR DESIGN
III. Power cannot be transmitted over long distances.

IV. Precise alignment of shafts is required.
V. Require continuous lubrication.
1.1.3 APPLICATIONS OF GEARS
The gear drive has wide applications in the following fields:
I. Metal cutting machine tools
II. Automobiles
III. Tractors
IV. Hoisting and transporting machinery
V. Rolling mills
VI. Marine engines, etc.
Table 1.1 indicates the most useful fields of application of the main classes of
gears.
Table 1.1 Choice of Type of Gear
1.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS
Fig.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

Gears may be classified as shown in Fig. 1.2.
 A spur gear is a cylindrical gear whose tooth traces are straight line
generators of the reference cylinder.

 In helical gears the tooth traces are helices.

 A cylindrical gear in which a part of the face width is right hand and the other
left hand, with or without a gap between them is called a double helical or
herring-bone gear.
 The various types of gears are shown in Fig. 1.3.
(i) Spur Gears (ii) Helical Gears
(iii) Double Helical (Herringbone) Gears (iv) Spur Rack and Pinion (v) Crossed Helical Gears
(a) Bevel Gears (b) Spiral Bevel Gears (c) Zerol Bevel Gears
(vi) Bevel Gears
(vi) Worm Gears (viii) Hypoid Gears

Fig. 1.3 Types of gears

 In spiral gears the tooth traces are curved lines other than helices.
 A gear pair (or train comprising such gears) one of whose axes, instead of
being fixed in position in the mechanism of which the gear pair is a part,
moves around the other is called planetary gear train.
 In bevel gears the reference surface is a cone. The bevel gears may be
straight, spiral, zerol and face gears. In zerol bevel gears the teeth are
curved in the lengthwise direction and are arranged in such a manner that
the effective spiral angle is zero. In face gears, the teeth are cut on the flat
face of the blank. They mesh at right angles with spur or helical pinions.
 A crown gear is a bevel gear with a reference cone angle of 90⁰.
 The hypoid gears are similar to the spiral bevel gears with the difference that
the axes of the shafts do not intersect.
 In worm gears, one gear has screw threads. They are used on non-parallel
non-intersecting shafts.
1.1.5 GEAR MATERIALS
The desirable properties of gear materials are:
1. The gear material should have sufficient static strength (ultimate or yield)
and endurance strength against fluctuating loads to resist failure due to the
breakage of tooth.
2. It should have sufficient surface endurance strength to avoid failure due to
destructive pitting caused by excessive wear.
3. The material should have a low coefficient of friction to avoid failure due to
scoring caused by high sliding velocities during high speed power
transmission.
4. The coefficient of thermal expansion of material should be low to limit the
thermal stresses causing distortion and warping.
The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) has recommended numerous materials for
gears as per IS: 4460-1967. These materials are: Malleable cast iron, cast steel,
forged steel, surface hardened steels, case hardened steels, and phosphor bronze.
1.2 SPUR GEAR TERMINOLOGY
 Spur gears are used to transmit power and rotary motion between parallel
shafts.
 If teeth of the gear wheels are parallel to the axis of wheel, the gears are called
spur gears.
 It is used when axes of the driving and driven shafts are parallel and co-planar.
 The smaller of the two gears in mesh is called the pinion, and the larger is
designated as the gear.
 The terminology of a spur gear is shown in Fig. 1.4.
The important definitions are explained below:
Gear ratio (i): The ratio of the number of teeth of the wheel (gear) to that of the
pinion is called gear ratio.

Fig. 1.4 Terminology of spur gears

Transmission ratio (i): The ratio of the angular speed of the first driving gear of a train
of gears to that of the last driven gear is called transmission ratio.
Cycloid: A plane curve described by a point on a circle (generating circle), which rolls
without slip on a fixed line (base line) is known as cycloid.
Involute: A plane curve described by a point on a straight line which rolls without slip
on a fixed circle is known as involute.
Face width: The width over the toothed part of a gear, measured along a straight line
generator of the reference cylinder is known as face width.
Base circle: In an involute cylindrical gear, the base circle of the involutes of the tooth
profiles is known as base circle.
Circular pitch (p): The distance on the pitch circle from a point on a tooth to the
corresponding point of the adjacent tooth.
d
Thus, p 
z
Diametral pitch (P): It is defined as the number of teeth of the gear divided by the
pitch circle diameter.
z
P
d
Thus, pP  
Module (m): It is defined as the pitch circle diameter per unit number of teeth, i.e,
d 1
m 
z P

Pressure angle (ɸ): The angle between the line of action (a line through the pitch
point and tangential to the base circles) and a line perpendicular to the line of centers at the
pitch point is known as pressure angle.
Centre distance (C): The distance between the centers of the two gears in mesh is
known as centre distance.
1 m
Thus, C   d1  d 2    z1  z2 
2 2
Backlash: The difference between tooth space and tooth width is known as backlash.
Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of
the mating gear is known as clearance.
Fundamental Law of Gearing: This law may be stated as "The shape of the teeth of a
gear must be such that the common normal at the point of contact between two teeth must
always pass through a fixed point on the line of centers”.
1.3 BEAM STRENGTH OF SPUR GEAR TEETH (Design for Static Load)
Fig. 1.5(a) Gear tooth as a cantilever beam Fig. 1.5 (b) Loading on a gear tooth
 The determination of the proper gears to use in a particular application is a
complex problem because of the many factors involved.
 First, the gears must operate together without tooth interference, with a
proper length of contact and without undue noise.
 Second, the gear teeth must have the ability to transmit the applied loads
without failure and with a certain margin of safety. This involves the ability of
the teeth to resist not only the load resulting from the power transmitted but
also the increases in load due to impact and shock caused by inaccuracy of
tooth contour, tooth deflection tooth acceleration and stress-concentration at
the root of the tooth or fatigue strength. The total resulting load is commonly
referred to as the dynamic load.
 Third, the wearing qualities of teeth must be considered. This is known as the
wear load.
Determination of Lewis equation:
 The static strength of the tooth is determined by assuming the tooth to be a
cantilever beam (Fig. 1.5(a)) acted upon by the moment resulting from the

transmitted load obtained from the power transmitted. The design stress is
based upon the ultimate strength of the material with a factor of safety of
about 3. This analysis was given by Wilfred Lewis in 1892 and the design
equation is known as the Lewis Equation.
 In order to take into account the effects of tooth fabrication and additional
loads due to impact, the design is further modified by a velocity factor. These
modifications in design were presented by Earle Buckingham in 1932, after
which the gear design has been based upon the dynamic load and the
endurance limit of the material and the wear load.
The Lewis equation is based on the following assumptions:
1. The gear tooth is treated as a cantilever beam.
2. The effect of the radial component, which induces compressive stresses,
is neglected.
3. It is assumed that the tangential component is uniformly distributed over
the face width of the gear. This is possible when the gears are rigid and
accurately machined.
4. The effect of stress concentration is neglected.
5. It is assumed that at any time, only one pair of teeth is in contact and
takes the total load.
 Fig. 1.5 (b) shows a gear tooth with the force acting at the tip of the tooth. The
normal force Fn, is resolved into its components Fr and Ft acting at point A, the
intersection of the line of action of the normal tooth load and the centre of the
tooth.
 The radial component Fr produces compressive stress in the tooth and the
tangential component Ft causes bending stresses. The direct compressive stress
is small enough as compared to the bending stress and is ignored in
determining the strength of the tooth.
 The maximum bending stress may be located and computed as follows:
Through the point A in Fig. 1.5 (b), draw a parabola (shown in dash line)
tangent to the tooth curves at B and D. This parabola represents the outline of
a beam of uniform strength, and therefore the maximum stress in the actual
tooth will be the point of tangency B or D. This stress is:
M c 6 Ft h
b  
I bt 2
 bt 2
 Ft  b
6h
Both t and h are based upon the size of the tooth and its profile; hence the equation
may be written in the form,
 b 
h   b  t 2  constant  t 2
 6 Ft 

Clearly this is the equation of a parabola. Triangles ABE and BCE are similar, thus
x

 t / 2  or h  t 2
t / 2 h 4x
 bbt 2 4x
 Ft  2
 4 x   bb
6t 6
If we define a factor y  2 x / 3 p , called the Lewis form factor, based on circular pitch
then, we get
 b bY
Ft   b b y p    b bY m   b b  y m
P
Where, y = Lewis form factor based upon circular pitch
Y = Lewis form factor based upon diametral pitch
b =face width, mm = 3 π m to 4 π m
p = circular pitch, mm
σ b = Permissible bending stress, N/mm2
The permissible bending stress in the Lewis equation is taken as ⅓ of the
ultimate tensile strength
1
 b   ut
3
The values of y may be obtained from the following relations:
0.684
y  0.124  , for 14.5⁰ involute
z
0.912
y  0.154  , for 20⁰ involute full depth (FD)
z
0.95
y  0.170  , for 20⁰ involute stub
z
1.3.1 Velocity Factor
Slight inaccuracies in profile and tooth spacing both, teeth being not
absolutely rigid, variations in the applied load and repetitions of the loading cause
impact and fatigue stresses that become more severe as the pitch line velocity
increase. To allow for these additional stresses, a velocity factor C v is introduced into
the Lewis equation. This factor is given by:
3.05
Cv  , for ordinary industrial gears operating at velocity upto 10 m/s
3.05  vm
6.1
Cv  , for accurately cut gears operating at velocity upto 20 m/s
6.1  vm
5.56
Cv  , for precision gears cut with a high degree of accuracy and
5.56  vm
operating at velocity of 20 m/s and over
where vm is the mean speed in m/s.

1.3.2 Tangential Load on Gear Tooth

The tangential load acting on the gear tooth is the load perpendicular to the
pitch circle radius. The tangential load on the tooth at the pitch line is given by,
P
Ft  103  , N
v
where P = power transmitting in kW
d n
v = mean pitch line velocity = m/s
60 103
d = pitch circle diameter, mm
n = speed in rpm.
1.3.3 Service Factor, Cs
The service factor accounts for increase in the tangential force due to
fluctuation of the torque developed by the prime mover and the torque required to
run the machine. It depends upon the prime mover and the driven machine.
maximum torque
Cs 
rated torque
1.3.4 Load Distribution Factor, Cm For Spur Gears
The load on the gear tooth is not same along the face width. The variation of
the load on the gear tooth is called the load distribution. The load distribution factor
accounts for the non-uniform distribution of load across the face width of the gear. It
depends upon the following factors.
1. Accuracy of alignment of gears and bearing mountings.
2. Bearing clearances.
3. Elastic rigidity of shafts, gears, bearings and housings, etc.
4. Manufacturing accuracy of gear tooth.
The values of load distribution factors are given in Table 1.2
Table 1.2 Load Distribution Factor for Spur Gears, Cm
1.3.5 Maximum Tangential Load, (Ft)

It is the tangential load which the gear tooth is required to sustain after
accounting for service factor and load distribution factor.
 Ft   Cs Cm Ft
1.4 DESIGN FOR DYNAMIC LOAD
The dynamic force is introduced in the gear teeth due to the following factors:
1. Inaccuracies of the tooth profile,

2. Errors in tooth spacing,

3. Misalignment between bearings
4. Elasticity of parts, and
5. Inertia of rotating masses
1.4.1 Buckingham’s Dynamic Load Equation
21v  b  C  Ft 
Fd   Ft  
21v  b  C  Ft
where Fd = Total load on gear including load due to dynamic action,
k e
C = Load stress factor,  in N/mm,
 1 1 
  
 E p Eg 
k = 0.107 for 14.5⁰ involute Full Depth
= 0.111 for 20⁰ involute Full depth
= 0.115 for 20⁰ involute Stub,
Ep & Eg = modulus of elasticity of pinion and gear materials respectively,
e = Sum of errors between two meshing teeth, mm
= ep + eg
ep = error for pinion
eg =error for gear
1.5 DESIGN FOR WEAR
 The failure of the gear tooth due to pitting occurs when the Hertz's contact
stresses between two meshing teeth exceed the surface endurance strength
of the material.
 Pitting is a surface fatigue failure which is characterized by small pits on the
surface of the gear tooth. In order to avoid this type of failure, the
proportions of gear tooth and surface hardness should be selected in such a
way that the wear strength of the gear tooth is more than the effective load
between the meshing teeth.
 The analysis of wear strength was done by Earle Buckingham, which gives the
wear strength of gear tooth. This equation is based on Hertz's theory of
contact stresses.
 The wear load is determined by the surface endurance limit of the material,
curvature of the surface, and relative hardness of the surfaces.
 The pinion should always be harder to allow for work hardening of the gear
to preserve the involute profile and to allow for greater abrasive wear on the
pinion, and to decrease the possibility of seizing.
 es 2  b sin   2 d p d g   1 1 
Fw     
1.4  d p  d g   E p Eg 
where σ es = Surface endurance limit,
b = Face width

ɸ = Pressure angle
Ep & Eg = Modulus of elasticity of pinion and gear materials respectively,
dp & dg = Pitch circle diameter of pinion and gear respectively,
For a safe design, Fw  Fd
If pinion and gear are of steel,  es   2.76  BHN  70  , N / mm2
1.6 GEAR TOOTH FAILURES
The two basic modes for gear tooth failure are:
1. Breakage of the tooth due to static and dynamic loads,
2. Surface destruction.
1.6.1. Breakage of Tooth
 The complete breakage of the tooth can be avoided by adjusting module and
face width so that the beam strength of the gear tooth is more than the sum
of static and dynamic loads.
 The static beam strength of a gear tooth was suggested by Wilfred Lewis. The
dynamic load is caused due to small machining errors resulting into inertia
and impact loads on the gear tooth.
1.6.2. Surface Destruction
 The wear of gear tooth takes place due to the combined action of rolling and
sliding. Rolling causes contact stresses and sliding causes rubbing action.
Pinion is subjected to more rubbing action as it rotates faster than the gear.
 The principal types of gear tooth wear are: abrasive wear, corrosive wear,
pitting, and scoring.
i. Abrasive wear: The tooth surface is scratched by foreign particles in the
lubricant, such as dirt, rust and weld spatter of metallic debris. This can be
reduced by oil filter, using high viscosity lubricants, and surface hardness.
ii. Corrosive wear: The corrosion of the tooth surface is caused by corrosive
elements, such as extreme pressure (EP) additives present in the lubricating
oils and foreign materials due to external contamination.
 These elements attack the tooth surface, resulting in fine wear uniformly
distributed over the entire surface.
 The corrosive wear can be controlled by complete enclosure of the gears,
selecting proper additives and replacing the lubricant at regular intervals of
use.
iii. Pitting: It is a type of fatigue failure caused by repeated applications of stress
cycles. Pitting phenomenon is of two types: initial pitting and destructive
pitting.
 Initial (or corrective) pitting is a localized phenomenon, characterized by
small pits at high spots.

 Such high spots are progressively worn out and the load is redistributed.
Initial pitting is caused by the errors in tooth profile, surface irregularities and
misalignment.
 This controlled by precise- machining of gears and their correct alignment so
that the load is uniformly distributed across the full face width and the
dynamic load is reduced.
 Destructive pitting is a surface fatigue failure which occurs when the load on
the gear tooth exceeds the surface endurance strength of the gear material.
 This type of failure is characterized by pits, which continue to grow resulting
in complete destruction of the tooth surface. In some cases, this may even
break the tooth permanently.
 This type of failure can be avoided by ensuring that the wear strength of
entire gear tooth is more than the sum of static and dynamic loads.
 The surface endurance strength is a function of the hardness and can be
increased by improving the surface hardness of the gear tooth surface by
using an appropriate heat treatment process.
iv. Scoring: The oil film between the gear teeth may breakdown under excessive
surface pressure, high sliding velocity and inadequate supply of lubricant.
This results in generation of excessive frictional heat and overheating of the
contacting surfaces of gear teeth. This may lead to metal-to-metal contact.
Scoring is a stick-slip phenomenon, in which alternate welding and shearing
takes place rapidly at the high spots. This increases the wear rate faster.
 Scoring can be controlled by selecting proper surface speed, surface pressure
and flow rate of lubricant to keep the temperature of contacting surfaces
within permissible limits. The bulk temperature of lubricant can be reduced
by providing fins on the gear box, air cooling by a fan or circulating cold
water.

EXAMPLE 1.1
Design a pair of spur gear with 20⁰ FD involute teeth to transmit 10 kW at 1440 rpm of the
pinion. The speed ratio is 4: 1. The pinion is made of plain carbon steel Fe 410 (Sut = 410
MPa) and the gear is made of grey cast iron FG 200(S ut = 200 MPa). The factor of safety
desired is 3 and the load is steady with medium shocks running for 8 to 10 hours per day.
The gears are commercial gears.
Solution:
Data given:
Pressure angle, ɸ =20⁰ FD involute,
P = 10 kW,
np = 1440 rpm,
i = 4:1,
n = 3,
(σ ut)p = 410 MPa,
(σ ut)g = 200 MPa.
 Design for Static Beam Strength
Minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference, zp = 18 for ɸ =20⁰ involute.
Assume, module, m =5 mm.
σ p = 410/3 MPa
σ g = 200/3 MPa
Number of teeth on the gear zg= i zp = 4 x 18 = 72
Pitch diameters of pinion and gear,

dp= m zp= 5 x 18 = 90 mm
dg= m zg=5 x 72 = 360 mm
Lewis form factors:

0.912
z
0.912 0.912
y p  0.154   0.154   0.1033
zp 18
0.912 0.912
yg  0.154   0.154   0.1431
zg 72
 p y p  410  0.1033  42.35
 g yg  200  0.1431  28.26
Hence gear is the weaker and shall be considered for design.
Pitch line velocity,
 d p n p  90 1440
v   6.79 m / s
60 103 60 103

Tangential load,
P 103 10
Ft  103    1472.75 N
v 6.79
For given conditions, value of C s = 1.5 and C m = 1.3

Maximum load, Ft  Cs Cm Ft 1.5 1.3 1472.75  2871.87 N
3.05 3.05
Velocity factor for (v < 8 m/s), Cv    0.31
3.05  v 3.05  6.79
Ft 2871.87
Effective load, Feff    9264 N
Cv 0.31
Lewis equation for beam strength of gear tooth,

 200 
Fb   g yg b  m     0.1413    b  5  147.96 b N
 3 
Now, Fb  Feff
147.96 b  9264
 b  62.6 mm
The limits for face width are:
9.5 m = 9.5 x 5 = 47.5 mm and 12.5 x 5 = 62 mm
Adopt b=62 mm and m=5 mm
 Design for Wear
Wear load, Fw  d p bQ K
Here, dp = 90 mm, b =62 mm
2 zg 2  72
Q   1.6
z g  z p 72  18
2
 BHN 
For given condition, load stress factor, K  0.2413  
 100 
Pinion material is given as Fe 410, hence hardness = 300 BHN
2
 300 
K  0.2413    2.172
 100 
Fw  d p bQ K  90  62 1.6  2.172  19391.6 N
Fw 19391.6
FOS    1.69
Fd 11461.2
Hence design is safe.

EXAMPLE 1.2
A compressor running at 250 rpm is driven by a 15 kW 750 rpm electric motor through a
pair of 20⁰ full depth spur gears. The pinion is made of 45C8 steel (heat treated) and gear
of 40C8 steel (untreated). Estimate the module, face width, and number of teeth on each
gear. Check for dynamic and wear loads.
Solution:
Data given:
np = 750 rpm,
ng = 250 rpm,
Pressure angle, ɸ =20⁰ FD involute,
P = 15 kW,
For 45C8 steel pinion, (σ ut) p = 630 MPa,

For 40C8 steel gear, (σ ut) g = 580 MPa.
Minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference, zp = 18 for ɸ =20⁰ involute.

Assume, module, m =5 mm.
σ p = 410/3 MPa
σ g = 200/3 MPa
np 750
Speed ratio, i   3
ng 250
Number of teeth on the gear zg= i zp = 3 x 18 = 54
Pitch diameters of pinion and gear,

dp= m zp= 5 x 18 = 90 mm
dg= m zg= 5 x 54 = 270 mm
Lewis form factors:

0.912
z
0.912 0.912
y p  0.154   0.154   0.1033
zp 18
0.912 0.912
yg  0.154   0.154   0.1371
zg 54
For pinion, ep  32.0  2.50(5  0.25 90)  50.42  m

For gear, eg  32.0  2.50(5  0.25 270)  54.70  m

e  ep  eg  50.42  54.70  105.18  m  105.18 103 m

 d p n p  90  750
v   3.53 m / s
60 103 60 103
Tangential load,
P 103 10
Ft  103    2829.42 N
v 3.53

Maximum load, Ft  Cs Cm Ft 1.5 1.3  2829.42  5517.37 N
k e 0.111105.18 103
C   787.2 N / mm
 1 1   1 1 
     3 
 207 10 100 10 
3
 E p Eg 
21v  b  C  Ft 
Fd   Ft  
21v  b  C  Ft
21 3.53  50  787.2  5517.37 
Fd  5517.37   17150.7 N
21 3.53  50  787.2  5517.37
Wear load, Fw  d p bQ K
Here, dp = 90 mm, b =50 mm
2 zg 2  54
Q   1.5
z g  z p 54  18
2
 BHN 
For given condition, load stress factor, K  0.1536  
 100 
Pinion material is given as 45C8, hence hardness = 500 BHN
2
 500 
K  0.1536    3.84
 100 
Fw  d p bQ K  90  50 1.5  3.84  25920 N

Fw > Fd
Hence design is safe.

1.7 HELICAL GEARS

 A helical gear has teeth in the form of a helix around the gear. The helix may
be right handed on one gear and left handed on the other gear.
 The pitch surfaces are cylindrical like spur gears but the teeth wind around
the cylinder helically like screw threads. Helical gears are used to transmit
power between parallel shafts.
1.7.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN SPUR AND HELICAL GEARS
Table 1.3 Comparison Between Spur and Helical Gears
Spur Gears Helical Gears
1. Teeth are cut parallel to the axis of 1. Teeth are cut in the form of a helix on the
the shaft. pitch cylinder between meshing gears.
2. Contact between meshing teeth 2. Contact between meshing gears begins
occurs along the entire face width of with a point on the leading edge of the
the tooth. tooth and gradually extends along the
diagonal line across the tooth.
3. Load application is sudden resulting 3. Pick up of load by the tooth is gradual,
into impact conditions and generating resulting in smooth engagement and quiet
noise in high speed applications. operation even at high speeds.
4. Used for parallel shafts only. 4. Crossed helical ears are used on shafts
with crossed axes.
5. Speed is limited to about 20 m/s. 5. Used in automobiles, turbines and high
speed applications upto 50 m/s.
6. Imposes radial load only. 6. Imposes radial and axial thrust loads.
7. Contact ratio is low. 7. Contact ratio is high.
1.8 HELICAL GEARS TERMINOLOGY
Fig. 1.6 Helical Gear Terminology

Helix angle: It is the angle between a line drawn through one of the teeth and the
centre line of the shaft on which the gear is mounted. It is denoted by Ψ. It varies
from 15⁰ to 30⁰.

Normal circular pitch, pn: It is the distance between corresponding points of

adjacent teeth as measured in a plane perpendicular to the teeth elements. This is
shown by plane y-y in Fig. 1.7, which is perpendicular to teeth elements. AC
represents normal circular pitch.
Transverse circular pitch, pt: It is measured in a plane perpendicular to the shaft
axis, as shown by plane x-x in Fig. 1.7. AB represents the transverse circular pitch.
Transverse diameter pitch, P t: It is the diametral pitch measured in the plane of
rotation, i.e. transverse to the axis of rotation.
Normal diametral pitch, P n: It is the diametral pitch measured in the plane normal to
the helix. It is equal to diametral pitch of the hob.
Transverse pressure angle, ɸt: It is the pressure angle measured in the transverse
plane or plane of rotation.
Normal pressure angle, ɸn: It is the pressure angle measured in the normal plane or
plane perpendicular to the teeth.
Axial pitch px: It is the distance measured parallel to the shaft axis, AD represents
the axial pitch.
Fig. 1.7 Tooth Relationships

1.8.1 Angle Relationships in Helical Gears
Consider the cross-sections of the helical gear in the axial plane x-x and normal plane
y-y, as shown in Fig 1.7.
In ∆ABC, we have

AC pn
  cos
AB pt
 Normal circular pitch, pn  pt cos
d
Transverse circular pitch, pt 
z
z
Transverse diametral pitch, Pt 
d
1 d
Transverse module, mt  
Pt z
pt Pt    pn Pn
Pt z
Normal diametral pitch, Pn  
cos d cos
Normal module, mn  mt cos
pt d 
From ∆ABD, px    cot
tan  z 
tan n
Also, cos 
tan t
zpt z mn
d  z mt 
 cos
1 mn
Centre distance, C     d1  d 2    z1  z2 
2 2cos
1.8.2 VIRTUAL (or FORMATIVE) NUMBER Of TEETH
Fig. 1.8 Concept of virtual number of teeth

 In helical gears, the plane x-x normal to the gear teeth intersects the pitch
cylinder to form an ellipse, as shown in Fig. 1.8.
 The gear tooth profile generated in this plane, using the radius of curvature of
the ellipse, would be a spur gear having the same properties as the actual helical
gear.
 The semi-major and semi-minor axes of this ellipse are:
d d
a and b= respectively.
2cos 2
 The radius of curvature rc at point A is,
a2 d
rc  
b 2 cos 2 
where d  pitch circle diameter.
 In the design of helical gears, an imaginary spur gear is considered in the plane x-
x with a pitch circle radius rc and module mn. It is called a "formative" or "virtual"
spur gear.
 Pitch circle diameter of virtual gear,
d
dc 
cos 2 
 The numbers of teeth of the equivalent (or virtual) spur gear in the normal plane
are called the virtual number of teeth, zv.
 dc d 1
zv   
pn cos   mn
2
d

mn cos 2 
z

cos3 
 The design of helical gears is based on virtual number of teeth.
 Design equations will also change accordingly, considering helix angle and other
parameters.

EXAMPLE 1.3
A pair of parallel helical gears is having 20 teeth pinion and 80 teeth on the gear. The
pinion rotates at 750 rpm. The normal pressure angle is 20⁰ and the helix angle is 30⁰. The
face width is 50 mm and the normal module is 5 mm. Both the pinion and the gear are
made of 40 C8 steel (S ut = 600 MPa) and heat treated to a surface hardness of 300 BHN.
The service factor, load distribution factor and wear and lubrication factor are 1.5, 1.2 and
1.15 respectively. Calculate the power transmitting capacity of the gear pair assuming that
velocity factor accounts for the dynamic load. Factor of safety is 3.0.
Solution:
Data given:
zp = 20, zg = 80, Np, = 750 rpm, ɸn=20⁰, Ψ = 30⁰, b = 50 mm, mn = 5 mm, Sut = 600 MPa,
BHN= 300, C s = 1.5, C m = 1.2, C w = 1.15, FOS=3.0
Virtual number of teeth
zp 20
z pv    30.792
cos  cos3 30
3
zg 80
z gv    123.168
cos 
3
cos3 30
Pinion and gear are made of the same material; therefore, pinion is the weaker and shall be
considered for design.
s 600
 p  ut  200 MPa
FOS 3
Lewis form factor
0.912 0.912
y p  0.154   0.154   0.1157
z pv 30.792
Static Beam strength

Fb  mn b   p y p  5  50    0.1157  200  18174 N
Pitch line velocity

z m 20  5
dp  p n   115.47 mm
cos cos 30
 d p np 115.47  750
vp    4.53 m / s
60 10 3
60 103
Velocity factor
For v  5 m / s,
4.58 4.58
Cv    0.503
4.58  v p 4.58  4.53

Wear load,
bQ dpK
Fw 
cos 2 
b = 50 mm, dp = 115.47 mm
2 zg 2  80
Q   1.6
zg  z p 80  20
2 2
 BHN   300 
K  0.16    0.16    1.44
 100   100 
50 1.6 115.47 1.44

Fw   17736 N
cos 2 30
Effective load
c c c F 1.5 1.2 1.15  Ft
Feff  s m w t   4.1153 Ft N
cv 0.503
Safe tangential load

Feff  FOS  Fw
4.1153 Ft  3  17736
 Ft  1436.6 N
Torque transmitted
Fd 1436.6 115.47
T t p   82941.5 N  mm
2 2
Power transmitting capacity

2  N pT 2   750  82941.5
P   6.51 kW
60 106 60 106
EXAMPLE 1.4
Design a pair of helical gears to transmit 50 kW. The pinion revolves at 4800 rpm and the
speed ratio is 3. Consider the following data.
Material foe pinion: 45C8 (S ut = 630 MPa, BHN = 229 core and 520 case),
Material for gear: 30C8 (Sut = 500 MPa, BHN = 179),
Normal pressure angle, ɸn = 20⁰,
Helix angle, Ψ = 25⁰,
Number of teeth on pinion, zp =20,
Normal module, mn=3 mm,
FOS = 3.

Solution:
Virtual number of teeth
zp 20
z pv    26.86
cos  cos3 25
3
zg 60
z gv    80.6
cos 
3
cos3 25
Lewis form factors

0.912 0.912
y p  0.154   0.154   0.120
z pv 26.86
0.912 0.912
yg  0.154   0.154   0.142
z gv 80.6
630
 p yp   0.120  25.2
3
500
 g yg   0.142  23.7
3
 g yg <  p y p . Hence, pinion is the weaker and shall be considered for design.
Pitch diameters of gears,

z m 20  3
dp  p n   66.2 mm
cos cos 25
z g mn 60  3
dg    198.6 mm
cos cos 25

 d p n p  66.2  4800
vp    16.64 m / s
60 103 60 103
Velocity factor
For 10  v  20 m / s,
15.25 15.25
Cv    0.478
15.25  v p 15.25  16.64
For given condition conditions, C s = 1.5, Cm = 1 and Cw = 1.5.
Tangential load,
P 103  50
Ft  103    3004.8 N
v 16.64

Effective load
c c c F 1.5 11.15  3004.8
Feff  s m w t   10843.7 N
cv 0.478
Static Beam strength

Fb  mn b   p y p  3  b    0.142 167  223.5 N
Fb  Feff
223.5 b 10843.7
b  48.5 mm
1.15   mn 1.15    3
bmin    25.64 mm
sin sin 25
12.5 mn  b  20mn
Also,
 37.5 mm  b  60 mm
We observe that the estimated value of face width is within the specified limits.
Hence we adopt, b = 50 mm and mn = 3 mm
Dynamic load,
21v  C  b  cos 2   Ft  cos
Fd   Ft  
21v  C  b  cos 2   Ft
Assuming, accuracy of Grade 8

The error is,
ep  16.00  1.25(2  0.25 66.2)  21.04  m
eg  16.00  1.25(2  0.25 198.6)  22.9  m
e  ep  eg  21.04  22.9  43.94  m
k e 0.111 43.94 103

C   505.31 N / mm
 1 1   1 1 
     3 
 207 10 207 10 
3
 E p Eg 
2116.64  505.31 50  cos 2 25  5183.3 cos 25
Fd  5183.3   16009.9 N
2116.64  505.31 50  cos 2 25  5183.3
Endurance strength of gear,

Fe   e b  y p mn
where,  e  1.75 BHN  1.75 179  313.25 MPa
 Fe  313.25  50    0.142  3  20961.4 N

Fe 20961.4
FOS    1.57
Fd 13340.5
Hence, design is safe.
Wear load,
bQ dpK
Fw 
cos 2 
b = 50 mm, dp = 66.2 mm
2 zg 2  60
Q   1.5
zg  z p 60  20
2 2
 BHN   520 
K  0.16    0.16    4.3264
 100   100 
50 1.5  66.2  4.3264
Fw   26151 N
cos 2 25
Fw 26151
FOS    1.96
Fd 13340.5

1.9 Introduction to Bevel Gears

 Bevel gears are cut on conical blanks whose pitch surfaces are frustrum of cones.
 The bevel gears are used for transmitting power at a constant velocity ratio between
two shafts whose axes intersect at a certain angle.
 The elements of the cones intersect at the point of intersection of the axes of rotation.
Since the radii of both the gears are proportional to their distance from the apex of the
cones, therefore the cones may roll together without sliding. This is the main advantage
of bevel gears over other type of gears.
1.9.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BEVEL GEARS
The bevel gears may be classified in two ways as follows:
a) Based on profile of tooth: The various types of bevel gears based on tooth
profile are shown in Fig. 1.9.
Fig. 1.9 Types of bevel gears based on tooth profile.

1) Straight tooth bevel gears: The straight tooth bevel gears are shown in Fig.
1.9 (a). Their axes generally intersect at right angles. The elements of the
teeth are straight lines that converge at the apex of the pitch cone.
2) Spiral tooth bevel gears: The spiral tooth bevel gears are shown in Fig. 1.9
(b). They are made with curved teeth. They have smoother tooth
engagement, quiet operation, greater strength and higher permissible
velocities.
3) Zerol bevel gears: The axes of the zerol bevel gears, as shown in Fig. 1.9 (c),
intersect and the teeth are curved and can be ground.
4) Face bevel gears: The face bevel gears, shown in Fig. 1.9 (d), consist of a spur
or helical pinion in combination with a conjugate gear of disc form.
5) Skew bevel gears: The skew bevel gears shown in Fig. 1.9 (e) are non-parallel
and non-intersecting having straight teeth.
6) Hypoid bevel gears: The axes of hypoid gears shown in Fig. 1.9 (f) are non-
parallel and non-intersecting, and the teeth are curved.

b) Based on angle between the axes: The various types of bevel gears based on
angle between the axes are shown in Fig. 1.10.
Fig. 1.10 Types of bevel gears based on angle between shafts.

1) External bevel gears: The angle between the axes of these bevel gears is 0:
as shown in Fig. 1.10 (a). The contact between the teeth of these gears is
external.
2) Acute angle bevel gears: The angle between the axes of these gears is less
than 90:, as shown in Fig. 1.10 (b).
3) Right angle bevel gears: The angle between the axes of these gears is 90: as
shown in Fig. 1.10 (c).
4) Miter bevel gears: The angle between the axes of these gears is 90: and the
gears are of the same size, as shown in Fig. 1.10 (d). The pitch angle of each
gear is 45:.
5) Obtuse angle bevel gears: The angle between the axes of these gears is more
than 90: as shown in Fig. 1.10 (e).
6) Crown gears: Gears having a pitch angle of 90: are known as crown gears as
shown in Fig. 1.10 (f). The angle between the shaft axes shall be more than
90:.
7) Internal gears: The bevel gears having pitch angle more than 90: are called
internal gears. The angle between the axes of the shafts is 180: as shown in
Fig. 1.10 (g).
 We shall study the design procedure for straight bevel gears in which the angle
between the shaft axes is 90:. Involute profile is assumed for these gears with
pressure angle of 20:.
1.10 BEVEL GEAR TERMINOLOGY
The terminology of a straight bevel gear is shown in Fig. 1.11.
Some of the important terms are:

Fig. 1.11 Terminology of straight tooth bevel gears

 Pitch cone: It is the pitch surface of the bevel gear as represented by OP.
 Back cone: It is an imaginary cone the elements of which are perpendicular to the
elements of the pitch cone at the larger end of the tooth.
 Cone centre: It is the apex of the pitch cone where the axes of the two mating gears
intersect each other.
 Pitch circle diameter, d: It is the diameter of the pitch circle at the large end of the
teeth.
 Pitch cone angle δ: It is the angle made by the pitch cone element with the axis of
the gear.
 Pitch cone distance: It is the length of the pitch cone element.
L  r12  r2 2
where r1, r2 = pitch circle radius of pinion and gear respectively.
 Back cone radius: It is the length of the back cone element.
r r
rb1  1 , rb 2  2
cos 1 cos  2
 Mean radius (rm): It is the pitch radius at the midpoint along the face width of the
teeth.
b sin 1 b sin  2
rm1  r1  , rm 2  r2 
2 2
1.11 VIRTUAL NUMBER OF TEETH
 The tooth prolife at the large end of the gear should theoretically be laid out on a
sphere. The profile laid out on the surface of the back cone differs only slightly from
the spherical profile.

Fig. 1.12 (a) Back cone Fig. 1.12 (b) Development of back cone
 The cone can be developed into a plane surface on which to study the tooth form
and the tooth action. This approximation is based upon the fact that a cone tangent
to the sphere at the pitch point will closely approximate the surface of the sphere for
a short distance on either side of the pitch point, as shown in Fig. 1.12 (a).
 The back cone may be developed as a plane surface and spur gear teeth
corresponding to the pitch and pressure angle of the bevel gear and the radius of the
developed cone can be drawn, as shown in Fig. 1.12 (b).
 The profile of the teeth of a bevel gear at the large end is the same as the profile of a
spur gear laid out on a pitch radius equal to the back cone radius, rb. The number of
teeth on this imaginary gear is called the virtual or formative number of teeth.
 Let δ = pitch angle or half of the cone angle
r = pitch circle radius of the bevel pinion or gear
rb = back cone radius or equivalent pitch circle radius of spur pinion or gear
From Fig. 1.12 (a), we find that
rb  r sec 
Equivalent or formative number of teeth is given by,
PitchCircle Diameter 2 rb 2 r sec 
zv   
Module m m
where m = module at the large end of teeth.
d
Actual number of teeth on bevel gear, z 
m
where d = pitch circle diameter at the large end.
zv 2 rb

z d
AP
In ∆ABP, sin ABP 
BP
 sin  90    
d
2rb
d
 rb 
2 cos 
z
 zv 
cos 
 Design equations will modify by considering the above factors.

Example 1.5
A pair of straight bevel gears is mounted on shafts intersecting at right angles. The
number of teeth on pinion and gear are 24 and 40 respectively. The pressure angle is 20⁰.
The input power to the pinion is 15 kW at 1440 rpm. The pinion and gear are made of
50C4 (Sut = 660 MPa) steel and heat treated to a surface hardness of 300 BHN and core
hardness of 250 BHN. The gears are machined accurately by a hobbing process to Grade 6.
Determine the module and the face width of gears. The service is with light shocks
working daily from 8 to 10 hours.
Solution:
Data given:
θ = 90:, z1 = 24, z2=40, ɸ = 20:, P=15 kW, n1 = 1440 rpm,
Sut = 660 MPa, (BHN) surface = 300, (BHN) core = 250
Assume m = 4 mm for the initial calculations

s 660
Allowable bending stress,  b  ut   220 MPa
3 3
Pitch circle diameters of pinion and gear,
d1  m z1  4  24  96 mm
d2  m z2  4  40  160 mm
Pitch cone length,
2 2 2 2
d  d   96   160 
L  r12  r2 2   1    2         98.3 mm
2  2  2   2 
Pitch angles of pinion and gear,
z 24
tan 1  1   0.6
z2 40
1  30.96
&  2  90  30.96  59.04
Virtual number of teeth,
z 24
z1v  1   28
cos 1 cos 30.96
z2 40
z2 v    77.75
cos  2 cos 59.04
Lewis form factors based on circular pitch,
0.912
y  0.154  , for 20: involute FD
zv
0.912
y1  0.154   0.1214
28
0.912
y2  0.154   0.1423
77.75

The material of pinion and gear is same and y1 < y2. Therefore, pinion is the weaker and shall
be considered for design.
 d1 n1   96 1440
v   7.24 m / s
60 103 60 103
Tangential load,
P 103 15
Ft  103    2072.33 N
v 7.24
6.1 6.1
Velocity factor for (v < 8 m/s), Cv    0.457
6.1  v 6.1  7.24
Maximum tangential load, Ft  Cs Cm Ft 1.25 1.25  2072.33  3238 N
Ft 3238
Effective load, Feff    7085 N
Cv 0.457
Static beam strength,

 b
Fb   b b  y m 1  
 L
Now, Fb  Feff
 b
 b b  y m 1    Feff
 L
 b 
 220    0.1214  4  b 1    7085
 98.3 
b2  98.3 b  2075  0
It gives b = 30.7 mm or 67.6 mm.
Now L = 98.3 mm < (30 m =30 (4) = 120 mm)
Therefore, b = 6 m to 7 m or 24 mm to 28 mm.
L
Also, b   33 mm
3
We adopt, b = 26 mm, m = 4 mm.
For accuracy Grade 6, tolerance for adjacent pitch error,
e  8.0  0.63(m  0.25 dm )
dm  d  b sin 
d1m  96  26sin 30.96  82.62 mm
d2m  160  26sin 59.04  137.70 mm
e1  8.0  0.63(4  0.25 82.62)  11.950  m
e2  8.0  0.63(4  0.25 137.70)  12.368  m
e  e1  e2  11.950  12.368  24.318  m

For steel pinion and gear,

C  11500e  11500  24.318 103  279.66 N / mm
Dynamic load,
21v  b  C  Ft 
Fd   Ft  
21v  b  C  Ft
21 7.24  279.66  26  3238 
Fd  3238   9474.8 N
21 7.24  279.66  26  3238
Endurance strength of pinion teeth,
 b
Fe   e b  y m 1  
 L
For core, BHN = 250 of steel
σ e = 1.75 BHN = 1.75(250) = 437.5 MPa
 26 
Fe  437.5  26    0.1214  4 1    12763.4 N
 98.3 
F 12763.4
FOS  e   1.347
Fd 9474.8
Wear load,
d bQ K
Fw  1
cos 1
For steel pinion and gear,
2 2
 BHN   300 
Load stress factor, K  0.16    0.16    1.44
 100   100 
2 z2 v 2  77.75
Q   1.47
z2v  z1v 77.75  28
96  26 1.47 1.44
Fw   6161.4 N
cos30.96
Fw < Feff, therefore hardness of pinion has to be increased.
For Fw =1.5 Feff
= 1.5 x 7085 = 10627.5
96  26 1.47  K
 10627.5
cos 30.96
So, K = 2.484
2
 BHN 
K  0.16    2.484
 100 
 BHN  394
Adopting BHN = 400
Therefore, hardness of pinion should be raised to 400 BHN.

1.12 Worm gears

 The worm gear drive consists of a worm and a worm wheel as shown in Fig. 1.13.
 The worm is a threaded screw which can have single, double, triple or multi-start
threads.
 Worm is generally the driver. The worm is usually of cylindrical form having threads
of the same shape as that of an involute rack.
 The worm gear is similar to a helical gear with a face curved to conform to the shape
of the worm.
 The worm is generally made of steel and worm gear of phosphor bronze or cast iron.
 Worm gears are used to transmit power at high velocity ratios between two non-
intersecting shafts. The speed ratio may be as high as 300:1.
 The shafts are generally at right angles to each other. Worm gears are used in
mechanical handling equipment, machine tools and automobiles.
Fig. 1.13 Worm and Worm Gear

1.12.1 TYPES OF WORMS
The worms are of the following two types;
1. Cylindrical or straight worm, and
2. Cone or double enveloping worm.
Fig. 1.14 Types of Worms

1. Cylindrical worm: It is most commonly used worm as shown in Fig. 1.14 (a)
and (b). The shape of the thread is involute helicoids of 14.5: pressure angle
for single and double start worms and 20: for triple and quadruple threaded
worms. The worm threads are cut by a straight sided milling cutter.
2. Conical worm: The conical worm shown in Fig. 1.14 (c) is not used generally.
1.12.2 TYPES OF WORM GEARS
The worm gears are classified according to the type of face. The three types of faces
are:
1. Straight face
2. Hobbed straight face
3. Concave face
1. Straight face worm gear: This type of worm gear is shown in Fig. 1.15 (a). It is
like a helical gear in which the straight teeth are cut with a form cutter. It has
only a point contact with the worm thread and is used for light service.
2. Hobbed straight face worm gear: Its teeth are cut with a hob and the surface
is turned afterwards. Such a worm gear is shown in Fig. 1.15 (b). It is also
used for light service.
3. Concave face worm gear: It is the standard form of worm gear as shown in
Fig. 1.15 (c). It is used for heavy service and general industrial use. The teeth
of this worm gear are cut with a hob of the same pitch diameter as the
mating worm to increase the contact area.
Fig. 1.15 Types of Worm Gears

1.12.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WORM GEARS
Advantages:
1. High speed ratio from 60 : 1 to 100 : 1 with a single pair is possible.
2. Compact drive with small overall dimensions.
3. Smooth and silent operation.
4. Self-locking operation provision possible.
Disadvantages:
1. Low efficiency due to excessive heat generation.
2. Costly worm made of phosphor bronze.
3. Excessive heat generation requires large amount of lubricating oil to dissipate
heat.
4. Low power transmission capacity upto 100 kW only.

1.13 Worm gears Terminology

The terminology of worm and gear is shown in Fig. 1.16.
Fig 1.16 Dimensions of worm

 Helix angle, α: It is the angle which the centre line of the thread makes with a line
perpendicular to the worm axis. It is defined in case of a single start threaded worm.
The worm and worm gear have same hand of helix angle,
 w   g  90
 Lead angle of worm, ϒ: It is the angle which the centre line of the thread makes with
a line perpendicular to the worm axis. It is defined in case of multi-start threaded
worm,
 w    90
From the above both equations, we can say that    g
 Number of starts (or threads on worm), zw: It is the number of thread helices cut
around the cylindrical body of the worm along the length of the worm.
The number of starts on the worm should not normally exceed 6. The recommended
values of number of starts are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4 Number of Starts on Worm
Speed ratio, i Number of starts on worm, zw
20 and over 1
12 – 16 2
8 – 12 3
6 – 12 4
4 - 10 6

 Axial pitch of worm, px: It is the distance measured parallel to the axis of worm from
a point on one thread to the corresponding point on the adjacent thread,
px   mx
dg
where mx = axial module of worm  transverse module of worm gear =
zg
 Transverse circular pitch of worm gear, pt: It is the circular pitch measured in the
transverse plane (or plane of rotation) of the worm gear.
The axial pitch, px of a worm is equal to the transverse circular pitch pt of the mating
worm gear when the shafts are at right angles,
px  pt   mx
 Normal circular pitch of worm gear, pn: It is the circular pitch measured in the
normal plane (or plane perpendicular to the teeth) of the worm gear.
As worm gear is similar to the helical gear,
pn  pt cos  g  px cos 
where  g  helix angle of worm gear.
Now,  mn   mx cos  g
mn  mx cos  g  mx cos 
where mn  normal module.
 Diametral quotient, q: It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to axial module of
worm.
d
q w
mx
 Lead, pz: It is the distance measured between two consecutive intersections of a
helix and a straight generator of the cylinder on which it lies. It is defined as the
distance of a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the same helix,
measured on the pitch surface in an axial direction.
pz  z w p x
where z w  number of threads  or starts  on worm
pz z p  mx zw mx zw zw
tan    w x   
 dw  dw  dw dw q
 Speed ratio, i: It is ratio of the speed of worn to that of the gear,
n z
i w  g
ng z w
 Centre distance, a: It is the distance between the axis of the worm and the axis of
the gear,
dw  d g mx q  mx z g mx  q  z g 
a  
2 2 2

 Axial module, mx: It is the module measured parallel to the worm axis,
d m
mx = g  n
z g cos 
 Width (or face) angle,  : It is the angle at the centre included between the points of
intersection of the generating circle with the lateral faces of the teeth,
tan n
tan 
tan 
 Transverse pressure angle, ɸt: It is angle measured in the transverse plane (or plane
of rotation) of worm gear.
 Normal pressure angle, ɸn: It is the angle measured in the normal plane (or plane
perpendicular to the teeth).
 Normal module, mn: mn = mx Cos ϒ.
 Designation of worm drive: z1 / z2 / q / mx
where, z1 = No. of starts of worm, usually = 1.2,4,6
z2 = No. of teeth on gear wheel,
q = Diametral quotient,
mx = axial module.
Design equations will modify by considering the above factors.
1.14 EFFICIENCY OF WORM AND WORM GEAR DRIVE
The efficiency of worm and worm gear drive is the ratio of power output by worm gear to
the power input to the worm.
Power output by the gear Pg
Efficiency,  
Power input to the worm Pw
 Because F  Faw 
Faw vg
 tg
Ftw vw
Faw   d g ng Faw d g ng
   
Ftw   d w nw Ftw d w nw
dg mx z g zg zg zw
Now,      i tan 
dw mx q q zw q
ng 1
Also, 
nw i
 Faw

Therefore,    tan 
 Ftw

Ftw
Now, Faw 
tan v   
  
where v = tan 1 v = tan 1    virtuat angle of friction
 cos n 
μ = coefficient of friction between worm and worm wheel

ɸn = normal pressure angle.

tan 
Hence , 
tan n   
cos n   tan 
, when worm is the driver
cos n   cot 
cos n   cot 
, when worm gear is the driver
cos n   tan 
Therefore, we can say that the efficiency of the worm gear pair depends upon the following
factors: Lead angle (ϒ), Coefficient of friction between the worm and worm gear (μ) and
Normal pressure angle (ɸn).
1.15 THERMAL CAPACITY OF WORM GEARS
 The speed ratio in worm and worm drives is very high. The worm has to rotate many
cycles for one revolution of the worm gear.
 In this process, lot of heat is generated due to the work lost in friction. This heat must be
dissipated in order to avoid overheating of the drive and the lubricating oil.
 Heat capacity is the heat absorbing capacity of the worm and worm gear along with the
housing and the lubricating oil.
 For a reasonable temperature rise of the lubricating oil, the power transmitting capacity
of the worm drive may be estimated. The heat generated must be dissipated through
the lubricating oil to the gear box housing and then to the atmosphere.
 The heat dissipating capacity depends upon the following factors:
1. Area of housing,
2. Temperature difference between the housing surface and surrounding air, and
3. Thermal conductivity of the material.
 Heat generated,
H g  1   P kW
Ftw vw
 H g  1    kW
103
 Heat dissipated,
t
H d  hcr Ac kW
103
where P  input power, kW ,
η = efficiency of worm gear drive,
h cr  combined heat transfer coefficient, W / m 2 C
= 10 to 18 W / m 2 C with natural air circulation
= 20 to 28 W / m 2 C with forced circulation with a fan
A c  effective surface area of housing, m 2
= 1.14  104  a1.7 m 2
a = centre distance, mm

∆t = rise in temperature of lubricant, :C ≤ 50 :C

 For a safe design, Hd > Hg
 For Hd = Hg, we have
t
1   P  hcr Ac
103
hcr Ac t
P  kW
1    103 
Example 1.6
Design a worm and worm gear to transmit 2 kW from an electric motor revolving at 1440
rpm to a machine running at 72 rpm. Load is intermittent and steady. Gear is made of
phosphor bronze and the worm of hardened steel. The gears are manufactured by
hobbing process.
Solution:
Data given:
P = 2 kW, nw = 1440 rpm, ng = 72 rpm,
1440
Speed ratio, i   20
72
For a compact design,
1 1
 n  3  72  3
tan    g      0.368
 nw   1440 
Lead angle,   20
For i = 15 to 30, zw = 2.
For ϒ = 15: to 30:, Normal pressure angle, ɸn = 20:
Number of teeth on the gear,

zg  i zw  20  2  40
Select mn = 5 mm for the initial design,
mn 5
mx =   5.32 mm
cos  cos 20
d g  mx zg  5.32  40  212.8 mm
mx zw 5.32  2
dw =   29.23 mm
tan  tan 20
Pitch line velocities,

 d w nw   29.23 1440
vw    2.2 m / s
60 103 60 103

 d g ng   212.8  72
vg    0.8 m / s
60 10 3
60 103
Velocity factor for gears manufactured by hobbing process,

6.1 6.1
Cv    0.884
6.1  vg 6.1  0.8
zg 40
zvg    48.2
cos  3
cos3 20
Lewis form factor for gear,

0.912 0.912
y  0.154   0.154   0.135
zg 48.2
Tangential load,
P 103  2
Ft  10  
3
 2500 N
vg 0.8
For given conditions, value of C s = 1.5

C F 1.5  2500
Effective load, Feff  s t   4242 N
Cv 0.884
Static beam strength,

Fb   dg b  yg mn
245
For phosphor bronze gear,  dg   81.67 MPa
3
 Fb  81.67  b   0.135  5  173.18 b
Now, Fb  Feff
173.18 b  4242
4242
b   24.5 mm
173.18
d w 29.23
q   5.5
mx 5.32
b  2 mx  
q  1  2  5.32  5.5  1  27 mm
or b  0.73 d w  0.73  29.23  21.34 mm
We adopt b =25 mm and mn = 5 mm.

Wear load, Fw  d g b K
Load stress factor, K = 0.685 for hardened steel on phosphor bronze and lead angle between
10: to 25:
 Fw  212.8  25  0.685=3644.2 N < Feff
Therefore, hardness of the gear has to be increased.
Rubbing velocity,
v 2.2
vr  w   2.34 m / s
cos  cos 20
Coefficient of friction,
0.0422 0.0422
   0.033
 vr   2.34 
0.28 0.28
tan n = tan  cos  = tan 20 cos 20 = 0.342

n  18.9
Efficiency,
cos n   tan 

cos n   cot 
cos18.9  0.033tan 20
   0.9 or 90%
cos18.9  0.033cot 20
Heat generated,
H g  1   P  1  0.9  2  0.2 kW
Heat dissipated,
t
H d  hcr Ac 3 kW
10
Taking h cr  10 W / m2 C and t=50 C
Now, Hg = Hd
50
 0.2  10  Ac 
103
0.2 103
 Ac   0.4 m2
10  50

2
Design of Gear Box for Machine Tools
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Determination of Variable
Speed Range
2.3 Structure Formula
2.4 Structure Diagram
2.5 Ray and Speed Diagram
2.6 Rules and Guidelines For
Gear Box Layout
2.7 Procedure for Designing
Multi – Speed Gear Box
Examples

2. DESIGN OF GEAR BOX FOR MACHINE TOOLS MACHINE DESIGN (2171909)
2.1 Introduction
 A gear box is a mechanical device used for transmitting a power from the prime
mover to the machine with change in torque and speed.
 A machine tool is expected to perform various operations such as turning, facing,
milling, boring etc. The tools used for these operations work the best for a given
cutting speed, feed and depth of cut.
 Depending on the diameter of the job being machined, different spindle speeds
would be necessary to determine optimum cutting speeds and feed rates.
 The different possible spindle speeds for different diameter of the job would have to
be generated by a multi-speed gear box. A multi-speed gear box can be used for
stepped regulation of the rpm.
Fig. 2.1 Gear Box

2.1.1 Types of Gear Boxes
Generally there are three types of gear boxes used commercially.
I. Sliding Mesh Gear Box
II. Constant Mesh Gear Box
III. Synchromesh Mesh Gear Box
2.2 DETERMINATION OF VARIABLE SPEED RANGE
 The ideal speed range in a machine tool would be the one where there would be
infinite number of speed ratios. This would allow an optimum operation of a
machine for any job diameter. Such a speed regulation would be called as a stepless
regulation.
 Higher the speed ratios available, higher would be the cost of the gear box. Hence,
from the cost and utility perspective, optimum gear ratios should be available to get
the different speed ranges between the maximum and minimum speed. These
intermediate discrete values can be obtained by different laws.
 Let N1 and N2 be the minimum and maximum spindle speeds to be achieved in z
number of intermediate steps. These steps can be arranged by the following laws:
I. Arithmetic Progression (AP)
II. Geometric Progression (GP)
III. Harmonic Progression (HP)

MACHINE DESIGN (2171909) 2. DESIGN OF GEAR BOX FOR MACHINE TOOLS
 From the above, Geometric Progression (G.P.) series is preferred over others as it
gives minimum loss of economic cutting speed in the whole rpm range as well as it
gives better gear box design.
2.2.1 Geometric Progression (G.P.) series
 In a geometric progression, the gear ratio between two consecutive speed ranges
remains the same. It gives constant gear ratio at every stage and is based on a
preferred number of series.
 Geometric progression ratio,
1
 N  z 1
   max 
 N min 
where, ɸ = Common ratio
Nmax =Maximum speed,
Nmin =Minimum speed,
z= Number of speed steps required
 To decide on the geometric progression ratio ɸ, the preferred number series are
used. Series of numbers have been standardised in order that the various sizes of a
series can be determined in an orderly fashion and these are called as preferred
numbers.
 The preferred numbers are classified into different series, which has its own series
factor and are determined as follows:
 A series is established by multiplying the first number with the series factor to get
the second size. On similar lines the third size will be determined by multiplying the
second size by the same series factor. The procedure is continued until the complete
series is built up. Necessary rounding as per international standards may be done to
generate various numbers.

2.2.2 Some important parameters in designing of multi-speed gear box

For machine tools, the cutting speed is generally expressed as,
 DN
V , (m/min)
1000
where, D = Job diameter, mm
N = required spindle speed, rpm
1000 V
N 
D
 Maximum Spindle Speed(N max)
1000 Vmax
N max 
 Dmin
 Minimum Spindle Speed(N min)
1000 Vmin
N min 
 Dmax
 Speed Range Ratio (RN)
N
RN  max
N min
 Cutting Speed Range Ratio (R v)
v
Rv  max
vmin
 Diameter Range Ratio (Rv)
d
Rd  max
d min
 Selection of No. of Speed Steps (z)
1
 N max  z 1
  
 N min 
N max
    z 1
N min
N max
Also, RN 
N min
N max
  RN    z 1
N min
 RN    z 1
 log RN  ( z  1) log 
log RN
  ( z  1)
log 
log RN
z  1
log 

log RN  log 
z 
log 
log  RN  
z 
log 
The value of z can be determined by knowing value of RN and ɸ. The number
of speed steps is then rounded off to the nearest integer number which can
be split into the multiples of 2 and 3.
2.3 STRUCTURE FORMULA
 The structural formula can be defined as an expression which gives the distribution
of the number of transmission stages and the difference between the adjacent
speed steps in each of these stages.
 Let the total number of speed steps be made in a number of stages or transmissions.
 Let, p1, p2 ... pn = Number of speed steps in the first, second and nth stage of
transmission.
 This would mean that after first stage there would be p1 number of speed steps,
whereas at the end of stage two, there would be p1 x p2 steps. Thus for the
complete z speed steps,
z = p1 x p2 x p3 x........pn
where, n = number of stages of the gear box
 We now consider the case where we analyse the difference between two adjacent
speeds 'x' in a given stage, x is referred to as the characteristic of that transmission
stage.
 As explained earlier, p in general represents the number of speed steps available in a
stage. Consider any two adjacent speeds available in this stage. If the difference
between these two speeds is 1, then x = 1, whereas if the value is 2, then x = 2. Thus
for each stage, there would be a particular value of x.
 As the rpm of the output shaft is in GP, there must be one transmission stage which
would give x = 1. This group is called as the main transmission group and has a
progression ratio of ɸx = ɸ1 = ɸ. The next transmission group would then have x2 =
p1 and the progression ratio of    P1 , whereas the next transmission group
x2
would have x3 = P1 P2 with a progression ratio of    P1 . Thus, the values of x1,

x2
x2, x3……xn would be:

x1  1
x 2  p1
x 3  p1  p 2

x n  p1  p 2    p n 1
 This expression is represented in the form of a structural formula given as:
z  p1  x1  p2  x 2  p3  x3  Pn  x n 

2.4 STRUCTURE DIAGRAM

 The structural formula can be represented in the form of special graphs called as
structure diagrams which describes the kinematic structure of the gear box.
 To understand the method of representation of structure diagrams, consider Fig. 2.2.
Consider a 4 speed gear box.
Fig. 2.2 Concept of Structure Diagram

z  4  p1  p2  22
p1  p2  2
n 2
x1  1
x2  p1  2
 There would be two possible structural equations :
z = 2(1)2(2) and z = 2(2) 2(1)
 The structure diagrams to explain the relations with structure formulae for both
these cases are shown in Fig. 2.2 (a) and (b).
 The structure diagram shown in Fig. 2.2 (a) has lines crossing each other and is called
as a Crossed Diagram, whereas Fig. 2.2 (b) represents an Open Structure Diagram.
 The general rules for drawing structure diagrams are listed below.
1. If the number of stages in a gear box are 'n', draw (n + l) vertical lines spaced
at a convenient distance.
2. The first vertical line represents the input shaft, where as the last one would
represent the output shaft. The other vertical lines represent the
intermediate shafts which form the transmission groups or stages of the gear
box.
3. Z horizontal lines are next drawn to represent total number of speeds steps
for the gear box. The spacing between the horizontal lines is taken as log ɸ.
4. Using the structure formula,
z  p1  x1  p2  x 2  p3  x3  Pn  x n 
Plot the values of p1(x1), p2(x2), p3(x3), etc. as shown earlier in Fig. 2.2.
 The structure diagram allows the designer to conceptualise the flow of transmission
in the gear box and gives the following information:
1. The number of shafts in the gear box
2. The number of gears on each shaft. The approximate number of gears would
be found by the following equation:
G  2  ( p1  p2  p3  pn )
3. The order of changing transmissions at each stage to get the required spindle
speed
4. The transmission range and the characteristic of each group
 Fig. 2.3 shows the kinematic arrangement of a four speed gear box based on the two
structures shown in Fig. 2.2 (a) and (b). Both these structures would have the same
arrangement, but different sizes of gears as their transmission ranges are different.

Fig. 2.3 Arrangement for a 4 Speed Gear Box

 Fig. 2.4 gives the possible arrangements which would provide the required four
speeds. It should be noted that the gears which are fixed are marked with a cross (x),
whereas sliding gears are shown with a two way arrow.
Fig .2.4 Flow of Transmission to get the 4 Speeds

 In Fig. 2.4, the gears shown with dotted lines rotate idly without transmitting any
power.
 The typical characteristics of a structure diagram are:
1. Each line must connect another follow-up line till the final output shaft is
reached.
2. At any stage the arrow must terminate at one and only point. However at any
input there can be more than one arrow. Generally this number is limited to
a maximum of three.
3. On the final shaft, all the points must be connected by the arrows.
4. No arrow should go beyond the bounds of the speeds required speeds at the
final output shaft.
 Consider some of the structure diagrams shown in Fig. 2.5 for a 4 speed
arrangement. These diagrams are invalid as they violate the principles laid down
earlier.

Fig. 2.5 Invalid Structure Diagrams

Table 2.1 Preferred Structure Formulae
Number of Number of Preferred Structure Approximate
Speed Steps, z Stages, n Formula, Number of gears
P 1(x1), p2(x2)... 2 x (p1 + p2...)
4 2 2(1) 2(2) 2 x (2 + 2) = 8
6 2 2(1) 3(2) 2 x (2 + 3) = 10
9 2 3(1) 3(3) 2 x (3 + 3) = 12
12 3 2(1) 3(2) 2(6) 2 x (2 +3 + 2) = 14
2.5 RAY AND SPEED DIAGRAM
 The structure diagram establishes the transmission flow in a gear box. It does not
give information related to the individual speeds of each gear, nor does it help in
establishing the number of teeth on each gear. Once the structure diagram is
finalised, the gear box arrangement is fixed.
 To determine the speeds of the various gears, the ray diagram and the speed
diagram are drawn. These diagrams allow the designer to read the speeds of all the
shafts, gears and finally the spindle speeds.
 The steps for drawing the ray and speed diagram for a gear box are listed below:
1. If the number of steps in a gear box is z, and the number of stages of the gear
box is n, draw (n + 2) vertical lines at a convenient spacing. The one extra line
as compared to the structure diagram would represent the motor shaft.
2. If the input speed from the motor is less than the maximum speed, draw z
horizontal lines, whereas if the input speed from the motor is more than the
maximum speed, draw as many horizontal lines as necessary to locate the
motor speed on the diagram. The spacing between the horizontal lines is
taken as log ɸ, just as was the case in structure diagram. Thus,

If Nm < Nmax, z number of Horizontal Lines and,

If Nm > Nmax, z number of Horizontal Lines + additional horizontal
lines to locate Nm on the chart.
3. Using the value of GP ratio ɸ, mark the spindle speeds on the vertical shaft.
Mark the various spindle speeds starting with minimum speed at the
lowermost line.
4. Draw the rays depicting transmission between the last shaft and the shaft
preceding it. The rays are drawn for the lowest rpm of the last shaft.
Table 2.2 Comparison between Structure Diagram and Speed (Ray) Diagram:
Comparison Structure Diagram Speed Diagram
Parameter
Vertical Lines The structure diagram contains The speed diagram contains one
(N + 1) vertical lines for input vertical line for electric motor
shaft, intermediate shafts and shaft and (N + 1) vertical lines for
output shaft. input shaft, intermediate shafts
and output shafts.
Horizontal Line The structure diagram contains The speed diagram contains the
the number of horizontal lines number of horizontal lines
equal to the number of spindle required for locating all spindle
speed steps. speeds as well as electric motor
speed.
Spindle Speeds (n) The structure diagram does not The speed diagram gives all
give the spindle speeds. spindle speeds.
Range Ratio of The structure diagram does not The speed diagram gives the
Spindle Speeds ( Rn ) give the range ratio of spindle range ratio of spindle speeds.
speeds.
Electric Motor Speed The structure diagram does not The speed diagram gives the
give the electric motor speed. electric motor speed.
2.6 RULES AND GUIDELINES FOR GEAR BOX LAYOUT
 Once, the structure and the speed diagrams are finalised, a rough layout of the gears
should be made.
 This layout would then be used in determining the number of teeth on each gear, on
the basis of the speeds calculated from the speed diagram.
 The gears, shafts and other components can then be designed from strength
considerations.
 While developing the gear layout, the following rules should be observed :
I. Minimum Number of Teeth on Gears:
The minimum number of teeth on gears to avoid undercutting or interference
should be determined. For a 20⁰ pressure angle, full depth involute profile, the
minimum number of teeth to avoid interference is taken as about 18. Hence, for
any gear of this kind on the gear box, Z min  18 .

II. Sum of Number of Teeth on Gear Pairs for Parallel Shafts should be the same:
If the gear pairs on parallel shafts have the same module, then the sum of the
number of gears on each gear pair should be the same. Consider the gear
arrangement shown in Fig. 2.6.
Fig. 2.6 Mating Gears on Parallel Shafts

The modules of all the gears are the same. The centre distance in such a case
would be ‘a’.
mZ mZ ' mZ 2 mZ 2 ' mZ3 mZ3 '
a 1  1    
2 2 2 2 2 2
m  Z1  Z1 ' m  Z 2  Z 2 ' m  Z3  Z3 '
a   
2 2 2
2a
 Z1  Z1 '  Z 2  Z 2 '  Z3  Z3 '   C
m
Z ' Z2 ' Z3 '
Also, 1  i1 ,  i2 ,  i3 ,
Z1 Z2 Z3
where, i1, i2 and i3 are gear ratios, which are known values as the speeds of
individual gears on engagement is known. Thus, the maximum gear ratio (speed
increase or reduction) can be read and for that gear pair, the pinion may be chosen
with 18 teeth. The rest of the gear teeth can then be calculated keeping in mind
the above equations.
III. Check on Percentage Deviation of Actual and Theoretical speeds:
While calculating, the number of teeth as suggested above, it is possible that the
number of teeth calculated may not be integers. In such cases rounding off is done.
This rounding off changes the gear ratio values, which in turn would change the
values of speed obtained. This deviation between actual speeds obtained and the

theoretically calculated values can be plotted in a graph called as deviation

diagram as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 Deviation Diagram

Thus, If Nact and Nth are the actual and theoretical speeds respectively, the
deviation in speed ∆N would be calculated as:
N  Nact  Nth
These deviations can be positive or negative. For best results, the sum of all such
deviations should be approximately zero.
 N  0
The percentage speed deviation can then be calculated as:
N  Nth N
%N  act 100  100
Nth Nth
The percentage speed deviation at all times should be less than ± 10 (φ - 1).
IV. The Spacing between Two Adjacent Gears:
The spacing between two adjacent gears on a shaft should be such that one gear
pair gets completely disengaged, before the next begins to mesh. Consider the
arrangement shown in Fig. 2.8 (i) and (ii).
In arrangement (i), it can be seen that both the gear pairs are simultaneously
meshing which would lead to gear failures. In arrangement (ii), the spacing is
greater than two times the face width (b) and hence, the first gear is completely
disengaged, before the second gear can start meshing. Thus, the spacing between
two adjacent gears should be:
L  2b
Fig. 2.8 Spacing Between Adjacent Gears

2.7 Procedure for Designing Multi – Speed Gear Box

The following procedure is adopted in designing of multi-speed gear box.
1. The data Input:
Minimum diameter of workpiece to be machined 'Dmin' and corresponding maximum
cutting speed 'Vmax'.
Maximum diameter of workpiece to be machined 'Dmax' and corresponding minimum
cutting speed ' Vmin'.
2. Calculate maximum and minimum spindle speeds (Nmax and Nmin):
The maximum and minimum spindle speeds are calculated by using equations:
1000 Vmax 1000 Vmin
N max  N min 
 Dmin  Dmax
3. Calculate range ratio of spindle speeds ( RN):
Calculate the range ratio of spindle speeds by using equation:
N
RN  max
N min
4. Select geometric progression ratio (ɸ):
Select the geometric progression ratio 'ɸ'.
5. Calculate the total number of spindle speed steps (z):
Calculate the total number of spindle speed steps by using equation:
log  RN  
z
log 
6. List all the spindle speeds from Nmin to Nmax:
List all the spindle speeds N1, N2, N3…Nz.
7. Decide number of stages (transmission groups) in gear box (r):
Estimate the number of stages (transmission groups) in gear box.
8. Write structural formula and construct corresponding structure diagram:
Write the structural formula z  p1  x1  p2  x 2  p3  x3  Pn  x n  and draw the
corresponding structure diagram.
9. Select electric motor speed:
Knowing the speed of input shaft, select the standard electric motor speed.
10. Construct speed diagram:
Construct speed diagram from the structure diagram.
11. Construct the kinematic (gearing) diagram for the gear box:
The gearing diagram is constructed by calculating the number of teeth on different
gears.

Example 2.1
Draw the structure diagrams and gear box layout for the following equations.
a) 2(1) 2(2)
b) 3(1) 2(3)
c) 2(1) 2(2) 2(4)
d) 3(1) 2(3) 2(6)
Solution:
a) 2(1) 2(2)
Fig. 2.9 Structure Diagram
Fig. 2.10 Gear Box Layout

b) 3(1) 2(3)

c) 2(1) 2(2) 2(4)
Fig .2.14 Gear Box Layout

d) 3(1) 2(3) 2(6)

Example 2.2
A 2 x 2 drive is required to be designed for transmitting speeds starting from 400 rpm with
a geometric progression ratio of 1.4. Draw a suitable structure and speed diagram. Also
draw the layout of the gear box and determine the number of teeth on each gear.
Solution:
The design would be for a 2 stage, 4 speed gear box.
N1 = 400 rpm
ɸ = 1.4
The fours speeds on the output shaft can be calculated as under:
N1 = 400 rpm
N2 = N1 ɸ = 400 x 1.4 =560 rpm
N3 = N2 ɸ = 560 x 1.4 = 784 rpm
N4 = N3 ɸ = 784 x 1.4 = 1097.6 rpm

We now draw the speed diagram for the same. The diagram is drawn, keeping in mind that
the shaft preceding the output shaft III has the maximum speed. This would ensure lesser
torque and hence a smaller and compact design. In the present case, the motor shaft speed
is not known.
Fig. 2.18 Speed Diagram


It can be seen that at stage I, the input speed is 1097.6 rpm. This would be the speeds for
gears a and b. The output speeds from this stage as seen from the speed diagram would be
N3 = 784 rpm and N4 = 1097.6rpm, which would be the speeds of gears a' and b’
respectively. The gear ratio can then be calculated as under:
Z a ' N a 1097.6
   1.4
Za Na ' 784
Zb ' Nb 1097.6
  1
Zb Nb ' 1097.6
For the two gear pairs a - a' and b - b' to lie on the parallel shafts, the sum of the number of
teeth on both should be the same. The largest gear ratio in this case would be for gears a
and a'. Hence the number of teeth on these gears should be determined. The pinion in this
case would be gear a. Let the number of teeth on gear a be Z a .
Z a ' 1.4Z a
Zb  Zb '
Zb  Zb '  Za  Za '  Za  1.4Z a  2.4Z a
 2Zb  2.4Z a
 Zb  1.2Z a
To determine the integer value of number of teeth on gears of stage l, tabulate as under:
Z a Z a ’ = 1.4 Za Z a + Z a’ Z b = 1.2 Z a Z b’ = 1.2 Z b Z b + Z b’
18 25.2  25 43 21.6  22 22 44
19 26.6  27 46 22.8  23 23 46
20 28 48 24 24 48
Z a  20
Z a '  28
Zb  Zb '  24
The same logic used earlier can now be used to determine the number of teeth in stage 2. It
can be seen that at stage 2, the input speeds are 784 rpm and 1097 .6 rpm. These would be
the speeds for gears c and d.

Z c ' N c 1097.6 784

   1
Z c Nc ' 1097.6 784
Z d ' N d 784 1097.6
    1.96
Zd N d ' 400 560
The largest gear ratio in this case would be for gears d and d'. Hence the number of teeth on
these gears should be determined. The pinion in this case would be gear d. Let the number
of teeth on gear d be Z d.
Zc  Zc '
Z d ' 1.96Z d
Zc  Zc '  Zd  Zd '  Zd  1.96Zd  2.96Zd
 2Zc  2.96Z d
 Zc  1.48Z d
To determine the integer value of number of teeth on gears of stage 2, tabulate as under. It
can be seen that in this case to get exact gear ratio, a large size pinion may be required. To
prevent that, some approximations may be taken. This would change the actual speeds
obtained at the spindle end from the theoretically calculated speeds.
Z d Z d’ = 1.96 Z d Z d + Z d’ Z c = 1.48 Z d Z c’ = Z c Z c + Z c’
18 35.28  35 53 26.64  27 27 54
19 37.24  37 56 28.12  28 28 56
20 39.2  39 59 29.6  30 30 60
Z d 19
Z d '  37
Zc  Zc '  28
Example 2.3
A nine speed gear box is to be connected to a motor running at 720 rpm through a belt
drive. The gear box is to have a minimum speed of 31.5 rpm and a maximum speed of 500
rpm. Using standard spindle speeds,
a) Draw the structure and speed diagram for the arrangement.
b) Draw the gear box layout
c) Select suitable standard pulley diameters for connecting the motor to the gear box
shaft.
The standard pulley diameters are based on R20 series with a diameter starting from 80
mm.
Solution:
NM = 720 rpm
N1 = Nmin = 31.5 rpm
Nz = Nmax = 500 rpm

1 1
 N  z 1  500  91
   max      1.4128
 min 
N  31.5 
The nine speeds on the output shaft can be calculated as under:
N1 =31.5 rpm
N2 = N1 ɸ= 31.5 x 1.4128 =45 rpm
N3 = N2 ɸ= 45 x 1.4128 =63 rpm
N4 = N3 ɸ= 63 x 1.4128 =90 rpm
N5 = N4 ɸ= 90 x 1.4128 =125 rpm
N6 = N5 ɸ= 125 x 1.4128 =180 rpm
N7 = N6 ɸ= 180 x 1.4128 =250 rpm
N8 = N7 ɸ= 250 x 1.4128 =355 rpm
N9 = N8 ɸ= 355 x 1.4128 =500 rpm

It is given that a belt drive is used to connect the motor with the input shaft of the gear box.
The motor speed was NM = 720 rpm, whereas the input shaft speed from the speed diagram
is NI = 500 rpm. Thus, if the pulley connected to the input shaft has a diameter DM and that
connected of the shaft I of the gear box has a diameter DI, then the pulley diameters would
be in the ratio,

DI N 720
 M   1.44
DM N I 500
 DI  1.44 DM
The pulleys are in R20 series starting with a minimum diameter of 80 mm. Hence standard
sized pulleys would be found by first determining the GP ratio.
 p  20 10  1.125
Standard Pulley diameters would be = 80 mm
Assuming a minimum pulley diameter D M, the input shaft pulley diameter should be
calculated till the desired standard pulley is available. The procedure as shown:
Thus the pulley diameter on the motor would be 125 mm and that on the input shaft of the
gear box will be 180 mm. This would ensure that the input shaft speed would be 500 rpm.

Example 2.4
A three stage gear box with twelve speeds is to be designed based on R10 series with a
minimum spindle speed of 125 rpm. The electric motor is connected to the gear box
through a belt drive and runs at 1440 rpm and transmits power of 5 kW. Using standard
spindle speeds,
a) Draw the structure and speed diagram for the arrangement.
b) Determine the ratio of the belt pulley diameters.
c) Draw the gear box layout.
Solution:
  10 10  1.26
N1 = Nmin = 125 rpm
NM = 1440 rpm
kW = 5
The twelve standard spindle speeds on the output shaft can be calculated as under:
N1 = 125 rpm
N2 = N1 ɸ = 125 x 1.26 = 160 rpm
N3 = N2 ɸ = 160 x 1.26 = 200 rpm
N4 = N3 ɸ = 200 x 1.26 = 250 rpm
N5 = N4 ɸ = 250 x 1.26 = 315 rpm
N6 = N5 ɸ = 315 x 1.26 = 400 rpm
N7 = N6 ɸ = 400 x 1.26 = 500 rpm
N8 = N7 ɸ = 500 x 1.26 = 630 rpm
N9 = N8 ɸ = 630 x 1.26 = 800 rpm
N10 = N9 ɸ = 800 x 1.26 = 1000 rpm
N11 = N10 ɸ = 1000 x 1.26 = 1250 rpm
N12 = N11 ɸ = 1250 x 1.26 = 1600 rpm


It is given that a belt drive is used to connect the motor with the input shaft of the gear box.
The motor speed was NM = 1440 rpm, whereas the input shaft speed from the speed
diagram is NI = 1600 rpm. Thus, if the pulley connected to the input shaft has a diameter DM
and that connected of the shaft I of the gear box has a diameter DI, then the pulley
diameters would be in the ratio,
DI N 1440
 M   0.9
DM N I 1600
 DI  0.9 DM

3
JOURNAL BEARINGS
Course Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Bearings
3.3 Sliding Contact Bearing
3.4 Basic modes of lubrication
3.5 Properties of lubricants
3.6 Terms used in hydrodynamic
journal bearing
3.7 Mckee's investigation
3.8 Thrust bearing
3.9 Bearing material
3.10 Bearing failure
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Vimal Limbasiya

3. Journal Bearings Machine Design (2171909)
3.1 Introduction
Bearing is a mechanical element that permits relative motion between two parts, such as
the shaft and the housing, with minimum friction. The functions of the bearing are as
follows:
(i) The bearing ensures free rotation of the shaft or the axle with minimum friction.
(ii) The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds it in the correct position.
(iii) The bearing takes up the forces that act on the shaft or the axle and transmits them
to the frame or the foundation.
3.2 Classification of Bearings
Bearings are classified in different ways.
1. Depending upon the direction of force that act on them, bearings are classified into
two categories – radial and thrust bearings, as shown in Fig. 3.1.
(a) Radial Bearing (b) Thrust Bearing

Fig. 3.1
 A radial bearing supports the load, which is perpendicular to the axis of the shaft.
 A thrust bearing supports the load, which acts along the axis of the shaft.
2. Depending upon the type of friction, bearings are classified into two main groups –
sliding contact bearings and rolling contact bearings, as shown in Fig. 3.2.
(a) Sliding Contact Bearing (b) Rolling Contact Bearing

Fig. 3.2
Prepared By: Vimal Limbasiya Department of Mechanical Engineering

Machine Design (2171909) 3. Journal Bearings
 Sliding contact bearings are also called plain bearings, journal bearings or sleeve
bearings. In this case, the surface of the shaft slides over the surface of the bush
resulting in friction and wear. In order to reduce the friction, these two surfaces are
separated by a film of lubricating oil. The bush is made of special bearing material
like white metal or bronze.
 Rolling contact bearings are also called antifriction bearings. Rolling elements, such
as balls or rollers, are introduced between the surfaces that are in relative motion. In
this type of bearing, sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction.
Sliding contact bearings are used in the following applications:
(i) Crankshaft bearings in petrol and diesel engines
(ii) Centrifugal pumps
(iii) Large size electric motors
(iv) Steam and gas turbines and
(v) Concrete mixers, rope conveyors and marine installations.
Rolling contact bearings are used in the following applications:
(i) Machine tool spindles
(ii) Automobile front and rear axles
(iii) Gear boxes
(iv) Small size electric motors and
(v) Rope sheaves, crane hooks and hoisting drums.
3.3 Sliding Contact Bearing (Journal Bearing)
Lubrication is the science of reducing friction by application of a suitable substance called
lubricant, between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion. The lubricants are
classified into following three groups:
(a) Liquid lubricants like mineral or vegetable oils
(b) Semi – solid lubricants like grease
(c) Solid lubricants like graphite or molybdenum disulphite.
The objectives of lubrication are as follows:
(a) To reduce friction
(b) To reduce or prevent wear
(c) To carry away heat generated due to friction
(d) To protect the journal and the bearing from the corrosion.
3.4 The basic modes of lubrication
(i) Thick film lubrication
(ii) Thin film lubrication
(iii) Zero film bearing – is a bearing which operates without any lubricants, i.e., without
any film of lubricating oil.

 Thick film lubrication describes a condition of lubrication, where two surfaces of the
bearing in relative motion are completely separated by a film of fluid.
 Since there is no contact between the surfaces, the properties of surface, like surface
finish, have little or no influence on the performance of the bearing. The resistance
to relative motion arises from the viscous resistance of the fluid. Therefore, the
viscosity of the lubricant affects the performance of the bearing.
 Thick film lubrication is further divided into two groups: hydrodynamic and
hydrostatic lubrication.
 Hydrodynamic lubrication is defined as a system of lubrication in which the load
supporting fluid film is created by the shape and relative motion of the sliding
surfaces.
Fig. 3.3 Hydrodynamic Lubrication (a) Journal at Rest

(b) Journal Starts to Rotate (c) Journal at Full Speed
 The principle of hydrodynamic lubrication in journal bearings is shown in Fig.
3.3.Initially, the shaft is at rest (a) and it sinks to the bottom of the clearance space
under the action of load W.
 The surfaces of the journal and bearing touch during 'rest'. As the journal starts to
rotate, it climbs the bearing surface (b) and as the speed is further increased it forces
the fluid into the wedge – shaped region (c).
 Since more and more fluid is forced into the wedge-shaped clearance space,
pressure is generated with in the system.
 Pressure distribution in hydrodynamic bearing
 Since the pressure is created within the system due to rotation of the shaft, this type
of bearing is known as self-acting bearing. The pressure generated in the clearance
space supports the external load (W).

Fig. 3.4 Pressure Distribution in Hydrodynamic Bearing

 In this case, it is not necessary to supply the lubricant under pressure and the only
requirement is sufficient and continuous supply of the lubricant. This mode of
lubrication is seen in bearings mounted on engines and centrifugal pumps.
Frequently, a term 'journal' bearing issued.
 A journal bearing is a sliding contact bearing working on hydrodynamic lubrication
and which supports the load in radial direction. The portion of the shaft inside the
bearing is called journal and hence the name 'journal' bearing.
 Types of hydrodynamic journal bearings
 There are two types of hydrodynamic journal bearings, namely, full journal bearing
and partial bearing. The construction of full and partial bearings is illustrated in
Fig. 3.5.
 In full journal bearing, the angle of contact of the bushing with the journal is 360°.
Full journal bearing can take loads in any radial direction. Most of the bearings used
in industrial applications are full journal bearings.
(a) Full Bearing (b) Partial Bearing

Fig. 3.5 Full and Partial Bearings
 In partial bearings, the angle of contact between the bush and the journal is always
less than 180°. Most of the partial bearings in practice have 120° angle of contact.
Partial bearing can take loads in only one radial direction. Partial bearings are used in
railroad-cars.

 The advantages of partial bearings compared to full journal bearing are as follows:
(i) Partial bearing is simple in construction.
(ii) It is easy to supply lubricating oil to the partial bearing.
(iii) The frictional loss in partial bearing is less. Therefore, temperature rise is low.
 There are two terms with reference to full and partial bearings, namely, 'clearance'
bearing and 'fitted' bearing.
 A clearance bearing is a bearing in which the radius of the journal is less than the
radius of the bearing. Therefore, there is a clearance space between the journal and
the bearing. Most of the journal bearings are of this type.
 A fitted bearing is a bearing in which the radius of the journal and the bearing are
equal. Obviously, fitted bearing must be partial bearing and the journal must run
eccentric with respect to the bearing in order to provide space for lubricating oil.
 Hydrostatic lubrication is defined as a system of lubrication in which the load
supporting fluid film, separating the two surfaces is created by an external source,
like a pump, supplying sufficient fluid under pressure.
Fig. 3.6 Hydrostatic Lubrication (a) Journal at Rest

(b) Journal at Full Speed
 Since the lubricant is supplied under pressure, this type of bearing is called externally
pressurized bearing. The principle of hydrostatic lubrication in journal bearing is
illustrated in Fig. 3.6. Initially, the shaft rests on the bearing surface [Fig.3.6(a)].
 As the pump starts, high pressure fluid is admitted in the clearance space, forcing the
surfaces of the bearing and journal to separate out [Fig. 3.6(b)]. Hydrostatic bearings
are used on vertical turbo generators, centrifuges and ball mills.
 Compared with hydrostatic bearings, hydro dynamic bearings are simple in
construction, easy to maintain and lower in initial as well as maintenance cost.
 Hydrostatic bearings, although costly, offer the following advantages:
(i) high load carrying capacity even at low speeds;
(ii) no starting friction; and
(iii) no rubbing action at any operating speed or load.

 Thin film lubrication, which is also called boundary lubrication, is defined as a

condition of lubrication where the lubricant film is relatively thin and there is partial
metal to metal contact. This mode of lubrication is seen in door hinges and machine
tool slides. The conditions resulting in boundary lubrication are excessive load,
insufficient surface area or oil supply, low speed and misalignment.
Fig. 3.7 Boundary Lubrication: (a) Metal to Metal

Contact (b) Cluster of Molecules
 The mechanism of boundary lubrication is shown in Fig. 3.7. There are certain fatty
acids which contain polar molecules.
 Molecules in which there is a permanent separation of positive and negative charges
are called polar molecules. Their polarity has a tendency to orient and stick to the
surface in a particular fashion.
 The clusters of polar molecules, cohering to one another and adhering to the
surface, form a compact film which prevents metal to metal contact as is seen in the
region B. This results in partial lubrication.
 There is also a zone (region A) where metal to metal contact takes place, junctions
are formed at high spots and shearing takes place due to relative motion. The
performance of bearing under boundary lubrication depends upon two factors,
namely, the chemical composition of the lubricating oil, such as polar molecules (at
the region B), and surface roughness (at region A).
 The hydrodynamic bearing also operates under the boundary lubrication when the
speed is very low or when the load is excessive.
 There is a particular mode of lubrication known as elasto hydrodynamic lubrication.
When the fluid film pressure is high and the surfaces to be separated are not
sufficiently rigid, there is elastic deformation of the contacting surfaces. This elastic
deflection is useful in the formation of the fluid film in certain cases. Since the
hydrodynamic film is developed due to elastic deflection of the parts, this mode of
lubrication is called elasto hydrodynamic lubrication. This type of lubrication occurs
in gears, cams and rolling contact bearings.

3.5 Properties of lubricants

 Viscosity is defined as the internal fictional resistance offered by a fluid to change its
shape or relative motion of its parts.
 Oiliness: It is a joint property of the lubricant and the bearing surfaces in contact. It
is a measure of the lubricating qualities under boundary conditions where base
metal to metal is prevented only by absorbed film. There is no absolute measure of
oiliness.
 Viscosity Index: The rate of change of viscosity with respect to temperature is
indicated by a number called Viscosity Index.
 Flash point: It is the lowest temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapour to
support
a momentary flash without actually setting fire to the oil when a flame is brought
within 6 mm at the surface of the oil.
 Fire point: It is the temperature at which an oil gives off sufficient vapour to burn it
continuously when ignited.
 Pour point or freezing point: It is the lowest temperature at which the oil can flow.
3.6 Terms used in hydrodynamic journal bearing
O – centre of journal
O' – centre of bearing
D – diameter of bearing
d – diameter of journal
l – length of bearing
Fig. 3.8
 Diametral clearance (c1) – It is difference between the diameters of the bearing and
journal.
c1 = D – d
 Radial clearance (c) – It is difference between radii of the bearing and journal.
c=R–r
 Diametral clearance ratio – It is the ratio of the diametral clearance to the diameter
of the journal. Mathematically,

Diametral clearance ratio = c1 / d

 Eccentricity – It is the radial distance between the centre (O) of the bearing and the
displaced centre (O′) of the bearing under load. It is denoted by e.
 Minimum oil film thickness – It is the minimum distance between the bearing and
the journal, under complete lubrication condition. It is denoted by hO and occurs at
the line of centres. Its value may be assumed as c / 4.
 Attitude or eccentricity ratio – It is the ratio of the eccentricity to the radial
clearance. Mathematically, attitude or eccentricity ratio,
ε=e/c
 Short and long bearing – If the ratio of the length to the diameter of the journal (i.e.
l/d) is less than 1, then the bearing is said to be short bearing. On the other hand, if
l/d is greater than 1, then the bearing is known as long bearing.
3.7 Mckee's Investigation
 In hydrodynamic bearings, initially the journal is at rest. There is no relative motion
and no hydrodynamic film. Therefore, there is metal to metal contact between the
surfaces of the journal and the bearing.
 As the journal starts to rotate, it takes some time for the hydrodynamic film to build
sufficient pressure in the, clearance space. During this period, there is partial metal
to metal contact and a partial lubricant film. This is thin film lubrication.
 As the speed is increased, more and more lubricant is forced into the wedge –
shaped clearance space and, sufficient pressure is built up, separating the surfaces of
the journal and the bearing. This is thick film lubrication. Therefore, there is a
transition from thin film lubrication to thick film lubrication as the speed increases.
Fig. 3.9 μN/p Curve

 The transition, from thin film lubrication to thick film hydrodynamic lubrication can
be better visualized by means of a curve called μN/p curve. This curve is shown in
Fig. 3.9. The μN/p curve is an experimental curve developed by McKeebrothers. A
bearing characteristic number is a dimensionless group of parameters given by,

N
 Bearing characteristic number 
p
where, μ= absolute viscosity of the lubricant
N = speed of the journal
p = unit bearing pressure (load per unit of projected area of bearing)
 The bearing characteristic number is plotted on the abscissa. The coefficient of
friction f is plotted on the ordinate. The coefficient of friction f is the ratio of
tangential frictional force to the radial load acting on the bearing. As seen in Fig. 3.9,
there are two distinct parts of the curve – BC and CD.
(i) In the region BC, there is partial metal to metal contact and partial patches of
lubricant. This is the condition of thin film or boundary lubrication.
(ii) In the region CD, there is relatively thick film of lubricant and hydrodynamic
lubrication takes place.
(iii) AC is the dividing line between these two modes of lubrication. The region to the left
of the line AC is the thin film zone while the region to the right of the line AC is the
thick film zone.
(iv) It is observed that the coefficient of friction is minimum at C or at the transition
between these two modes. The value of the bearing characteristic number
corresponding to this minimum coefficient is called the bearing modulus. It is
denoted by K in the figure.
 The bearing should not be operated near the critical value K at the point C. A slight
drop in the speed (N) or a slight increase in the load (p) will reduce the value of μN/p
resulting in boundary lubrication. The guidelines for hydrodynamic lubrication are as
follows:
(i) In order to avoid seizure, the operating value of the bearing characteristic number
(μN/p) should be at least 5 to 6 times that when the coefficient of friction is
minimum. (5K to 6K or 5 to 6 times the bearing modulus).
(ii) If the bearing is subjected to fluctuating loads or impact conditions, the operating
value of the bearing characteristic number (μN/p) should be at least 15 times that
when the coefficient of friction is minimum. (15K or 15 times the bearing modulus).
 It is observed from the (μN/p) curve that when viscosity of the lubricant is very low,
the value of (μN/p) parameter will be low and boundary lubrication will result.
Therefore, if the viscosity of the lubricant is very low then the lubricant will not
separate the surfaces of the journal and the bearing and metal to metal contact will
occur resulting in excessive wear at the contacting surfaces.
 The (μN/p) curve is important because it defines the stability of hydrodynamic
journal bearing and helps to visualize the transition from boundary lubrication to
thick film lubrication.

3.8 Thrust bearing

 A thrust bearing is used to guide or support the shaft which is subjected to a load
along the axis of the shaft. Such types of bearings are mainly used in turbines and
propeller shafts. The thrust bearings are of the following two types:
1. Foot step or pivot bearings, and 2. Collar bearings.
 In a foot step or pivot bearing, the loaded shaft is vertical and the end of the shaft
rests within the bearing. In case of collar bearing, the shaft continues through the
bearing. The shaft may be vertical or horizontal with single collar or many collars.
 Foot step or pivot bearings
 A simple type of footstep bearing suitable for a slow running and lightly loaded shaft
as shown in Fig. 3.10. If the shaft is not of steel, its end must be fitted with a steel
face. The shaft is guided in a gunmetal bush, pressed into the pedestal and
prevented from turning by means of a pin.
 Since the wear is proportional to the velocity of the rubbing surface, which (i.e.
rubbing velocity) increases with the distance from the axis (i.e. radius) of the bearing,
therefore the wear will be different at different radii.
 Due to this wear, the distribution of pressure over the bearing surface is not
uniform. It may be noted that the wear is maximum at the outer radius and zero at
the centre.
 It may be noted that a footstep bearing is difficult to lubricate as the oil is being
thrown outwards from the centre by centrifugal force.
 In designing, it is assumed that the pressure is uniformly distributed throughout the
bearing surface.
Fig. 3.10 Footstep bearing

Let W = Load transmitted over the bearing surface,
R = Radius of the bearing surface (or shaft),
A = Cross-sectional area of the bearing surface,

p = Bearing pressure per unit area of the bearing surface between rubbing surfaces,
μ = Coefficient of friction, and
N = Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
When the pressure in uniformly distributed over the bearing area, then
W W
p 
A R2
2
Total frictional torque, T  WR
3
2NT
Power lost in friction, P 
60
For counter boring shaft,
W
p where, r = Radius of counter bore
(R  r2 )
2
2  R3  r3 
T  W  2 2 
3  R r 
 Collar bearings
 In a collar bearing, the shaft continues through the bearing. The shaft may be vertical
or horizontal, with single collar or many collars.
 A simple multicollar bearing for horizontal shaft is shown in Fig. 3.11. The collars are
either integral parts of the shaft or rigidly fastened to it. The outer diameter of the
collar is usually taken as 1.4 to 1.8 times the inner diameter of the collar (i.e.
diameter of the shaft).
 The thickness of the collar is kept as one-sixth diameter of the shaft and clearance
between collars as one-third diameter of the shaft. In designing collar bearings, it is
assumed that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the bearing surface.
Fig. 3.11 Collar bearing

Let W = Load transmitted over the bearing surface,

n = Number of collars,
R= Outer radius of the collar,
r = Inner radius of the collar,
A = Cross-sectional area of the bearing surface = n (R2– r2),
p = Bearing pressure per unit area of the bearing surface, betweenrubbing surfaces,
μ = Coefficient of friction, and
N = Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
When the pressure is uniformly distributed over the bearing surface, then bearing pressure,
W W
p 
A n (R2  r2 )
2  R3  r3 
Total frictional torque, T  W  2 2 
3  R r 
2NT
60
3.9 Bearing Materials

The desirable properties of a good bearing material are as follows:
(i) When metal to metal contact occurs, the bearing material should not damage the
surface of the journal. It should not stick or weld to the journal surface.
(ii) It should have high compressive strength to withstand high pressures without
distortion.
(iii) In certain applications like connecting rods or crankshafts, bearings are subjected
to fluctuating stresses. The bearing material, in these applications, should have
sufficient endurance strength to avoid failure due to pitting.
(iv) The bearing material should have the ability to yield and adopt its shape to that of
the journal. This property is called conformability. When the load is applied, the
journal is deflected resulting in contact at the edges. A conformable material
adjusts its shape under these circumstances.
(v) The dirt particles in lubricating oil tend to jam in the clearance space and, if hard,
may cut scratches on the surfaces of the journal and bearing. The bearing material
should be soft to allow these particles to get embedded in the lining and avoid
further trouble. This property of the bearing material is called embeddability.
(vi) In applications like engine bearings, the excessive temperature causes oxidation of
lubricating oils and forms corrosive acids. The bearing material should have
sufficient corrosion resistance under these conditions.
(vii) The bearing material should have reasonable cost and should be easily available in
the market.

 The most popular bearing material is babbitt. Due to its silvery appearance, babbitt
is called 'white' metal. There are two varieties of babbitts lead-base and tin-base,
depending upon the major alloying element.
 They are used in the form of a strip or thin lining-about 0.5 mm thick-bonded to steel
shells. Babbitts have excellent conformability and embeddability.
 Tin-base babbitts have better corrosion resistance and can be easily bonded to steel
shells. High cost and shortage of tin are their main limitations.
 Babbitts, whether lead-base or tin-base, are inherently weak and their strength
decreases rapidly with increasing temperature. Their use is further restricted due to
poor fatigue strength.
 The other bearing materials are bronze, copper – lead, aluminium alloys and plastics.
Compared with babbitts, bronze is cheaper, stronger and can withstand high
pressures. It has got excellent casting and machining characteristics.
 Bronze bearing is made as a single solid unit. The main drawback of bronze bearing is
its tendency to stick to the surface of the journal at high temperatures. Copper –
lead bearings (70% Cu and 30%Pb) are used in the form of a thin lining like white
metal.
 They have more hardness and fatigue strength and are used in heavy duty
applications at high temperatures. Tin – aluminium alloys have higher fatigue
strength and they retain their strength even at high temperatures. They are used in
engine bearings.
 There are certain non – metallic bearings like graphite, plastics (Teflon) and rubber.
For high temperature applications, conventional bearings with lubricating oils cannot
be used.
 In such cases, bearings made of pure carbon (graphite) are employed. Teflon has an
extremely low coefficient of friction and requires no external lubricant like an oil.
 They are particularly useful where the bearing is located at an inaccessible position
or where the lubricating oil is likely to cause contamination such as bearings for food
processing machines. Rubber is used as bearing material in marine applications.
3.10 Bearing Failure
Fatigue failures are not common in journal bearings unlike ball bearings. The failures in
journal bearings are mainly associated with insufficient lubricant, contamination of lubricant
and faulty assembly. The principal types of bearing failure are as follows:
(a) Abrasive Wear: Abrasive wear on the surface of the bearing is a common type of
bearing failure. It is in the form of scratches in the direction of motion often with
embedded particles. Abrasive wear occurs when the lubricating oil is contaminated
with dust, foreign particles, rust or spatter. Proper enclosures for the bearing and
the housing, cleanliness of lubricating oil and use of high viscosity oil are some of the
remedies against this type of wear.

(b) Wiping of Bearing Surface: When the rotating journal touches the bearing, excessive
rubbing occurs resulting in melting and smearing of the surface of the bearing. This
type of failure is in the form of surface melting and flow of bearing material. The
main causes for this type of wear are inadequate clearance, excessive transient load
and insufficient oil supply. The remedy is to keep these factors under control.
(c) Corrosion: The corrosion of bearing surface is caused by the chemical attack of
reactive agents that are present in the lubricating oil. These oxidation products
corrode materials such as lead, copper, cadmium and zinc. Lead reacts rapidly with
all oxidation agents. The remedy is to use oxidation inhibitors as additive in the
lubricating oil.
(d) Distortion: Misalignment and incorrect type of fit are the major sources of
difficulties in journal bearings. When the fit is too tight, bore distortion occurs. When
foreign particles are trapped between the bearing and the housing during the
assembly, local bore distortion occurs. Correct selections of the fit and proper
assembly procedure are the remedies against this type of wear.

Example 3.1: The following data is given for a 360° hydrodynamic bearing:
Radial load = 3.2 KN
Journal speed = 1490 rpm
Journal diameter = 50 mm
Bearings length = 50 mm
Radial clearance = 0.05 mm
Viscosity of lubricant = 25 cp
Assume that total heat generated in bearing is carried by total oil flow in bearing.
Calculate (i) co-efficient of friction
(ii) power lost in friction
(iii) minimum oil film thickness
(iv) flow requirement in liters/min
r ho Q
  f  3.22  0.4  4.33
c c rcnl
Solution: W = 3.2 KN
n = 1490 rpm
d = 50 mm
l = 50 mm
c = 0.05 mm
μ = 25 cp
Co-efficient of friction (f)
r
  f  3.22
c
 25 
  f  3.22
 0.05 
f = 0.00644
Power lost in friction (P)
P = fVW
 dn
P  0.00644  W
60
  50  103  1490
P  0.00644   3.2  103
60
P = 80.388 W
Minimum oil film thickness
ho = 0.4 c
= 0.4 (0.05)
= 0.02 mm
Flow requirement

Q = 4.33 r c n l
= 4.33 x 25 x 0.05 x 1490 x 50
= 403231.25 mm3/min
= 403231.25 x 10-3 cm3/min
= 403231.25 x 10-3 x 10-3 lit/min (1000cc = 1 liter)
= 0.403 lit/min
Example 3.2: The following data is given for a 360° hydrodynamic bearing:
Radial load = 10 KN
Unit bearing pressure = 1000 KPa
Clearance ratio (r/c) = 800
Viscosity of lubricant = 30 mPa.s
Assume that total heat generated in bearing is carried by total oil flow in bearing.
Calculate (i) dimensions of bearing
(ii) co-efficient of friction
(iii) power lost in friction
(iv) total flow of oil
(iv) side leakage
r Q Qs
  f  9.55  3.78  0.38
c rcnl Q
Solution: W = 10 KN
n = 1440 rpm
p = 1000 KPa = 1 MPa
r/c = 800
μ = 30 mPa.s = 30 x 10-3Pa.s
= 30 x 10-9MPa.s
= 30 x 10-9 N.s/mm2
Assume l/d = 1
W W
p 
ld d 2
10  103
1
d2
d = 100 mm
l = d = 100 mm
Co-efficient of friction (f)
r
  f  3.22
c

800 f  3.22
f = 0.0119
Power lost in friction (P)
P = fVW
 dn
P f W
60
  0.1  1440
P  0.0119   10  103
60
P = 897.24 W
Total flow of oil
Q = 3.78 r c n l
 50 
= 3.78  50     1440  100
 800 
= 1701000 mm3/min
Side leakage
QS
 0.38
Q
QS = 1701000 x 0.38
= 646380 mm3/min
Example 3.3: The thrust of propeller shaft in a marine engine is taken up by a number of
collars integral with the shaft which is 300 mm in diameter. The thrust on the shaft is 200 KN
and speed is 75 rpm.
Find: (i) Numbers of collars required
(ii) Power lost in friction and
(iii) Heat generated at the bearing in KJ/min.
Take μ = 0.05 and bearing pressure = 0.3 N/mm2.
Solution: d = 300 mm
W = 200 KN
n = 75 rpm
μ = f = 0.05
p = 0.3 N/mm2
Assume outer diameter of the collar D is taken as 1.5d
D = 1.5 d = 1.5 x 300
= 450 mm
W
p
n (R2  r 2 )

200  103
0.3 
n   (2252  1502 )
No. of collar, n = 7.5
≈8
2  R3  r 3 
Total frictional torque, T  f W  2 2 
3 R r 
2  2253  1503 
T   0.05  200  103  2 
 225  150 
2
3
= 1900 x 103 N.mm
= 1900 N.m
2 nT
60
2    75  1900
P
60
P = 14.92 kW
Heat generated at the bearing = Power lost in friction
= 14.92 kW or KJ/s
= 14.92 x 60
= 895.2 KJ/min.
Example 3.4: A foot step bearing supports a shaft of 100 mm diameter which is counter-
bored at the end with a hole diameter of 50 mm. The bearing pressure is limited to 1
N/mm2. The speed of shaft is 100 rpm. Assume µ = 0.015.
Find (i) the load to be supported
(ii) the power lost in friction
(iii) the heat generated in bearing
Solution: D = 100 mm
d = 50 mm
p = 1 N/mm2
n = 100 rpm
μ = f = 0.015
The load to be supported
W
p
 (R2  r 2 )
W
1
 (502  252 )
W = 5890.48 N

2  R3  r 3 
Total frictional torque, T  f W  2 2 
3 R r 
2  503  253 
T   0.015  5890.48  2 2 
3  50  25 
= 3436.11 N.mm
= 3.436N.m
2 nT
60
2    100  3.436
P
60
P = 35.98 W
Heat generated at the bearing = Power lost in friction
= 35.98W.
Example 3.5: Following data is given for a 360° hydrodynamic bearing:

Length to diameter ratio =1
Diametral clearance = 100 µm
External load = 9 KN
The value of minimum film thickness variable = 0.3
S = 0.0828
Find viscosity of oil that need be used.
Solution: l/d = 1
n = 1350 rpm
d = 100 mm
Diametral clearance = 100 µm
W = 9 KN
ho
 0.3
c
Sommerfeld number = 0.0828
W 9000
p 
ld 100  100
p = 0.9 N/mm2
diametral clearance 100
Radial clearance, c  
2 2
c = 50 µm
= 50 x 10-3 mm

 r   nS
2
Sommerfeld number, S   
c p
 50    1350
2
0.0828   3 
 50  10  0.9  60
μ = 3.31 x 10-9 N.s/mm2
= 3.31 cP (Centi Poise)
Example 3.6: The following data refer to 3600 hydrodynamic journal bearing:
End leakage factor = 0.002
Bearing length = 100 mm
Clearance ratio (c/d) = 0.001
Bearing pressure = 1.4 N/mm2
Absolute Viscosity of lubricant = 0.011 kg/m-sec at 750C operating temperature
Room temperature = 350 C
Inlet temperature of the oil = 100C
Specific heat of the oil = 1850 J/kg/0C
Heat dissipation Coefficient = 280W/ m2/0C
Calculate: (i) the amount of artificial cooling required
(ii) the mass of the lubricating oil required.
Solution: n = 900 rpm k = 0.002
d = 50 mm l = 100 mm
c/d = 0.001 p = 1.4 N/mm2
μ = 0.011Kg/m.s TO = 75 C
CP = S =1850 J/kg/0C Ta = 35 C
C = 280W/ m2/0C T = 10 C
33   n   d 
Coefficient of friction, f   k
108  p   c 
33  0.011  900 
f   1000   0.002
108  1.4 
f = 0.0043
W
p
ld
Load on bearing, W = 1.4 x 100 x 50
= 7000 N
 d n   50  900  103
Velocity, v  
60 60

= 2.356 m/s
Heat generated, Hg = f v W
= 0.0043 x 2.356 x 7000
= 70.91 W
1 1
(Tb  Ta )  (TO  Ta )  (75  35)
2 2
= 20 C
Heat dissipated, Hd = C.A (Tb – Ta) = C.l.d (Tb – Ta)
= 280 x 0.1 x 0.05 x 20
= 28 W
Amount of artificial cooling required = Hg – Hd
= 70.91 – 28
= 42.91 W
Mass of the lubricating oil required
Heat taken away by the oil, Ht = m. Cp. T
Hg = Ht = m. Cp. T
42.91 = m x 1850 x 10
m = 0.0023 kg/sec
Example 3.7: Design a journal bearing from the following data:

Radial load = 20 KN
diameter of journal =100 mm
Speed of journal =900 r.p.m.
0
oil SAE 10 with viscosity at 55 C = 0.017 Kg/m-sec
ambient temperature =15.50 C
maximum bearing pressure = 1.5 MPa
permissible rise in oil temperature = 100 C
heat dissipation coefficient = 1232 W/m2/0C
L/D ratio = 1.6
Design parameter μN/p = 28
clearanceratio(c/d) = 0.0013
specific heat of oil = 1900 J/kg/0C
Solution: W = 20 KN d = 100 mm
n = 900 rpm k = 0.002 (Assume)
l/d = 1.6 μN/p = 28 mm
c/d = 0.0013 p = 1.5 N/mm2

μ = 0.017 Kg/m.s TO = 55 C

CP = S =1900J/kg/0C Ta = 15.5 C
C = 1232 W/ m2/0C T = 10 C
Amount of artificial cooling required
33   n   d 
Coefficient of friction, f   k
108  p   c 
33  1 
8 
f 28     0.002
10  0.0013 
f = 0.0091
 d n   50  900  103
Velocity, v  
60 60
= 2.356 m/s
Heat generated, Hg = f v W
 dn   0.1  900
f  W  0.0091   20  103
60 60
  0.1  900
 0.0091   20  103
60
= 857.65 W
1 1
(Tb  Ta )  (TO  Ta )  (55  15.5)
2 2
= 19.75 C
Heat dissipated, Hd = C.A (Tb – Ta) = C.l.d (Tb – Ta)
= 1232 x 0.16 x 0.1 x 19.75
= 389.3 W
Amount of artificial cooling required = Hg – Hd
= 857.65 – 389.3
= 468.35 W
Mass of the lubricating oil required
Heat taken away by the oil, Ht = m. Cp. T
468.35 = m x 1900 x 10
m = 0.024 kg/sec
Example 3.8: A 75 mm diameter full journal bearing runs at 400 r.p.m. It is 75 mm long and
is subjected to a radial load of 2500 N. The bearing is lubricated with SAE 30 oil with the
viscosity 16.5×10-3 kg/m-s flows into the bearing at a temperature of 75°C. The radial
clearance is 0.03 mm.

Determine:(1) Sommerfeld number

(2) Minimum film thickness
(3) Attitude
(4) Power loss in friction
(5) Heat loss
(6) Side flow & Total flow of lubricants
(7) Temperature rise
Solution: d = 75 mm N = 400 rpm
l = 75 mm W = 2500 N
µ = 16.5×10-3 kg/m-s To = 75°C
c = 0.03 mm
W 2500
Bearing pressure, p   = 0.44 N/mm2
l  d 75  75
2
 r   NS   37.5   16.5  10  400 
2 3
Sommerfeld number, S         
 c   p   0.03   0.44  60 
6
S = 0.39 x 10
For value l/d = 1 and full bearing at S = 0.39
Attitude or eccentricity ratio, ε = 0.27
e c  hO h
  1 O
c c c
h
0.27  1  O
0.03
hO = 0.0219 mm
r
for ε = 0.27, f    10.35
c
 0.03 
Co-efficient of friction, f  10.35  
 37.5 
= 0.00828
 dN 
Power loss in friction, P  fvW  f  W
 60 
  0.075  400 
 0.00828   2500
 60 
= 32.51 W
Heat loss =Power loss in friction = 32.51 W
4Q Q
For  = 0.27,  3.73, s  0.3906
dcNSl Q

4Q
 3.73
dcNS l
3.73  0.075  0.03  103  400  0.075
Q
4  60
-6 3
= 1.049 x 10 m /s
Qs
 0.3906
Q
QS = 4.097 x 10-7 m3/s
c' T
For  = 0.27, c’  142  104 N / m2 C,  42.37
p
42.37  0.44  106
T   13.13 C
142  104

4
ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Advantages and
Disadvantages of Rolling
Contact Bearings over Sliding
Contact Bearings
4.3 Types of Rolling Contact
Bearings
4.4 Parts of rolling contact
bearing
4.5 Selection of Bearing-Type
4.6 Static Load Carrying
Capacity
4.7 Dynamic Load Carrying
Capacity
4.8 Equivalent Bearing Load
4.9 Load-Life Relationship
4.10 Design for Cyclic Loads and
Speeds
4.11 Bearing with a probability of
survival other than 90 percent
4.12 Bearing Failure – Causes and
Remedies
4.13 Lubrication of Rolling
Contact Bearings

4. Rolling contact bearing Machine Design (2171909)
4.1 Introduction
 Rolling contact bearings are also called antifriction bearings or simply ball bearings.
Rolling elements, such as balls or rollers, are introduced between surfaces that are in
relative motion. In this type of bearing, sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction.
4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rolling Contact Bearings over Sliding Contact
Bearings
The following are some advantages and disadvantages of rolling contact bearings over
sliding contact bearings.
Advantages
1. Low starting and running friction except at very high speeds.
2. Ability to withstand momentary shock loads.
3. Accuracy of shaft alignment.
4. Low cost of maintenance, as no lubrication is required while in service.
5. Small overall dimensions.
6. Reliability of service.
7. Easy to mount and erect.
8. Cleanliness.
Disadvantages
1. More noisy at very high speeds.
2. Low resistance to shock loading.
3. More initial cost.
4. Design of bearing housing complicated.
4.3 Types of Rolling Contact Bearings:
Fig. 4.1 Types of Rolling Contact Bearings

There are main two types of rolling contact bearing: Ball bearing and Roller bearing.
 Types of Ball bearing
 Single row deep groove ball bearing
 Filling notch bearing
 Angular contact bearing
 Double row bearing

Machine Design (2171909) 4. Rolling contact bearings
 Self – aligning bearing

 Thrust ball bearing
 Types of Roller bearing
 Cylindrical roller bearing
 Spherical roller bearing
 Needle roller bearing
 Taper roller bearing
4.4 Parts of rolling contact bearing
 Inner race – which is pressed on to shaft.
 Outer race – which fits in bearing housing.
 Rolling element – balls, rollers which roll over the race track.
 Cage – for separating the balls so that they do not touch each other to reduce wear
and noise.
 Seal is provided to avoid enter the dirt and foreign particle in bearing.
4.5 Selection of Bearing-Type
The selection of the type of bearing in a particular application depends upon the
requirement of the application and the characteristics of different types of bearings. The
guidelines for selecting a proper type of bearing are as follows:
(i) For low and medium radial loads, ball bearings are used, whereas for heavy loads
and large shaft diameter so roller bearings are selected.
(ii) Self-aligning ball bearings and spherical roller bearings are used in applications
where a misalignment between the axes of the shaft and housing is likely to exist.
(iii) Thrust ball bearings are used for medium thrust loads whereas for heavy thrust
loads, cylindrical roller thrust bearings are recommended. Double acting thrust
bearings can carry the thrust load in either direction.
(iv) Deep groove ball bearings, angular contact bearings and spherical roller bearings
are suitable in applications where the load acting on the bearing consists of two
components – radial and thrust.
(v) The maximum permissible speed of the shaft depends upon the temperature rise in
the bearing. For high speed applications, deep groove ball bearings, angular contact
bearings and cylindrical roller bearings are recommended.
(vi) Rigidity controls the selection of bearings in certain applications like machine tool
spindles. Double row cylindrical roller bearings or taper roller bearings are used
under these conditions. The line of contact in these bearings, as compared with the
point of contact in ball bearings, improves the rigidity of the system.
(vii) Noise becomes the criterion of selection in applications like household appliances.
For such applications, deep groove ball bearings are recommended.

4.6 Static Load Carrying Capacity

 Static load is defined as the load acting on the bearing when the shaft is stationary. It
produces permanent deformation in balls and races, which increases with increasing
load.
 The permissible static load, therefore, depends upon the permissible magnitude of
permanent deformation.
 From past experience, it has been found that a total permanent deformation of
0.0001 of the ball or roller diameter occurring at the most heavily stressed ball and
race contact, can be tolerated in practice, without any disturbance like noise or
vibrations.
 The static load carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the static load which
corresponds to a total permanent deformation of balls and races, at the most heavily
stressed point of contact, equal to 0.0001 of the ball diameter.
 Formulae are given in standards for calculating the static load carrying capacity of
different types of bearings. However, while selecting the bearings, it is not necessary
to use these formulae.
 The values of static load carrying capacities are directly given in the manufacturer's
catalogues, which are based on the above formulae. Where conditions of friction,
noise and smoothness are not critical, a much higher permanent deformation can be
tolerated and consequently static loads up to four times the static load carrying
capacity may be permissible.
 On the other hand, where extreme smoothness of operation is desired, a smaller
permanent deformation is permitted.
4.7 Dynamic Load Carrying Capacity
 The life of a ball bearing is limited by the fatigue failure at the surfaces of balls and
races. The dynamic load carrying capacity, of the bearing is, therefore, based on the
fatigue life of the bearing.
 The life of an individual ball bearing is defined as the number of revolutions (or hours
of service at some given constant speed), which the bearing runs before the first
evidence of fatigue crack in balls or races.
 Since the life of a single bearing is difficult to predict, it is necessary to define the life
in terms of the statistical average performance of a group of bearings.
 Bearings are rated on one of the two criteria – the average life of a group of bearings
or the life, which 90% of the bearings will reach or exceed. The second criterion is
widely used in bearing industry.
 The rating life of a group of apparently identical ball bearings is defined as the
number of revolutions that 90% of the bearings will complete or exceed before the
first evidence of fatigue crack. There are a number of terms used for this rating life.

They are minimum life, catalogue life, L10 or B10 life. These terms are synonyms fits
for rating life.
 The life of an individual ball bearing may be different from rating life. Statistically, it
can be proved that the life, which 50% of a group of bearings will complete or
exceed, is approximately five times the rating or L10 life. This means that for the
majority of bearings, the actual life is considerably more than the rated life.
 The dynamic load carrying capacity of a bearing is defined as the radial load in radial
bearings (or thrust load in thrust bearings) that can he carried for a minimum life of
one million revolutions.
 The minimum life in this definition is the L10 life, which90% of the bearings will reach
or exceed before fatigue failure. The dynamic load carrying capacity is based on the
assumption that the inner race is rotating while the outer race is stationary. The
formulae for calculating the dynamic load capacity for different types of, bearings
are given in standards.
4.8 Equivalent Bearing Load
 In actual applications, the force acting on the bearing has two components – radial
and thrust. It is therefore necessary to convert the two components acting on the
bearing into a single hypothetical load, fulfilling the conditions applied to the
dynamic load carrying capacity. Then the hypothetical load can be compared with
the dynamic load capacity.
 The equivalent dynamic load is defined as the constant radial load in radial bearings
(or thrust load in thrust bearings), which if applied to the bearing would give same
life as that which the bearing will attain under actual condition of forces. The
expression for the equivalent dynamic load is written as,
P = X V Fr + Y Fa
where, P = equivalent dynamic load (N)
Fr = radial load (N)
Fa = axial or thrust load (N)
V = race-rotation factor
X and Y are radial and thrust factors respectively and their values are given in the
manufacturer's catalogues.
 The race-rotation factor depends upon whether the inner race is rotating or the
outer race. The value of V is 1when the inner race rotates while the outer race is
held stationary in the housing. The value of V is 1.2 when the outer race rotates with
respect to the load, while the inner race remains stationary.
 In most of the applications, the inner race rotates and the outer race is fixed in the
housing. Assuming V as unity, the general equation for equivalent dynamic load is
given by,
P = X Fr + Y Fa

 When the bearing is subjected to pure radial load Fr,

P = Fr
 When the bearing is subjected to pure load Fa,
P = Fa
4.9 Load-Life Relationship
The relationship between the dynamic load carrying capacity, the equivalent dynamic load,
and the bearing life is given by.
p
C
L10    ……………(a)
P
where, L10 = rated bearing life (in million revolutions)
C = dynamic load capacity (N), and
p = 3 (for ball bearings)
p =10/3 (for roller bearings)
Rearranging Eq. (a),
C = P (L10)1/p
For all types of ball bearings,
C = P (L10)1/3
For all types of roller bearings,
C = P (L10)0.3
The relationship between life in revolutions and life in working hours is
60 n L10h
L10 
106
where,L10h= rated bearing life (hours)
n = speed of rotation (rpm)
4.10 Design for Cyclic Loads and Speeds
In certain applications, ball bearings are subjected to cyclic loads and speeds. As an
example, consider a ball bearing operating under the following conditions:
(a) radial load 2500 N at 700 rpm for 25% of the time,
(b) radial load 5000 N at 900 rpm for 50% of the time, and
(c) radial load 1000 N at 750 rpm for remaining 25% of the time.
Under these circumstances, it is necessary to consider the complete work cycle while finding
out the dynamic load capacity of the bearing. The procedure consists of dividing the work
cycle into a number of elements, during which the operating conditions of load and speed
are constant.
Suppose that the work cycle is divided into x elements. Let P1P2, ...Px be the loads and n1, n2,
..., nx be the speeds during these elements. During the first element, the life L1corresponding
to load P1, is given by

3
C
L1     106 rev.
 P1 
 1  P3 1 
In one revolution, the life consumed is   or  13  6  .
 L1   C 10 
Let us assume that the first element consists of N1 revolutions. Therefore, the life consumed
by the first element is given by,
N1P13
106 C3
Similarly, the life consumed by the second element is given by
N2P23
106 C3
Adding these expressions, the life consumed by the complete work cycle is given by
N1P13 N2P23 NxPx 3
  .....  ……………(a)
106 C3 106 C3 106 C3
If Peis the equivalent load for the complete work cycle, the life consumed by the work cycle
is given by.
NPe3
……………(b)
106 C3
Where, N = N1 + N2 + ……. + Nx
Equating expressions (a) and (b),
N1P13  N2P23  ....  NxPx 3  NPe3
N1P13  N2P23  ....

Pe  3
N1  N2  ....
The above equation is used for calculating the dynamic load capacity of bearing.
In case of bearings, where there is a combined radial and axial load, it should be first
converted into equivalent dynamic load before the above computations are carried out.
4.11 Bearing with a probability of survival other than 90 percent
In the definition of rating life, it is mentioned that the rating life is the life that 90% of a
group of identical bearings will complete or exceed before fatigue failure. The reliability R is
defined as,
No. of bearing which have successfully completed L million revolution
R
Total number of bearings under test
Therefore, reliability of bearings selected from the manufacturer's catalogue is 0.9 or 90%.
In certain applications, where there is risk to human life, it becomes necessary to select a
bearing having a reliability of more than 90%. Fig. 4.2 shows the distribution of bearing

failures. The relationship between bearing life and reliability is given by a statistical curve
known as Weibull distribution.
For Wiebull distribution,
R  e(L/a)
b
Where R is the reliability (in friction), L is the corresponding life and a and b are constants.
Fig. 4.2
Rearranging the above equation,
 1  (L/a)b
 e
R
b
1 L
loge      …………..(a)
R  a
If L10 is the life corresponding to a reliability of 90% or R90, then,
 1   L10 
b
loge    …………..(b)

 R90   a 
Dividing Eq. (a) by (b),
1/b
 1 
 log e   
 L   R 
  ……………(c)
 L10  log  1  
 e 
  R90  
where R90 = 0.9
The values of a and b are
a = 6.84 and b = 1.17
These values are obtained from the condition,
L50 = 5L10
where L50 is the median life median life or life which 50% of the bearings will complete or
exceed before fatigue failure. Equation (c) is used for selecting the bearing when the
reliability is other than 90%.

In a system, if there are a number of bearings, the individual reliability of each bearing
should be fairly high. If there are N bearings in the system, each having the same reliability R
then the reliability of the complete system is given by,
RS = (R)N
Where, RS indicates the probability of one out of N bearings failing during its lifetime.
4.12 Bearing Failure – Causes and Remedies
 There are two basic types of bearing failure breakage of parts like races or cage and
the surface destruction. The fracture in the outer race of the ball bearing occurs due
to overload.
 When the bearing is misaligned, the load acting on some balls or rollers sharply
increases and may even crush them. The failure of the cage is caused due to the
centrifugal force acting on the balls.
 The complete breakage of the parts of the ball bearing can be avoided by selecting
the correct ball bearing, adjusting the alignment between the axes of the shaft and
the housing and operating within permissible speeds.
 In general, the failure of antifriction bearing occurs not due to breakage of parts but
due to damage of working surfaces of their parts. The principal types of surface wear
are as follows:
(i) Abrasive Wear: Abrasive wear occurs when the bearing is made to operate in an
environment contaminated with dust, foreign particles, rust or spatter. Remedies
against this type of wear are provision of oil seals, increasing surface hardness and
use of high viscosity oils. The thick lubricating film developed by these oils allows
fine particles to pass without scratching.
(ii) Corrosive Wear: The corrosion of the surfaces of bearing parts is caused by the
entry of water or moisture in the bearing. It is also caused due to corrosive
elements present in the Extreme Pressure (EP) additives that are added in the
lubricating oils. These elements attack the surfaces of the bearing, resulting in fine
wear uniformly distributed over the entire surface. Remedies against this type of
wear are, providing complete enclosure for the bearing free from external
contamination, selecting proper additives and replacing the lubricating oil at
regular intervals.
(iii) Pitting: Pitting is the main cause of the failure of antifriction bearings. Pitting is a
surface fatigue failure which occurs when the load on the bearing part exceeds the
surface endurance strength of the material. This type of failure is characterised by
pits, which continue to grow resulting in complete destruction of the bearing
surfaces. Pitting depends upon the magnitude of Hertz' contact stress and the
number of stress cycles. The surface endurance strength can be improved by
increasing the surface hardness.

(iv) Scoring: Excessive surface pressure, high surface speed and inadequate supply of
lubricant result in breakdown of the lubricant film. This results in excessive
frictional heat and overheating at the contacting surfaces. Scoring is a stick-slip
phenomenon, in which alternate welding and shearing takes place rapidly at high
spots. Here, the rate of wear is faster. Scoring can be avoided by selecting the
parameters, such as surface speed, surface pressure and the flow of lubricant in
such a way that the resulting temperature at the contacting surfaces is within
permissible limits.
4.13 Lubrication of Rolling Contact Bearings
The purpose of lubrication in antifriction bearing is to reduce the friction between balls and
races. The other objectives are dissipation of frictional heat prevention of corrosion and
protection of the bearing from dirt and other foreign particles. There are two types of
lubricants – oil and grease. Compared with grease, oil offers the following advantages:
(i) It is more effective in carrying frictional heat.
(ii) It feeds more easily into contact areas of the bearing under load.
(iii) It is more effective in flushing out dirt, corrosion and foreign particles from the
bearing.
The advantages offered by grease lubricated bearings are simple housing design, less
maintenance cost, better sealing against rust and less possibility of leakage. The guidelines
for selecting the lubricant are as follows:
(i) When the temperature is less than 100C, grease is suitable, while lubricating oils
are preferred for applications where the temperature exceeds 100C.
(ii) When the product of bore (in mm) x speed(in rpm) is below 200000, grease is
suitable. For higher values, lubricating oils are recommended.
(iii) Grease is suitable for low and moderate loads, while lubricating oils are used for
heavy duty applications.
(iv) If there is a central lubricating system, which is required for the lubrication of other
parts, the same lubricating oil is used for bearings, e.g., gearboxes.
The choice of lubricating oil is necessary for high speed, heavy load applications, while in the
remaining majority of applications; grease offers the simplest and cheapest mode of
lubrication.

Example 4.1: Design a self-aligning ball bearing for a radial load of 7000 N and a thrust load
of 2100 N. The desired life of the bearing is 160 mr at 300 rpm. Assume uniform and steady
load. The value of X and Y factors are 0.65 and 3.5 respectively. The outer ring rotates.
Solution: Fr = 7000 N
Fa = 2100 N
L = 160 mr
N = 300 rpm
S=1
X = 0.65
Y = 3.5
V = 1.2
Equivalent bearing load, Pe = S (X V Fr + Y Fa)
= 1 (0.65 x 1.2 x 7000 + 3.5 x 2100)
= 12810 N
p
C 
Life of bearing, L   
 Pe 
3
 C 
160   
 12810 
C = 69543.38 N
Example 4.2: It is required to select a ball bearing suitable for 50 mm diameter shaft
rotating at 1500 rpm. The radial and thrust loads at the bearing are 4500 N and 1600 N
respectively. The value of X and Y factors are 0.56 and 1.2 respectively. Select a proper ball
bearing from following table for rotating life of 22500 hr. The inner ring rotates and service
factor is 1.
Bearing No. 6010 6210 6310 6410
C (N) 21600 35100 61800 87100
Solution: d = 50 mm
N = 1500 rpm
Fr = 4500 N
Fa = 1600 N
X = 0.56
Y = 1.2
Lh = 22500 hr
V=1
Lh  60  N
L
106
22500  60  1500
L
106

L = 2025 mr
= 1 (0.56 x 1 x 4500 + 1.2 x 1600)
= 4440 N
p
C 
 Pe 
3
 C 
2025   
 4440 
C = 56172.6 N
From table, C = 61800 N
Bearing No. = 6310
Example 4.3: A single - row deep groove ball bearing No. 6002 is subjected to an axial thrust
of 1000 N and a radial load of 2200 N. Find the expected life that 50% of the bearings will
complete under this condition. [Static load capacity CO: 2500 N, Dynamic Load Capacity C:
5590N]
Solution: Fr = 2200 N Fa = 1000 N
CO = 2500 N C = 5590 N
Assume, X = 0.56
Y = 1.08
S=1
V=1
= 1 (0.56 x 1 x 2200 + 1.08 x 1000)
= 2312 N
p
C 
 Pe 
3
 5590 
L 
 2312 
L = 14.13 mr
L50 = 5 L10
= 5(14.13)
= 70.65 mr
Example 4.4: Single row deep groove ball bearing 6010 is subjected to an axial trust of
1200N and radial load 2400 N. Find the expected life that 50% of the bearing will complete
under this condition.
CO= 13200 N, C = 21600 N.

Fa / CO Fa / Fr> e Fa / Fr< e
e
X Y X Y
0.07 0.56 1.6 0.27 1 0
0.13 0.56 1.4 0.31 1 0
Solution: Fa = 1200 N
Fr = 2400 N
CO = 13200 N
C = 21600 N
Fa 1200
  0.09
CO 13200
Related e = 0.31
Fa 1200
  0.5
Fr 2400
So, Fa / Fr> e
From table, X = 0.56 and Y = 1.4
Take S = 1 and V = 1
= 1 (0.56 x 1 x 2400 + 1.4 x 1200)
= 3024 N
p
C 
 Pe 
3
 21600 
L 
 3024 
L = 364.43mr
L50 = 5 L10
= 5(364.43)
= 1822.157mr
Example 4.5: For SKF 6207 bearing is to operate on following work cycle.
- Radial load of 6307 N at 200 rpm for 25% of time
The inner ring rotates. The loads are steady. Find expected average life of this bearing in
hours if C = 25500 N.
Element No. Load (N) Element time Speed (rpm) Element speed (revolution)
1 6307 0.25 200 50
2 9080 0.2 600 120
3 3638 0.55 400 220

P13N1  P23N2  P33N3

Equivalent bearing load, Pe  3
N1  N2  N3
(6307)3 (50)  (9080)3 (120)  (3638)3 (220)

Pe  3
50  120  220
Pe= 6616.578 N
p
C 
 Pe 
3
 25500 
L 
 6616.578 
= 57.24 mr
L  106 57.24  106

Lh  
60  N 60  390
Rating life = 2446.27 hr
Average life = 5 x 2446.27
= 12231.35 hr
Example 4.6: A ball bearing is operating on a work cycle consisting of three parts:
- a radial load of 3000 N at 1440 rpm for one quarter cycle,
- a radial load of 5000 N at 720 rpm for one half cycle and
- a radial load of 2500 N at 1440 rpm for remaining cycle.
The expected life of the bearing is 10000 hours. Calculate the dynamic load carrying
capacity of the bearing.
1 3000 0.25 1440 360
2 5000 0.5 720 360
3 2500 0.25 1440 360
P13N1  P23N2  P33N3

N1  N2  N3
(3000)3 (360)  (5000)3 (360)  (2500)3 (360)

Pe  3
360  360  360
= 3823 N
Lh  60  N
L
106
10000  60  1080
L
106
L = 648mr
p
C 
 Pe 
3
 C 
648   
 3823 
C = 33082.3 N
Example 4.7: The following data refers to ball bearing work cycle:
Sr. Radial load Axial load Radial Thrust % Service Speed
no (N) (N) factor factor time factor (r.p.m.)
1 4000 800 1 0 30 % 1.25 900
2 8000 3000 0.56 2 40 % 1 600
3 - - - - 30 % - 600
Calculate the dynamic load rating of the bearing, if the expected bearing life is
10000 hrs with reliability of 95 %.
Pe1 = S (X V Fr + Y Fa)
= 1.25 (1 x 1 x 4000 + 0 x 800)
= 5000 N
= 1 (0.56 x 1 x 8000 + 2 x 3000)
= 10480 N
Pe3 = 0
1 5000 0.3 900 270
2 10480 0.4 600 240
3 0 0.3 600 180
P13N1  P23N2  P33N3

N1  N2  N3
(5000)3 (270)  (10480)3 (240)  0

Pe  3
270  240  180
= 7658.9 N
L95h  60  N
L95 
106
10000  60  690
L95 
106
L95 = 414mr

1/ b
L95  ln(1 / R95 ) 
 
L10  ln(1 / R90 ) 
1/1.17
414  ln(1 / 0.95) 

L10  ln(1 / 0.9) 
0.8547
414  0.0513 

L10  0.105 
L10 = 763.6 mr
p
C 
 Pe 
3
 C 
763.6   
 7658.9 
C = 69849 N
Example 4.7: A ball bearing, subjected to a radial load of 5 KN, is expected to have a life of
8000 hrs at 1450 rpm with a reliability of 99%. Calculate the dynamic load capacity of
bearing, so that it can be selected from manufacturer’s catalogue based on a reliability of
90%.
Solution: Fr = 5 KN
L99h = 8000 hr
n = 1450 rpm
L99 h  60  N
L99 
106
8000  60  1450
L95 
106
L95 = 696 mr
1/ b
L99  ln(1 / R99 ) 
 
L10  ln(1 / R90 ) 
1/1.17
696  ln(1 / 0.99) 

L10  ln(1 / 0.9) 
0.8547
696  0.01005 

L10  0.10536 
L10 = 5186mr
p
C 
 Pe 

3
 C 
5186   
 5000 
C = 86546 N
Example 4.8: A single row deep groove ball bearing is subjected to a radial load of 8000 N
and a thrust load of 3000 N. The values of X and Y factors are 0.56 and 1.5 respectively. The
shaft speed is 1200 r.p.m. and diameter of shaft is 75 mm. The bearing selected for this
application is No.6315 (C = 112000 N).Find the life of the bearing with 90 % reliability and
estimate the reliability for 20000 hr life.
Solution: Fr = 8000 N X = 0.56
Fa = 3000 N Y = 1.5
N = 1200 rpm
d = 75 mm
C = 112000 N
= 1 (0.56 x 1 x 8000 + 1.5 x 3000)
= 8980 N
p
C 
Life of bearing, L10   
 Pe 
3
 112000 
L10   
 8980 
= 1940.10 mr
L10 h  60  N
L10 
106
L10 h  60  1200
1940.10 
106
L10h = 26945.83 hr
Lh  60  N
L
106
20000  60  1200
L
106
L = 1440 mr
1/ b
L  ln(1 / R) 
 
L10  ln(1 / R90 ) 
1/1.17
1440  ln(1 / R) 

1940.1  ln(1 / 0.9) 

0.8547
 ln(1 / R) 
0.742   
 ln(1.11) 
 ln(1 / R) 
0.7053   
 ln(1.11) 
ln(1/R) = 0.7053 x ln(1.11)
ln (1) – ln(R) = 0.0736
0 – ln(R) = 0.0736
ln(R) = – 0.0736
R = e–0.0736
R = 0.929
Reliability is 92.9 %

5
I. C. ENGINE COMPONENTS
Course Contents
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Cylinder & Cylinder Liner
5.3 Piston
5.4 Connecting Rod
5.5 Crank-shaft
5.6 Numericals
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Mr. Rutvik B. Vyas

5. I. C. ENGINE COMPONENTS MACHINE DESIGN (2171909)
5.1 Introduction
─ An Internal Combustion engine (IC engine) is an engine in which the combustion of
fuel, such as petrol or diesel, lakes place inside the engine cylinder.
─ In petrol engine, air and petrol is mixed in correct proportion in the carburetor and
then passed into the cylinder. This mixture is ignited by means of a spark produced
by the spark plug. Since the ignition is done by spark, the petrol engine is called
Spark Ignition engine (SI Engine).In the diesel engine, the air entrapped in the
cylinder during the suction stroke is highly compressed during compression stroke.
─ This compression increases the air temperature beyond the self-ignition
temperature of diesel. The desired quantity of diesel in the form of fine spray is then
admitted into the cylinder near the end of the compression stroke. The turbulent hot
air ignites the diesel. Since the ignition is done by compression of air, the diesel
engine is called Compression ignition engine (CI engine).
─ Compared with petrol engines, the diesel engines are more economical due to high
thermal efficiency. They have more uniform torque over a wide range of speeds due
to better volumetric efficiency. The diesel engines run at low speeds, resulting in low
maintenance costs. They are more reliable and safe due to robust construction. On
the other hand, petrol engines have low initial cost and higher power to l eight ratio
compared with diesel engine.
─ Internal combustion engines are also classified as 'two-stroke cycle' and 'four-stroke
cycle' engines.
─ The two stroke cycle engine is an engine which requires two strokes of the piston or
one revolution of the crankshaft to complete one cycle. A four-stroke cycle engine is
an engine which requires four strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the
crankshaft to complete one cycle. Four-stroke cycle engines have lower fuel
consumption and higher efficiency. Two-stroke cycle engines are light in in weight
and have compact construction.
─ Two-stroke cycle petrol engines are mainly used in scooters, motor cycles and three-
wheelers. Four-stroke cycle petrol engines are used in cars. Four-stroke cycle diesel
engines are used in heavy-duty applications such as buses, trucks, locomotives and
power generating sets.
─ Although internal combustion engine consists of a large number of parts, in this
chapter we will discuss the design principles of the following main components:
I. Cylinder and cylinder liner
II. Piston, piston rings and gudgeon pin
III. Connecting rod with big and small ends
IV. Crankshaft, crank and crank pin
V. Valve gear mechanism
─ Engine design is a specialized subject and it differs from machine design. The
discussion in this chapter is restricted to basic principles applied to design of engine
components.
Prepared By: Mr. Rutvik B. Vyas Department of Mechanical Engineering

MACHINE DESIGN (2171909) 5. I. C. ENGINE COMPONENTS
5.2 Cylinder & Cylinder Liner

─ There are two basic functions of an IC engine cylinder. The primary function is to
retain the working fluid such as the mixture of air and petrol or air and diesel, while
the secondary function is to guide the piston.
─ The combustion of fuel takes place inside the cylinder and very high temperatures
are encountered. Therefore, it is necessary to provide some arrangement for cooling
the cylinder.
─ There are two types of cooling systems: Air-cooling and Water-cooling.
─ Small, single-cylinder engines are usually air-cooled. Such cylinders are provided with
fins over the outer surface of the cylinder. Excess heat of combustion is transmitted
by the cylinder wall to the surroundings through the fins. The fins increase the
surface area of the cylinder wall and improve the overall heat transfer coefficient.
Air-cooled engines are mainly used on scooters and motorcycles.
─ In small engines, the cylinder and frame is made of one-piece casting. In large
engines, a separate cylinder liner is used. The cylinder liner, water jacket and frame
are manufactured separately and then assembled. The construction of cylinder liner
is illustrated in Fig. 5.1.
Fig. 5.1 Cylinder liner

─ The use of separate cylinder liner has the following advantages:
I. Cylinder liners are more economical because they can be easily replaced after
being worn out. It is not necessary to replace the complete assembly of cylinder,
jacket and frame.

II.Instead of using better-grade material for all parts of the cylinder assembly, only
the cylinder liner is made of better-grade wear resistant cast iron. The frame and
jacket can be made of ordinary cast iron.
III. Use of cylinder liner allows for longitudinal expansion.
─ There are two types of cylinder liners.
─ (i) Dry liner and (ii) Wet liner as shown in Fig. 5.2.
Fig. 5.2 Types of Cylinder liner

─ A dry liner is a cylinder liner which does not have any direct contact with cooling
water in the jacket.
─ A wet liner is a cylinder liner which has outer surface in direct contact with cooling
water in the jacket.
─ The desirable properties of materials for cylinder and cylinder liners are as follows:
I. It should be strong enough to withstand high gas pressure during the combustion
of fuel.
II. It should be strong enough to withstand thermal stresses due to heat transfer
through the cylinder wall.
III. It should be hard enough to resist wear due to piston movement. It should have
good surface finish to reduce friction and wear during the piston movement.
IV. It should be corrosion resistant.
─ Cylinders and cylinder liners are usually made of grey cast iron with homogeneous
and close grained structure. They are centrifugally cast.
─ For duty cylinders, nickel cast iron and nickel chromium cast iron are used. In some
cases, cast steel and aluminum alloys are used for cylinders.

5.3 Piston
─ The piston is a reciprocating part of IC engine that performs a number of functions.
─ The main functions of the piston are as follows:
I. It transmits the force due to gas pressure inside the cylinder to the crankshaft
through the connecting rod.
II. It compresses the gas during the compression stroke.
III. It seals the inside portion of the cylinder from the crankcase by means of piston
rings.
IV. It takes the side thrust resulting from obliquity of the connecting rod.
V. It dissipates large amount of heat from the combustion chamber to the cylinder
wall.
─ Trunk type piston, as shown in 5.3, is used in IC engines. It consists of the following
parts:
Fig. 5.3 Piston

Piston Head or Crown:
─ It is the top portion of the piston which withstands the gas pressure inside the
cylinder.
─ It has flat, concave or convex shape depending upon the construction of combustion
chamber.

Piston Rings:
─ They act as seal and prevent the leakage of gas past the piston. Piston rings are also
called Compression rings.
Oil Scraper Rings:
─ It prevents the leakage of lubricating oil past the piston into the combustion
chamber.
Piston Skirt:
─ It is the lower part of the piston below the piston rings which acts as bearing surface
for the side thrust exerted by the connecting rod.
Piston Pin:
─ It connects the piston to the connecting rod.
─ It is also called, 'gudgeon' pin or 'Wrist' pin.
Requirements of Piston Design

The design requirements for the piston are as follows:
I. It should have sufficient strength to withstand the force due to combustion of fuel
and also the inertia forces due to reciprocating parts.
II. It should have sufficient rigidity to withstand thermal and mechanical distortions.
III. It should have adequate capacity to dissipate the heat from the crown to the
cylinder wall through the piston rings and the skirt.
IV. It should have minimum weight to reduce the inertia force due to reciprocating
motion.
V. It should form an efficient seal to prevent leakage of flue gases from combustion
chamber to the crankcase pest the piston. It should also prevent leakage of
lubricating oil into the combustion chamber past the piston.
VI. It should have sufficient bearing area to take the side thrust and prevent undue
wear.
VII. It should result in noiseless operation.
VIII. It should provide adequate support for the piston pin, which connects the small end
of the connecting rod.
5.3.1 Piston Materials

─ Commonly used materials for IC engine pistons are cast iron, cast steel, forged steel,
cast aluminum alloys and forged aluminum alloys.
─ Compared with cast iron, aluminum alloy pistons have the following advantages:
I. The thermal conductivity of aluminium alloys is approximately three times that of
cast iron. Therefore, an aluminium alloy piston has less variation in temperature
from the crown to the piston rings.
II. The density of aluminium alloy is about one third that of cast iron. This results in
light weight construction and reduces inertia forces .

─ Cast iron pistons offer the following advantages:

I. Cast iron pistons have higher strength compared with aluminium alloy pistons. As
the temperature increases, the strength of aluminium alloy piston decreases rapidly
compared with cast iron piston. Due to higher strength, it is possible to provide thin
sections for the parts of cast iron piston.
II. The wear strength of a cast iron piston is more than corresponding aluminium alloy
piston.
III. The coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium alloy is approximately twice that
of cast iron. Therefore, aluminium alloy pistons need more clearance between the
cylinder wall and piston rings.
─ Cast iron pistons are used for moderately rated engines with piston speed below 6
m/s. Aluminium alloy pistons are used for highly rated engines with piston speeds
above 6 m/s.
5.3.2 Piston Cups & Ribs
─ The piston head is provided with a number of ribs for the following reasons:
─ Ribs strengthen the piston head against the gas pressure. They increase the rigidity
and prevent distortion of piston head.
─ Ribs transmit a large portion of combustion heat from the piston head to the piston
rings. This reduces the temperature difference between the centre and edge of
piston head.
─ The side thrust created by obliquity of connecting rod is transmitted to the piston at
the piston pin. It is then transmitted to the cylinder wall through the skirt. The
stiffening rib provided at the centre of boss and extending around the skirt,
distributes the side thrust more uniformly and prevents distortion of the skirt.
Fig. 5.4 Various types of Piston heads

─ A cup provides additional space for combustion of fuel. Provision of cup at the top of
the piston head depends upon the volume of combustion chamber. It also depends
upon the arrangement of valves.
─ If inlet and exhaust valves open and close at angles near the top dead centre, then
there is possibility that either inlet or exhaust valve may strike the piston top due to
overtaking. A spherical cavity in the form of cup is provided for this purpose.
─ The various types of piston head are illustrated in the figure 5.4.
5.3.4 Piston Rings
─ In IC engines, two types of piston rings are used, viz., compression rings and oil
scraper rings. The main function of compression rings is to maintain a seal between
the cylinder wall and piston and prevent leakage of gas past the piston. They also
transfer heat from the piston head to the cylinder wall.
─ Piston rings also absorb fluctuations in side thrust. Oil scraper rings or oil control
rings are provided below the compression rings. They provide proper lubrication of
the cylinder liner and reduce frictional losses.
─ Oil scraper rings allow sufficient quantity of lubricating oil to move up during the
upward stroke and at the same time, scrap the excess oil from the inner surface of
the liner and send it back to the crankcase. This prevents the leakage of oil into the
combustion chamber.
5.3.5 Guidelines for design of piston rings

─ Materials of Piston Rings:
─ Piston rings are usually made of grey cast iron and in some cases alloy cast iron. Grey
cast iron has excellent wear resistance. It also retains the spring characteristic at high
temperatures. In some cases, piston rings are chromium plated to reduce wear.
─ Number of Piston Rings:
─ There are no strict rules for deciding the number of compression rings. The number
of compression rings in automobile and aircraft engines is usually between 3 to 4. In
stationary diesel engines, 5 to 7 compression rings are used. The number of oil
scraper rings is usually between 1 to 3.
─ It is preferred to provide more number of thin piston rings than a small number of
thick rings. It has the following advantages;
I. Thin rings reduce frictional loss and wear of the s urface.
II. More number of thin rings has better sealing action than a few thick rings.
III. Thin rings occupy less piston length. More number of thin rings provides better
heat transfer from the piston top to the cylinder.
5.4 Connecting Rod
─ The connecting rod consists of an eye at the small end to accommodate the piston
pin, a long shank and a big end opening split into two parts to accommodate the
crank pin. The construction of connecting rod is illustrated in Fig. 5.5.

Fig. 5.5 Connecting rod

─ The basic function of the connecting rod is to transmit the push and pull forces from
the piston pin to the crank pin. The connecting rod transmits the reciprocating
motion of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
─ It also transfers lubricating oil from the crank pin to the piston pin and provides a
splash or jet of oil to the piston assembly.
─ The connecting rod of an IC engine is made by the drop forging process and the
outer surfaces are left unfinished.
─ Most internal combustion engines have a conventional two-piece connecting rod.
The whole rod is forged in one piece; the bearing cap is cut off, faced and bolted in
place for final machining of the big end. The small end of the rod is generally made
as a solid eye and then machined.
─ The connecting rod is subjected to the force of gas pressure and the inertia force of
the reciprocating part. It is one of the most heavily stressed parts of the IC engine.
The materials used for the connecting rod are either medium carbon steels or alloy
steels. The medium carbon steels contain 0.35 to 0.45 percent carbon.
─ The alloy steels include nickel chromium or chromium molybdenum steels. Medium
carbon steels are used for the connecting rods of industrial engines. Alloy steels are
used for connecting rods of automobile and aero engines.
─ There are two methods of lubrication of bearings at the two ends-
(i) Splash lubrication and
(ii) Pressure feed lubrication.
─ In splash lubrication, a spout is attached to the big end of the connecting rod and set
at an angle to the axis of the rod. The spout dips into the sump of lubricating oil
during the downward motion of the connecting rod and splashes the oil as the
connecting rod moves up. The splashed up oil finds its way into the small end
bearing.
─ In the pressure feed system, oil is fed under pressure to the crank pin bearing
through the holes drilled in the crankshaft. From the crank pin bearing, the oil is fed
to the small end bearing through the hole drilled in the shank of the connecting rod.

5.4.1 Buckling of Connecting Rod

─ The length of the connecting rod is an important consideration. When the
connecting rod is short as compared to the crank radius, it has greater angular swing,
resulting in greater side thrust on the piston.
─ In high-speed engines the ratio of the length of the connecting rod to the crank
radius (L/r) is generally 4 or less.
─ In low-speed engines, the (L/r) ratio varies from 4 to 5.
─ Most of the connecting rods in high-speed engines have an I-section. It reduces the
weight and inertia forces. It is also easy for forging.
─ Most rods have a rifle-drilled hole throughout the length from the small end to the
big end to carry the lubricating oil to the piston pin bearing. In low-speed engines
circular cross-section is used.
─ The connecting rod is a slender engine component that has considerable length in
proportion to its width and breadth. It is subjected to axial compressive force equal
to maximum gas load on the piston.
─ The compressive stress is of significant magnitude. Therefore the connecting rod is
designed as a column or a strut. The buckling of the connecting rod in two different
plane-plane of motion and a plane perpendicular to the plane of motion is illustrated
in Fig. 5.6. The following observations are made with reference to this figure.
─ The buckling of the connecting rod in the plane of motion is shown in Fig. 5.6(a)
─ In this plane, the ends of connecting rod are hinged in the crank pin and piston pin.
Therefore for buckling about the XX-axis the end fixity coefficient (r) is one.
Fig. 5.6 Buckling of Connecting rod

─ The buckling of the connecting rod in a plane perpendicular to the plane of motion is
shown in Fig. 5.6(b). In this plane, the ends of the connecting rod are fixed due to
constraining effect of bearings at the crank pin and piston pin. Therefore, for
buckling about the YY-axis, the end fixity coefficient (n) is four.
─ Therefore, the connecting rod is four times stronger for buckling about the YY-axis as
compared to buckling about the XX-axis.

Fig. 5.7 Cross-section of Connecting rod

5.5 Crank Shaft
─ The crankshaft is an important part of IC engine that converts the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion through the connecting rod. The crankshaft
consists of three portions--crank pin, crank web and shaft. The big end of the
connecting rod is attached to the crank pin. The crank web connects the crank pin to
the shaft portion. The shaft portion rotates in the main bearings and transmits
power to the outside source through the belt drive, gear drive or chain drive.
─ There are two types of crankshafts.
I. Side crankshaft and
II. Centre crankshaft
─ The side crankshaft is also called the “overhung” crankshaft. It has only one crank
web and requires only two bearings for support. It is used in medium-size engines
and large-size horizontal engines.
─ The centre crankshaft has two webs and three bearings for support. It is used in
radial aircraft engines, stationary engines and marine engines. It is more popular in
automotive engines.
─ Crankshafts are also classified as single throw and multi-throw crankshafts
depending upon the number of crank pins used in the assembly.

─ Crankshafts having one crank pin are called single-throw crankshafts. Crankshafts
used in multi-cylinder engines have more than one crank pin. They are called multi-
throw crankshafts.
─ A crankshaft should have sufficient strength to withstand the bending and twisting
moments to which it is subjected. In addition, it should have sufficient rigidity to
keep the lateral and angular deflections within permissible limits. The crankshaft is
subjected to fluctuating stresses and, as such, it should have sufficient endurance
limit stress. Crankshafts are made by the drop forging process.
─ The popular materials used for crankshafts are plain carbon steels and alloy steels.
The plain carbon steels include 40C 8, 45C 8 and 50C 4. The alloy steels used for making
crankshafts are nickel chromium steels.

5.6 Numericals:-
Various Assumptions for Cylinder Design:
1. Mechanical Efficiency = 80%
2. Ratio of stroke length to cylinder diameter = 1.5
3. For four stroke engine n =
4. Clearance in both sides of stroke is kept. This clearance = 15% of stroke length.
─ So, Length of Cylinder L = 1.15 l
5. The cylinder liner is made of cast iron.
─ Allowable t = 35 to 100 MPa
─ Usually Take, t = 50 MPa
6. The Maximum gas Pressure, Pmax = 10 Pm
7. Reboring allowance (From table no. 25.1, Page no. 846, Design of Machine elements
by V. B. Bhandari)
D 75 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
c 1.5 2.4 4.0 6.3 8.0 9.5 11.0 12.5 12.5 12.5
8. Assume Poison’s ratio for cylinder material is 0.25
9. Cylinder head is made with Cast iron.
─ Usually take, t = 40 MPa
10. Assume that studs are made with steel.
─ Usually take t = 40 MPa

Example No. 5.1
The cylinder of a four-stroke diesel engine has the following specifications:

Brake power = 5 kW
Speed: 600 rpm
Indicated mean effective pressure = 0.5 MPa
Make suitable assumptions and calculate:
(i) Bore and length of the cylinder liner
(ii) Thickness of the cylinder liner
(iii) Thickness of the cylinder head
(iv) Size, number and pitch of studs.
Solution:
Given data,
BP = 5000 W
N = 600 RPM
Pm = 0.5 MPa
Step-1: Bore & length of Cylinder liner

Assumption 1: The Mechanical efficiency is 80%.
Assumption 2: Ratio of stroke length to cylinder diameter = 1.5
Now, A = Cross-sectional area of cylinder = (mm2)

= Length of stroke in ‘m’
For a four stroke engine,

n= = = 300 strokes / min
6250 = 300

D3 = 2122.07 x 103
D = 128. 5 mm or 130 mm
= 1.5 D
= 1.5 x 300
= 195 mm.
Now, Assume clearance on both sides of stroke is 15% of stroke length,

Length of Cylinder L = 1.15
= 1.15 x 195
= 224.5 or 225 mm
Step-2: Thickness of Cylinder liner
Assumption 3: For Cylinder liner, t = 50 MPa
Assumption 4: The Maximum gas Pressure, Pmax = 10 Pm

Pmax = 10 x 0.5
Pmax = 5 MPa
Reboring allowance for Diameter D = 130 mm is given by,

C=
C = 3.36 mm
The thickness of the cylinder is given by,

t=
t=
t = 9.86 mm or 10 mm
Apparent Stress
(i) Circumferential Stress
32.5 N/mm2
Here 50 N/mm2
(ii) Longitudinal Stress

Do = D + 2t
= 130 + 2(10)
= 150 mm

=
= 15.09 N/mm2
Assumption 5: The Poisson’s ratio for cylinder material is 0.25
Net Stress:
(i) Circumferential stress:
= 32.5 – 0.25(15.09)
= 28.73 N/mm2
(ii) Longitudinal stress:
= 15.09 0.25 (32.5)

= 6.97 N/mm2
Step-3: Thickness of Cylinder head

Assumption 6: The cylinder head is made of cast iron. The allowable tensile stress is from 30
to 50 MPa.
It is assumed as 40 MPa.
N/mm2
K 0.162
th = √
= 130 √
= 18.5 or 20 mm
Step-4: Number of studs

Limits:
Minimum number of studs = 0.01 D + 4
= 0.01 (130) + 4
= 5.3
Maximum number of studs = 0.02 D + 4
= 0.02 (130) + 4
= 6.6
The number of studs should be from 5.3 to 6.6. It is assumed that there are six studs.
Z=6

Step-5: Nominal diameter of studs

Assumption 7: Assume that studs are made with steel.
Take t = 40 MPa
Force acting on a cylinder head =
=
= 66366.15 N ……………………………… (a)
Resisting force offered by all studs =
= 188.5 ………………………………... (b)
Equating (a) & (b)
188.5 = 66366.15
dc = 18.76 mm
Now,
d=
=
= 23.45 or 24 mm
Step-6: Pitch of studs

Pitch circle diameter of studs,
Dp = D + 3d
= 130 + 3 (24)
= 202 mm
Pitch of studs,
=
= 105.77 mm
Limits
Minimum Pitch = 19√
= 19 √
= 93.08 mm
Maximum Pitch = 28.5√
= 28.5√
= 139.62 mm
The pitch of the studs is 105.77 mm. It is within the limits of 93.08 & 139.62 mm.
Therefore the pitch of studs is satisfactory.

Various Assumptions for connecting rod Design:

1. Factor of safety against buckling failure is 5.
2. ratio for piston pin bearing = 1.8
3. ratio for crank pin bearing = 1.5
4. Allowable bearing pressure for piston pin bearing = 14 MPa
5. Allowable bearing pressure for crank pin bearing = 8.5 MPa
6. The permissible tensile stress for bolt material is 100 N/mm2
i.e. = 100 N/mm2
7. The permissible tensile stress for cap material is 100 N/mm2
i.e. = 100 N/mm2
8. Take bc = lc = 75 mm
9. The mass density of the connecting rod material is 7800 kg/m3

Example No. 5.2
Design a connecting rod for a high speed IC engine using the following data.
Cylinder bore = 125 mm
Length of connecting rod = 300 mm
Maximum gas pressure = 3.5 MPa
Length of stroke = 125 mm
Mass of reciprocating parts = 1.6 kg
Engine speed = 2200 rpm
Solution:
Given data,
D = 125 mm
Pmax = 3.5 MPa = 3.5 N/mm2
L = 300 mm = 0.3 m
= 125mm = 0.125m
N = 2200 RPM
mr = 1.6 kg
Step-1: Cross section of connecting rod


Pc  D2  Pmax
4
=
= 42951.46 N
Assumption 1: Factor of safety against buckling failure is 5.

Pcr = Pc 5
= 42951.46 5
= 214751.3 N
Now,
c  A
Pcr  2
 L 
1  a 
 kxx 
Where A = 11 t2
= 330 N/mm2
kxx = 1.78 t
a = t 4  59.16t 2  224.22  0

So,
330  11t 2
214751.3 = 2
1  300 
1  
7500  1.78t 
214751.3 t2

330  11 1  3.79
t2
t4
59.16 =
t 2  3.79
t 4  59.16t 2  224.22  0
The above equation is a quadratic equation in t2.
So
59.16  (59.16)2  4(224.22)
t2 =
2
2
t = 62.74
t = 7.92 or 8 mm
Dimensions of cross section,
B = 4 t = 32 mm
H = 5 t = 40 mm
Thickness of web = t = 8 mm
Thickness of flanges = t = 8 mm
The width is kept constant throughout the length of connecting rod.
Variation of Height
At middle section, H = 5 t = 40 mm
At small end, H1 = 0.85 H
= 0.85(40)
= 34 mm
At big end, H2 = 1.2 H
= 1.2 (40)
= 48 mm
Dimensions of section at big end = 32mm 48mm
Dimensions of section at middle = 32mm 40mm
Dimensions of section at small end = 32mm 34mm
Step-2: Small & Big end Bearings

Assumption 2: ratio for piston pin bearing = 1.8
Assumption 3: Allowable bearing pressure for piston pin bearing = 14 MPa
Assumption 4: ratio for crank pin bearing = 1.5
Assumption 5: Allowable bearing pressure for crank pin bearing = 8.5 MPa

Piston pin bearing,

pc  dp  lp  pb p
42951.46  dp  1.8dp  14
dp2  1704.42
dp = 41.28 or 42 mm
Crank pin bearing,

pc  dc  lc  (Pb )c
42951.46  dc  (1.1dc )  8.5
dc2  4593.74
dc = 68 mm
lc = 1.1(68) = 74.8 or 75 mm
Step-3: Nominal diameter of bolts for the cap

Assumption 6: The permissible tensile stress for bolt material is 100 N/mm2
l 125
r= = = 62.5 mm or 0.0625 m
2 2
 L  300
n1      4.8
 r  62.5
2N 2 2200

   230.38 rad/sec
60 60
2  1
i max  mr  r 1 
(P) 
 n1 
 1 
= 1.6  (230.38)2  (0.0625) 1 
 4.8 
= 6413.22 N
 dc2 
(P)
i max  2    c
 4 
 d 2 
6413.22 =  c   100
 4 
dc2  40.83
dc = 6.39 mm
d 6.39
d c 
0.8 0.8
= 7.99 or 8 mm

Step-4: Thickness of the cap

Assumption 7: The permissible tensile stress for cap material is 100 N/mm2
i.e. = 100 N/mm2
Take bc = lc = 75 mm
l = diameter of crank pin + 2(thickness of bush) + nominal diameter of bolt + clearance (3
mm)
l = 68 + 2(3) + 8 + 3
l = 85 mm
pi max  l
Mb 
6
6413.22  85
Mb 
6
= 90853.95 N-mm
Now,
bc  tc 3
I
12
75  tc 3
I
12
I  6.25tc 3
tc
Take, y 
2
Now,
Mb  y
b 
I
90853.95  tc 
100   
6.25tc3  2 
tc2  72.68
tc = 8.53 or 10 mm
Step-5: Whipping stress

Assumption 8: The mass density of the connecting rod material is 7800 kg/m3
t = 8 mm = 8 10-3 mm
m1  (11t2 )
m1  11(8  103 )  7800
= 5.49 kg/m

L2
(Mb )max  m1 r 
2
9 3
(0.3)2
= 5.49  (230.38)2  (0.0625) 
9 3
= 105.14 N-m
= 105.14 103 N-mm
Now,
 419  4 5t
Ixx   t & y 
 12  2
So,
Mb  y
b 
I
 5 8 
(105.14  103 )   
=  2 
 419  4
 8
 12 
b = 14.7 N/mm2

Various Assumptions for Piston Design:

1. The permissible tensile stress for the cast iron piston is 40 N/mm2
2. The mechanical efficiency is 80%.
3. The ratio of heat absorbed by the piston to the total heat developed in the cylinder is
5%
4. The thermal conductivity factor (k) for cast iron is 46.6 W/m/°c
5. The temperature difference between the centre and the edge (T c Te ) of the piston
head is 220° C.
6. The allowable radial pressure (Pw) on the cylinder wall is 0.035 MPa.
7. The piston rings are made of cast iron & permissible tensile strength is 90 N/mm 2.
8. The number of compression ring is 3 and there is 1 oil ring.
9. The allowable bearing pressure for the skirt portion is 0.45 MPa.
10. The ratio of side thrust on liner to maximum gas load on piston is 0.1 ( )
11. The bearing pressure (Pb1) at the bush of the small end connecting rod is 30 MPa.
12. The length of piston pin in the bush of the small end of connecting rod is 0.45 D
13. The piston pin is made of case hardened alloy steel and the permissible tensile stress
is 140 N/mm2

Example No. 5.3
Design a cast iron piston for an engine having specifications as given below:
Cylinder bore = 300 mm
Length of stroke = 450 mm
Speed = 300 rpm
Indicated mean effective pressure = 0.85 MPa
Maximum gas pressure = 5 MPa
Fuel consumption = 0.3 Kg/BP/hr
Higher calorific value of fuel = 44000 KJ/Kg
Solution:
Given data,
D = 300 mm
l = 450 mm = 0.45 m
N = 300 rpm
pm = 0.85 MPa
pmax = 5 MPa = 5 N/mm2
m = 0.3 kg/BP/hr
HCV = 44000 KJ/kg
Step-1: Piston head or Crown

Assumption 1: The permissible tensile stress for the cast iron piston is 40 N/mm2.
3 pmax
th  D 
16 b
3 5
 300 
16 40
= 45.93 mm
For four stroke engine,
N
n
2
n = 150 strokes/min
Now,
P lAn
IP  m
60
0.85  0.45  (300)2 
    150
60  4 
= 67.59 KW

Assumption 2: The mechanical efficiency is 80%.

BP =  IP
BP = 0.8(67.59)
BP = 54.07 KW
m = 0.3 kg per BP per hr
= 
0.3 
 kg per BP per second
 60  60 
= 83.33  106 kg per BP per second
Assumption 3: The ratio of heat absorbed by the piston to the total heat developed in the
cylinder is 5%
H  C  HCV  m  BP  103
 0.05  44000  (83.33  106 )  54.07  103
= 9912.44 KW
Assumption 4: The thermal conductivity factor (k) for cast iron is 46.6 W/m/°c
Assumption 5: The temperature difference between the centre and the edge (Tc Te ) of the
piston head is 220° C.
Thickness of piston head,
 H 
th     10
3
 12.56k(Tc  Te ) 
 9912.44 
   103
 12.56(220)(46.6) 
= 76.98 or 77 mm
Step-2: Radial ribs

Since th = 77 mm, th > 6 mm
So ribs are required.
Assumption 6: The number of ribs required is 4.

t  t 
tr   h  to  h 
2 2
 77   77 
   to  
 3   2 
= 25.6+7 to 38.5 mm
= 30 mm

Step-3: Requirement of cup

 l   450 
    1.5
 D   300 
Therefore a cup is required.
Radius of a cup = 0.7 D
= 0.7 (300)
= 210 mm
Step-4: Piston Rings

Assumption 7: The allowable radial pressure (Pw) on the cylinder wall is 0.035 MPa.
Assumption 8: The piston rings are made of cast iron & permissible tensile strength is 90
N/mm2.
Assumption 9: The number of compression ring is 3 and there is 1 oil ring.
Now,
3Pw
b D
t
3  0.035
 300
90
= 10.25 or 10.5 mm
h = 0.7 b to b
= 0.7(10.5) to 10.5
= 7.33 to 10.5 mm
= 8 mm
Z = 3+1
=4
Also,
 D 
hmin   
 10Z 
 300 
hmin   
 10  4 
= 7.5 mm
So, h > hmin
The gap between free ends of the piston ring before assembly is given by,
G1 = 3.5 b to 4 b
= 3.5(10.5) to 4(10.5)
= 36.75 to 40 mm
G1 = 40 mm

The gap between free ends of the piston ring after assembly is given by,
G2 = 0.002 D to 0.004 D
= 0.002(300) to 0.004(300)
= 0.6 to 1.2 mm
G2 = 0.8 mm
The width of top-land is given by,

h1 = th to 1.2 th
= 77 to 1.2(77)
= 77 to 92.4 mm
h1 = 85 mm
The width of the ring grooves is given by,

h2 = 0.75 h to h
= 0.75 (8) to 8
= 6 to 8
h2 = 7 mm
Step-5: Piston Barrel

Thickness of barrel at top is given by,
t3  (0.03D b 4.9)
= (0.03 300 + 10.5 + 4.9)
= 24.4 or 25 mm
Thickness of the barrel at the open end is given by,

t4  (0.25t3 )to(0.35t3 )
t4 = (0.25 25) to (0.35 25)
t4 = 6.25 to 8.75 mm
t4 = 7 mm
Step-6: Piston Skirt

Assumption 10: The allowable bearing pressure for the skirt portion is 0.45 MPa.
Assumption 11: The ratio of side thrust on liner to maximum gas load on piston is 0.1, i.e.
( )
Length of skirt,
 D2 
  pmax  pb  D  ls
 4 
 (300)2 
0.1     5  0.45  300  ls
 4 
ls = 261.8 or 262 mm

Step-7: Piston length

Length of ring section = 4 h + 3 h2
= 4(8) + 3(7)
= 53 mm
Length of piston = h1 + length of ring section + ls
= 85 + 53 + 262
= 400 mm
According to empirical relationship,
L = D to 1.5 D
= 300 to 450 mm
Therefore, D < L < 1.5 D
Step-8: Piston Pin
Assumption 12: The bearing pressure (Pb1) at the bush of the small end connecting rod is 30
MPa.
Assumption 13: The length of piston pin in the bush of the small end of connecting rod is
0.45 D
Assumption 14: The piston pin is made of case hardened alloy steel and the permissible
tensile stress is 140 N/mm2
 D2 
P = force on piston     pmax
 4 
 (300)2 
 5
 4 
 353429.17N
Now,
 D2 
   pmax  (pb )1  do  l1
 4 
Take l1 = 0.45 D
So, 353429.17  30  do  (0.45  300)
do = 87.27 or 90 mm
In order to make the shaft hollow, we will increase the diameter to 120 mm.
 do = 120 mm
Now,
 DP 
Mb   
 8 
 353429.17  300 
Mb   
 8 
Mb = 13253.59 103 N-mm

Now,
(do 4  di4 )
I
64
((120)4  di4 )
I
64
Now,
do 120
y=   60 mm
2 2
Now,
Mb y

I
13253.59  103  60
140 
((120)4  di4 )
64
 di = 97.84
 di = 95 mm
The mean diameter of the piston boss is given by,
Mean diameter of the piston boss = 1.4 do

= 1.4 (120)
= 168 mm
***************************************************************************

6
DESIGN OF CRANES
Course Contents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Importance of Materials
handling
6.3 Basic Objectives of Material
Handling System
6.4 Basic principles in selecting
the material handling
equipment
6.5 Basic Equipment Types
6.6 Types of Load
6.7 Crane
6.8 Design of Wirerope Drive

6. Design of Cranes Machine Design (2171909)
6.1 Introduction
Materials handling is loading, moving and unloading of materials. To do it safely and
economically, different types of tackles, gadgets and equipment are used, when the
materials handling is referred to as mechanical handling of materials.
The essential requirements of a good materials handling system may be summarized as:
(i) Efficient and safe movement of materials to the desired place.
(ii) Timely movement of the materials when needed.
(iii) Supply of materials at the desired rate.
(iv) Storing of materials utilizing minimum space.
(v) Lowest cost solution to the materials handling activities.
Functional scope of materials handling within an industry covers the following:
(i) Bulk materials as well as unit materials handling. Bulk handling is particularly
relevant in the processing, mining and construction industries. Unit materials
handling covers handling of formed materials in the initial, intermediate and final
stages of manufacture.
(ii) Industrial packaging of in-process materials, semi finished or finished goods,
primarily from the point of view of ease and safety of handling, storage and
transportation. However, consumer packaging is not directly related to materials
handling.
(iii) Handling of materials for storage or warehousing from raw materials to finished
product stage.
Often materials handling extends beyond the boundary of the industry in the form of
movement of raw materials from the sources to the plant or in the form of finished goods
from the plant to the points of consumption. These long distance movements of materials
are generally termed as transportation of materials through various modes of transport like,
road, rail, ship or air. Transportation is generally excluded from the scope of materials
handling. However, at each of the sources and destinations, loading and unloading of
materials is necessary and these are referred to as materials handling of these locations.
6.2 Importance of Materials handling
The foremost importance of materials handling is that it helps productivity and thereby
increases profitability of an industry. Many enterprises go out of business because of
inefficient materials handling practices. In many instances it is seen that competing
industries are using same or similar production equipment, and one who uses improved
materials handling system stays ahead of their competitors. A well designed materials
handling system attempts to achieve the following:
(i) Improve efficiency of a production system by ensuring the right quantity of
materials delivered at the right place at the right time most economically.
(ii) Cut down indirect labour cost.
(iii) Reduce damage of materials during storage and movement.

Machine Design (2171909) 6. Design of Cranes
(iv) Maximize space utilization by proper storage of materials and thereby reduce
storage and handling cost.
(v) Minimize accident during materials handling.
(vi) Reduce overall cost by improving materials handling.
(vii) Improve customer services by supplying materials in a manner convenient for
handlings.
(viii) Increase efficiency and saleability of plant and equipment with integral materials
handling features.
6.3 Basic Objectives of Material Handling System
The basic objectives that a material handling system should fulfill are:
1. Quick and Precise Pick-up of Loads: The system should pick the loads in a shortest
time period with adequate precision. As far as possible in high production systems,
human intervention in pick-up should be minimum.
2. Quick and Efficient Transfer of Load with a Planned Time Interval: The system should
use the shortest path to transfer the load to the destination. This would result in an
efficient transfer of load. Each and every transfer should occur with a definite time
interval. The time schedule of delivery of loads is an important parameter which
directly affects the productivity of manufacturing.
3. Transport of Loads in Planned Quantity: The material handling should transport the
planned quantity of load at the required place. If the quantum of material delivered
is less, than it would directly affect the productivity. On the other hand, excess
delivery could lead to unnecessary stacking, wastage or volume build-up.
4. Safe Transport of the Load without any Damages: The material handling system
should safely deliver the loads at the desired place, without causing any damages to
its shape, size, appearance and functionality.
5. Accuracy in Delivering at the Destination: In certain operations, the material
handling system does not only transfer the load to the destination, but has to deliver
it with a certain positional accuracy. This would facilitate the next stage of
production process at its destination, without manual realigning of the product.
6. Automation with Minimum Human Element: The system should be mechanized
completely, so that its operation is not dependent on human intervention. This
would also result in lesser operating costs.
7. Low Initial and Operational Costs: The system should not be economically
prohibitive and should have low operational costs.
8. Simple and Easy to Maintain: The system should be simple and easy to maintain. As
far as possible standard available units should be assembled. This would result in
layout flexibility and reduced costs. Standard units would also be easy to maintain
and service.

9. Safe Operation: The system should have safety devices to ensure that it does not
compromise the safety of the workers.
6.4 Basic principles in selecting the material handling equipment
The following principal technical factors can be pointed out for guidance in the choice of the
types of devices which can be expediently employed to mechanise any handling process.
 Kind and properties of loads to be handle: for unit loads – their form, weight,
convenient bearing surface or parts by which they can be suspended, brittleness,
temperature etc.; for bulk loads – lump size, tendency to cake, volume weight,
friability and the amount of crumbling liable to occur during shipment, temperature,
chemical properties, etc. These characteristics of loads can essentially narrow down
the range of devices which can be applied in each definite case since the different
devices are not adapted equally to the various properties of loads.
 Required hourly capacity of the unit: A practically unlimited hourly load moving
capacity can be easily obtained with certain types of devices as, for instance with
some continuous – action conveyors. On the other hand, there are devices, such as
power driven trucks or overhead travelling cranes following a definite cycle of
movements with a return idle run, which can operate efficiently only if they possess
an adequately high lifting capacity and speed at strenuous duty.
 Direction and length of travel : Various types of devices can carry loads in a
horizontal or vertical direction or at an angle to the horizon. Thus, a vertical
movement or a movement close to the vertical requires a hoist, crane, bucket or tray
elevator; horizontal movement is provided by self – propelled or hand trucks, fixed
path facilities, various types of conveyors, etc. Some devices can easily negotiate
track curves while others move only rectilinearly, in one direction. The length of
path, the location of the load supplying points and the ramification of the load
delivery stations are also very important for the correct choice of a transporting
facility.
 Methods of stacking loads at the initial, final and intermediate points : loading onto
vehicles and unloading at their destination differ considerably because some
handling machines can be loaded mechanically while other require special auxiliary
fixtures or manual power. Thus, for example, bulk loads can be stored either in lot, in
a pile, from which they must be scooped up in some way or another, or in a bunker
from which they flow by gravity onto the transporting facility.
 Units loads can be stowed directly on the ground or on pallets, stands, racks, trays,
etc., from which they are delivered to and removed from the materials handling
devices by different methods.
 Characteristics of production processes involved in moving loads : This most
important factor essentially influences the choice of the type of the transporting
facility. As a rule, the movements of materials handling equipment are closely linked

with and depend on the manufacturing process; sometimes these movements may
even be directly involved in the performance of certain processing operations. Such
are, for example, special cranes employed in foundry, forging and welding
departments, assembly and foundry conveyors, processing conveyors in machining,
painting and other departments.
 Specific local conditions include the size and shape of the area, type and design of
the building, ground relief, possible arrangement of the processing units, dust or
humidity conditions in the premises, presence of vapours or gases, temperature, etc.
6.5 Basic Equipment Types
 The nature of industries, manufacturing processes involved and types / designs of
machines & plants in operation are innumerable, consequently the variety of
materials handling equipment and systems used in industry is also very large in
number and diverse in concept and design. New equipment are being designed and
manufactured continuously. It is difficult even to mention about all types of
materials handling equipment being used.
 It is therefore, essential to classify such large number of materials handling
equipment into a few "basic types" for meaningful discussion of these equipment.
There have been many attempts by stalwarts in the field of materials handling to
classify equipment in different ways. However, in the present note, classification
based on the following basic types of equipment will be followed:
(i) Industrial Vehicles/Trucks.
(ii) Conveyors.
(iii) Hoisting Equipment.
(iv) Bulk Handling Equipment/System.
(v) Robotic handling system.
(vi) Containers and Supports.
(vii) Auxiliary Equipment.
(i) Industrial Vehicles/Trucks
 These are manual or power driven vehicles suitable for movement of mixed or
unitized load, intermittently, where primary function is maneuvering or transporting.
The vehicle/truck is physically moved along with the load from one point to another
via a flat or slightly inclined route. This classification excludes highway vehicles,
railroad cars, marine carriers and aircrafts
(ii) Conveyors
 These are gravity or powered equipment commonly used for moving bulk or unit
load continuously or intermittently, uni-directionally from one point to another over
fixed path, where the primary function is conveying of the material by the help of
movement of some parts/components of the equipment. The equipment as a whole
does not move.

(iii) Hoisting Equipment

 These equipment are generally utilized to lift and lower and move unit and varying
loads intermittently, between points within an area known as the reach of the
equipment, where the primary function is transferring. A hoisting equipment may
also be mounted on a powered vehicle when the movement of the lifted load is not
limited within a fixed area of operation.
(iv) Bulk Handling Equipment/System
 In the large process industries and constructional projects, a wide range of heavy
equipments are used for handling and storage of large amount of bulk solids. These
are called bulk handling equipment.
(v) Robotic Handling System
 Specially designed robots are increasingly being used in materials handling
application, particularly in loading and unloading of jobs to and form a machine or a
machining cell.
(vi) Containers and Supports
 This classification generally includes all types of secondary devices and aids which
are utilized for storing, unitizing and movement of materials. Different types of
pressure, tight, loose, closed and open-top containers; platforms and coil supports
and different securements such as strapping, cinches (chain, rope, cables with
tighteners), bulkheads, dunnage etc. are examples of secondary devices and aids.
(vii) Auxiliary Equipment
 A large number of equipment and attachments which cannot be classified under
above heads, but are frequently used independently or in conjunction with some
other materials handling equipment, are classified in this type.
6.6 TYPES OF LOAD
The types of load handled by a material handling system can be of two basic types :
a). Bulk Load
b). Unit Load and Containerisation.
a). Bulk Load :
 A bulk load is in the form of particles, powders or lumps of homogeneous materials,
which cannot be counted by numbers. Examples of bulk loads are : iron ore, coal,
sand, cement, mineral, stone, clay etc. A bulk material is classified by its bulk density,
lump-size, flowability, abrasiveness and other miscellaneous characteristics. This
property based classification plays an important role in the design of material
handling systems.
b). Unit Loads and Containerisation :
 Unit loads are those loads which can be counted by numbers or units. Examples of
unit loads would be a machine component, a complete machine, a building block, or
containers in the form of boxes. Generally unit loads are specified by its weight. The

important properties to be considered in the design of material handling equipment

for unit loads would be :
a. The weight of each unit.
b. The support or bearing surface where the unit would be placed.
c. The brittleness and hardness of the material'
d. The surface finish.
e. Temperature of the unit.
 In a high productivity cycle, handling small sized packets or units is inconvenient and
uneconomical. In such cases, containers of different sizes and shapes are used for
handling such materials.
 Many a times, certain quantities of bulk material can be placed in a container which
can then be handled as a unit load. This process of converting a bulk load into a unit
load is referred to as containerisation.
 The advantage of this process is that even bulk material can be easily expressed in
units : for example, 10 containers of 500 kg each. In some cases, various containers
can be further stacked over one another and each stack can then be treated as a
unit.
 This allows for a better check on the produced material. Besides that, hoisting
equipment are generally designed for handling loads, by their weights. With
containerisation, bulk materials can be treated as unit loads and can be specified by
its weight.
The major considerations given in the design of containers are listed below :
1. Limit the variety of containers by way of sizes and shapes.
2. Each container should be designed based on the requirements of the material it has
to handle.
3. Containers should not be very large as it would increase the loading on the handling
systems. At the same time, a small container would increase the number of
containers and hamper productivity.
4. Containers should be stackable. This reduces storage costs, as the vertical space in a
store can be utilised. Stackable containers should be designed in such a manner, that
they do not collapse when stacked.
5. The containers should at all times be properly coated or painted. Colour coding and
numbering of containers should also be done so that they can be easily recognised.
6. Wooden or plastic containers are rust free, but have limitations on their life,
cleanliness and can also be hazardous in case of fires.
7. Steel containers are sturdy and have a long life. Steel containers can be of a solid
design or made of wire mesh. Wire mesh containers are suitable as they are lighter
in weight and are self cleaning. They also produce less noise in handling, as
compared to a solid container. Wire mesh containers allows the components to be
washed, without removing them from the containers. Besides this, the components
and the containers dry and cool faster.

6.7 Crane
 A crane is a type of machine, generally equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or chains,
and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and lower materials and to move them
horizontally.
 It is mainly used for lifting heavy things and transporting them to other places. It uses one
or more simple machines to create mechanical advantage and thus move loads beyond
the normal capability of a human.
 Cranes are commonly employed in the transport industry for the loading and unloading
of freight, in the construction industry for the movement of materials and in the
manufacturing industry for the assembling of heavy equipment.
Types of Cranes
I. Mounted Crane: A crane mounted on a truck carrier provides the mobility for this
type of crane. Generally, these cranes are able to travel on highways, eliminating the
need for special equipment to transport the crane.
 When working on the jobsite, outriggers are extended horizontally from the chassis
then vertically to level and stabilize the crane while stationary and hoisting. Great
care must be taken not to swing the load sideways from the direction of travel, as
most anti-tipping stability then lies in the stiffness of the chassis suspension. Most
cranes of this type also have moving counterweights for stabilization beyond that
provided by the outriggers.
 Factory-calculated charts (or electronic safeguards) are used by crane operators to
determine the maximum safe loads for stationary (outriggered) work as well as (on-
rubber) loads and travelling speeds. Truck cranes range in lifting capacity from about
14.5 US tons to about 1300 US tons.
Fig. 6.1 Mounted Crane

II. Rough Terrain Crane A crane mounted on an undercarriage with four rubber tires
that is designed for pick-and-carry operations and for off-road and “rough terrain”
applications. Outriggers are used to level and stabilize the crane for hoisting. In a
rough terrain crane, the engine is usually mounted in the undercarriage rather than
in the upper, as with crawler crane.
Fig. 6.2 Rough Terrain Crane

III. Sidelift Crane A side lifter crane is a road-going truck or semi-trailer, able to hoist
and transport ISO standard containers. Container lift is done with parallel crane-like
hoists, which can lift a container from the ground or from a railway vehicle.
Fig 6.3 Sidelift Crane

IV. All Terrain Crane A mobile crane with the necessary equipment to travel at speed on
public roads, and on rough terrain at the job site using all-wheel and crab steering.
AT‘s combine the road ability of Truck-mounted Cranes and the maneuverability of
Rough Terrain Cranes. AT’s have 2-9 axles and are designed for lifting loads up to
1200 metric tons.
Fig. 6.4 All Terrain Crane

V. Railroad Crane A railroad crane has flanged wheels for use on railroads. The simplest
form is a crane mounted on a railroad car. More capable devices are purpose-built.
Different types of crane are used for maintenance work, recovery operations and
freight loading in goods yards.
Fig. 6.5 Railroad Crane

VI. Crawler Crane Crawler is a crane mounted on an undercarriage with a set of tracks
(also called crawlers) that provide stability and mobility. Crawler cranes range in
lifting capacity from about 40 US tons to 3500 US tons.
 Crawler cranes have both advantages and disadvantages depending on their use.
Their main advantage is that they can move around on site and perform each lift
with little setup, since the crane is stable on its tracks with no outriggers. In addition,
a crawler crane is capable of traveling with a load.
 The main disadvantage is that they are very heavy, and cannot easily be moved from
one job site to another without significant expense. Typically a large crawler must be
disassembled and moved by trucks, rail cars or ships to its next location.
Fig. 6.6 Crawler Crane

VII. Floating Crane Floating cranes are used mainly in bridge building and port
construction, but they are also used for occasional loading and unloading of
especially heavy or awkward loads on and off ships.
 Some floating cranes are mounted on a pontoon, others are specialized crane barges
with a lifting capacity exceeding 10,000 tons and have been used to transport entire
bridge sections. Floating cranes have also been used to salvage sunken ships.
 Crane vessels are often used in offshore construction. The largest revolving cranes
can be found on SSCV Thialf, which has two cranes with a capacity of 7,100 metric
tons each.
Fig. 6.7 Floating Crane

VIII. Tower Crane The tower crane is a modern form of balance crane. Fixed to the
ground (and sometimes attached to the sides of structures as well), tower cranes
often give the best combination of height and lifting capacity and are used in the
construction of tall buildings.
 The jib (colloquially, the ‘boom’) and counter-jib are mounted to the turntable,
where the slewing bearing and slewing machinery are located. The counter-jib
carries a counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load
from the trolley. The Hoist motor and transmissions are located on the mechanical
deck on the counter-jib, while the trolley motor is located on the jib.
 The crane operator either sits in a cabin at the top of the tower or controls the crane
by radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operator’s cabin is
most usually located at the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be
mounted on the jib, or partway down the tower.
 The lifting hook is operated by using electric motors to manipulate wire rope cables
through a system of sheaves. In order to hook and unhook the loads, the operator
usually works in conjunction with a signaller (known as a ‘rigger’ or ‘swamper’). They
are most often in radio contact, and always use hand signals.

Fig. 6.8 Tower Crane

IX. Aerial Crane Aerial crane or ‘Sky cranes’ usually are helicopters designed to lift large
loads. Helicopters are able to travel to and lift in areas that are difficult to reach by
conventional cranes. Helicopter cranes are most commonly used to lift units/loads
onto shopping centers and high-rises.
 They can lift anything within their lifting capacity, (cars, boats, swimming pools, etc.).
They also perform disaster relief after natural disasters for clean-up, and during wild-
fires they are able to carry huge buckets of water to extinguish fires. Some aerial
cranes, mostly concepts, have also used lighter-than air aircraft, such as airships.
Fig. 6.9 Tower Crane

X. Self-erecting Crane Generally a type of tower crane, these cranes, also called self-
assembling or “Kangaroo” cranes, lift themselves off the ground using jacks, allowing
the next section of the tower to be inserted at ground level or lifted into place by the
partially erected crane itself. They can thus be assembled without outside help, or
can grow together with the building or structure they are erecting.
Fig. 6.10 Self-erecting Crane

XI. Telescopic Crane
Fig. 6.11 Telescopic Crane

 A telescopic crane has a boom that consists of a number of tubes fitted one inside
the other. A hydraulic or other powered mechanism extends or retracts the tubes to
increase or decrease the total length of the boom. These types of booms are often
used for short term construction projects, rescue jobs, lifting boats in and out of the
water, etc.
 The relative compactness of telescopic booms make them adaptable for many
mobile applications. Note that while telescopic cranes are not automatically mobile
cranes, many of them are. These are often truck-mounted.
XII. Hammerhead Crane The “hammerhead”, or giant cantilever, crane is a fixed-jib
crane consisting of a steel-braced tower on which revolves a large, horizontal,
double cantilever; the forward part of this cantilever or jib carries the lifting trolley,
the jib is extended backwards in order to form a support for the machinery and
counterbalancing weight.
In addition to the motions of lifting and revolving, there is provided a so-called
“racking” motion, by which the lifting trolley, with the load suspended, can be
moved in and out along the jib without altering the level of the load. Such horizontal
movement of the load is a marked feature of later crane design. These cranes are
generally constructed in large sizes, up to 350 tons.
The design of hammerkran evolved first in Germany around the turn of the 19th
century and was adopted and developed for use in British shipyards to support the
battleship construction program from 1904-1914. The ability of the hammerhead
crane to lift heavy weights was useful for installing large pieces of battleships such as
armour plate and gun barrels.
Fig. 6.12 Hammerhead Crane

XIII. Gantry Crane A gantry crane has a hoist in a fixed machinery house or on a trolley
that runs horizontally along rails, usually fitted on a single beam (mono-girder) or
two beams (twin-girder).
 The crane frame is supported on a gantry system with equalized beams and wheels
that run on the gantry rail, usually perpendicular to the trolley travel direction. These
cranes come in all sizes, and some can move very heavy loads, particularly the
extremely large examples used in shipyards or industrial installations.
Fig. 6.13 Gantry Crane

XIV. Overhead Crane
Fig. 6.14 Overhead Crane

 Overhead Crane Also known as a ‘suspended crane’, this type of crane work very
similar to a gantry crane but instead of the whole crane moving, only the hoist /
trolley assembly moves in one direction along one or two fixed beams, often
mounted along the side walls or on elevated columns in the assembly area of
factory. Some of these cranes can lift very heavy loads.
XV. Deck Crane Located on the ships and boats, these are used for cargo operations or
boat unloading and retrieval where no shore unloading facilities are available. Most
are diesel-hydraulic or electric-hydraulic.
Fig. 6.15 Deck Crane

XVI. Loader Crane
Fig. 6.16 Loader Crane

 A loader crane (also called a knuckle-boom crane or articulating crane) is a
hydraulically-powered articulated arm fitted to a truck or trailer, and is used for
loading/unloading the vehicle. The numerous jointed sections can be folded into a
small space when the crane is not in use.

 One or more of the sections may be telescopic. Often the crane will have a degree of
automation and be able to unload or stow itself without an operator’s instruction.
Unlike most cranes, the operator must move around the vehicle to be able to view
his load; hence modern cranes may be fitted with a portable cabled or radio-linked
control system to supplement the crane-mounted hydraulic control levers.
 A rol loader crane is a loader crane mounted on a chassis with wheels. This chassis
can ride on the trailer. Because the crane can move on the trailer, it can be a light
crane, so the trailer is allowed to transport more goods.
XVII. Bulk-Handling Crane Bulk-handling cranes are designed from the outset to carry a
shell grab or bucket, rather than using a hook and a sling. They are used for bulk
cargoes, such as coal, minerals, scrap metal etc.
Fig. 6.17 Bulk-Handling Crane

XVIII. Jib Crane
Fig. 6.18 Jib Crane

 A jib crane is a type of crane where a horizontal member (jib or boom), supporting a
moveable hoist, is fixed to a wall or to a floor-mounted pillar. Jib cranes are used in
industrial premises and on military vehicles.
 The jib may swing through an arc, to give additional lateral movement, or be fixed.
Similar cranes, often known simply as hoists, were fitted on the top floor of
warehouse buildings to enable goods to be lifted to all floors.
XIX. Stacker Crane A crane with a forklift type mechanism used in automated (computer
controlled) warehouses (known as an automated storage and retrieval system
(AS/RS)). The crane moves on a track in an aisle of the warehouse.
 The fork can be raised or lowered to any of the levels of a storage rack and can be
extended into the rack to store and retrieve product. The product can in some cases
be as large as an automobile.
Stacker cranes are often used in the large freezer warehouses of frozen food
manufacturers. This automation avoids requiring forklift drivers to work in below
freezing temperatures every day.
Fig. 6.19 Stacker Crane

6.8 Design of Wire Rope drive

 When a large amount of power is to be transmitted over long distances from one
pulley to another (i.e. when the pulleys are upto 150 metres apart), then wire ropes
are used.
 The wire ropes are widely used in elevators, mine hoists, cranes, conveyors, hauling
devices and suspension bridges. The wire ropes run on grooved pulleys but they rest
on the bottom of the grooves and are not wedged between the sides of the grooves.
 The wire ropes are made from cold drawn wires in order to have increase in strength
and durability. It may be noted that the strength of the wire rope increases as its size
decreases.
 The various materials used for wire ropes in order of increasing strength are wrought
iron, cast steel, extra strong cast steel, plough steel and alloy steel. For certain
purposes, the wire ropes may also be made of copper, bronze, aluminium alloys and
stainless steels.
The wire ropes have the following advantages as compared to fibre ropes.
1. These are lighter in weight,
2. These offer silent operation,
3. These can withstand shock loads,
4. These are more reliable,
5. These are more durable,
6. They do not fail suddenly,
7. The efficiency is high, and
8. The cost is low.
6.8.1 Construction and Designation of Wire Ropes
(a) 6 x 7 (b) 6 x 19
Fig. 6.21 Construction of Wire Rope
The constructions of the wire rope are shown in Fig. 6.21 (a) and (b). The wire rope consists
of a number of strands, each strand comprising several steel wires. The number of wires in
each strand is generally 7, 19 or 37, while the number of strands is usually six. The individual

wires are first twisted into the strand and then the strands are twisted around a fibre or
steel core.
 The specification of wire ropes includes two numbers, such as 6 x 7 or 6 x 19. The
first number indicates the number of strands in the wire rope, while the second gives
the number of steel wires in each strand. The popular constructions of steel wire
ropes are as follows:6 x 7, 6 x 19, 6 x 37.
 The central portion of the wire rope is called the core. There are three types of
cores-fibre, wire and synthetic material.
 The fibre core consists of natural fibres like sisal, hemp, jute or cotton. The fibre core
is flexible and suitable for all conditions except when the rope is subjected to severe
crushing, e.g., when working under high load.
 The steel core consists of another strand of fairly soft wires with lower tensile
strength. The wire core is used where the wire rope is subjected to severe heat or
crushing conditions.
 Plastic cores are used in special purpose wire ropes. It can be a plastic-impregnated
fibre core, plastic covered fibre core or a solid plastic core.
6.8.2 Types of lays of Wire Ropes
 There is one more term related to the construction of wire ropes, namely, rope–lay.
 The lay of the rope refers to the manner in which the wires are helically laid into
strands and the strands into the rope. If the wires in the strand are twisted in the
same direction as the strands, then the rope is called a Lang's lay rope.
 Regular–lay: When the wires in the strand are twisted in a direction opposite to that
of the strands, the rope is said to be regular–lay or ordinary–lay. The lays of wire
rope are illustrated in Fig. 6.22.
Fig. 6.22 Lays of Wire Rope

Regular–lay ropes are more popular than the Lang's–lay ropes. The balance resulting from
the opposite direction of twisting the strands to that of the wires is advantageous. Regular–
lay ropes offer the following advantages:
(i) They have more structural stability.
(ii) They have more resistance to crushing and distortion.

(iii) They have less tendency to rotate under load.

(iv) There is less possibility of kinking.
(v) They are easy in handling during installation.
 In Lang's–lay ropes, the same direction of twisting results in outer wires being bent
on a larger arc of a circle. Lang's–lay ropes are difficult to handle and install. They are
less resistant to crushing and distortion. Lang's-lay ropes are likely to untwist unless
both ends are permanently fastened.
6.8.3 Stresses in Wire Ropes
A wire rope is subjected to the following types of stresses:
1. Direct stress due to axial load lifted and weight of the rope
Let P = Load lifted,
p = Weight of the rope, and
A= Net cross-sectional area of the rope.
Pp
Direct stress, d 
A
2. Bending stress when the rope winds round the sheave or drum. When a wire rope is
wound over the sheave, then the bending stresses are induced in the wire which is
tensile at the top and compressive at the lower side of the wire. The bending stress
induced depends upon many factors such as construction of rope, size of wire, type
of centre and the amount of restraint in the grooves. The approximate value of the
bending stress in the wire as proposed by Reuleaux, is
E d
b  r w
D
and equivalent bending load on the rope,
E d  A
Pb  b  A  r w
D
where Er = Modulus of elasticity of the wire rope,
dw = Diameter of the wire,
D = Diameter of the sheave or drum, and
A = Net cross-sectional area of the rope.
If σb is the bending stress in each wire, then the load on the whole rope due to
bending may be obtained from the following relation, i.e.

Pb   dw  n  b
2
4
where n is the total number of wires in the rope section.
3. Stresses during starting and stopping. During starting and stopping, the rope and
the supported load are to be accelerated. This induces additional load in the rope
which is given by
Pp 
Pa   a
 g 

and the corresponding stress,

Pp a
a  
g A
where a = Acceleration of the rope and load, and
g = Acceleration due to gravity.
If the time (t) necessary to attain a speed (v) is known, then the value of ‘a’ is given
by a = v / 60 t
The general case of starting is when the rope has a slack (h) which must be
overcome before the rope is taut and starts to exert a pull on the load. This induces
an impact load on the rope.
The impact load on starting may be obtained by the impact equation, i.e.
 2a  h  Er 
Pst  (P  p) 1  1  
 d  l  g 
and velocity of the rope (vr) at the instant when the rope is taut,
Vr  2a  h
where a = Acceleration of the rope and load,
h = Slackness in the rope, and
l = Length of the rope.
When there is no slackness in the rope, then h = 0 and vr= 0, therefore
Impact load during starting,
Pst = 2 (P + p)
and the corresponding stress,
2(P  p)
st 
A
4. Stress due to change in speed. The additional stress due to change in speed may be
obtained in the similar way as discussed above in which the acceleration is given by
a = (v2 - v1) / t
where (v2 - v1 ) is the change in speed in m/s and t is the time in seconds.
It may be noted that when the hoist drum is suddenly stopped while lowering the
load, it produces a stress that is several times more than the direct or static stress
because of the kinetic energy of the moving masses is suddenly made zero. This
kinetic energy is absorbed by the rope and the resulting stress may be determined
by equating the kinetic energy to the resilience of the rope. If during stopping, the
load moves down a certain distance, the corresponding change of potential energy
must be added to the kinetic energy. It is also necessary to add the work of
stretching the rope during stopping, which may be obtained from the impact stress.
5. Effective stress. The sum of the direct stress (σd) and the bending stress (σb) is
called the effective stress in the rope during normal working. Mathematically,

Effective stress in the rope during normal working

= σd + σb
Effective stress in the rope during starting
= σst + σb
and effective stress in the rope during acceleration of the load
= σa + σd + σb

Example 6.1: At the construction site, 1 tonne of steel is to be lifted up to a height of 20 m

with the help of 2 wire ropes of 6 X 19 size, nominal diameter 12 mm, tensile designation
1770. Determine factor of safety if the sheave diameter is 56d and if wire rope is suddenly
stopped in 1 second when travelling at a speed of 1.2 m/s. what is factor of safety if bending
load is neglected?
Solution: m = 1 tonne
h =20 m
2 wire ropes of 6 X 19
d = 12 mm
D = 56d
t = 1 second
V = 1.2 m/s
For construction site, area of wire rope, A = 0.39 d2
Diameter of sheave, D = 56 d = 56 x 12
= 672 mm
A = 0.39 d2 = 0.39 (12)2
= 56.16 mm2

A  dw2  n
4

56.16  dw2  6  19
4
Diameter of wire, dw = 0.79 mm
Modulus of elasticity, Er = 74.4 GPa for 6 x 19 (fibre core)
Er  dw
b 
D
74.4  103  0.79
b 
672
= 87.68 N/mm2
Bending load per wire rope, Pb = σb x A

Pb  b  d2
4

Pb  87.68  (12)2
4
Pb = 9916.8 N
= 9.916 KN
Maximum length of overhanging wire rope – 20 m
Mass of rope per m length – 0.498 kg
P = 0.498 x 20 = 9.96 kg

P 1000
Direct load, Pd  p   9.96 
2 2
= 509.96 kg= 5002.7 N
= 5 KN
 P
Decelerating load, Pa   p   a
 2
= (509.96)(1.2/1)
= 610.8 N
= 0.61 KN
Total effective load per wire rope, Pe = Pd + Pb + Pa
= 5 + 9.916 + 0.61
= 15.526 KN
Breaking load 78
Actual factor of safety  
Effective load 15.526
= 5.023
Neglecting bending load
78
Factor of safety 
5  0.61
= 13.90
Example 6.2: A workshop crane is lifting a load of 25 KN through a wire rope and a hook.
The weight of hook etc. is 15 KN. The rope drum diameter may be taken as 30 times the
diameter of rope. The load is to be lifted with an acceleration of 1 m/s 2. Calculate the
diameter of wire rope. Take factor of safety of 6 and young’s modulus for wire rope 80
KN/mm2. The ultimate stress may be taken as 1800 MPa. The cross-section area of wire
rope may be taken as 0.38 times square of wire rope diameter, diameter of wire may be
taken as 0.063d.
Solution: P = 25 KN
p = 15 KN
D = 30 d
a = 1 m/s2
d= ?
Er = 80 KN/mm2
σu = 1800 KN/mm2
A = 0.39 d2
Direct load, Pd = P + p
= 25 + 15
= 40 KN

Er  dw
Bending load, Pb  A
D
80  103  0.063 d
Pb   0.38 d2
30 d
= 63.84 d2 N
Pp 
Acceleration load, Pa   a
 g 
 25000  15000 
Pa    1
 9.81 
Pa = 4077.47 N
Total load acting on rope = Pb + Pd + Pa
= 63.84 d2 + 40000 + 4077.47
= 63.84 d2 + 44077.47 ………..…..(i)
Total load on rope = Area of wire rope x Allowable stress

 A u
F.O.S
1800
 0.38d2 
6
2
= 114 d …………..(ii)
From equation (i) and (ii)
63.84 d2 + 44077.47 = 114 d2
50.16 d2 = 44077.47
d = 29.64 mm
≈ 30 mm
Example 6.3: Design a single rope drum to transmit a torque of 8 kN.m with a 32 mm rope.
Assume the height of the load to be raised as 2.7 meter and the ratio of the pulley system as
2. The mean diameter of the drum is 576 mm. Assume the drum to be made of Grey cast
iron, grade 20 having allowable shear strength of 33 MPa. Make a neat sketch of the
arrangement.
T = 8 kN.m H =2.7 m
Ratio of pulley system, i = 2 D = 576 mm
d = 32 mm τ = 33 MPa
Hi 2.7  103  2
No. of turns on the drum for one rope, Z  2  2
D   576
= 4.98
≈ 5 turns

 2Hi 
Length of drum for one rope, L    7 S (Pitch, S = d+1 mm)
 D 
 2  2.7  103  2 
L  7   33
   576 
L = 427.95 mm
≈ 428 mm
Diameter of groove of sheaves and drums = d + 3.2 mm
= 32 + 3.2 mm
= 35.2 mm
Depth of grooves to be less than 0.1 d = 0.1 x 32
= 3.2 mm
Wall thickness of C.I. drum, w = 0.02D + (6 to 10) mm
= 0.02 x 576 + (6 to 10) mm
= 17.52 mm to 21.52 mm
≈ 20 mm
Flange diameter of rope drum, Df = D + 6d
= 576 + (6 x 32)
= 768 mm
(D  d)
Torque on drum, T  F 
2
(576  32)
8  103  F 
2
F = 26.315 kN
Now, D = Di + 2w
576 = Di + 2(20)
Di = 536 mm
8FLD
Maximum bending stress,  b 
 (D4  Di 4 )
8  26.315  103  428  576
b 
 (5764  5364 )
= 0.6 N/mm2
F 26.315  103
Crushing stress,  c  
wS 20  33
= 39.87 N/mm2
Total normal stress,  n   b2   c2  0.62  39.872

= 39.87 N/mm2

Combined equivalent stress,  e   n2  4 2  39.872  (4  332 )

= 77.11 N/mm2
Example 6.4: Select the ropes, pulley and drum for an over head travelling crane with a
lifting magnet.
Lifting capacity = 5000 kg (mass)
Weight of lifting magnet = 200 kg (mass)
Weight of lifting tackle = 120 kg (mass)
Lifting height = 8 m
No. of rope parts = 4
Fig. 6.23
Efficiency = 94%
Diameter of wire, dw = 0.045d
Modulus of elasticity of rope, E’ = 8 x 104 N/mm2
Factor of safety, n = 4
σu = 1500 N/mm2
Area, A = 0.4d2
 5000  200  120   5000  200  120 
Maximum load, F    g    9.81
   no. of rope   0.94  4 
 p 
= 13880 N
Rope
From the Fig. 5.7, no. of bends, n’ = 6/2 = 3

Dmin
 23 (P.S.G. design data book, Page no. 9.1)
d
For overhead travelling crane selecting the rope 6 x 37
F
Cross-sectional area of rope, A 
u d dw
  E'
n Dmin d
13880
A
1500 1 0.045d
   8  104
4 23 d
13880
0.4d 2 
375  156.52
d = 12.6 mm
Wire rope diameter, d ≈ 14 mm
Approximate weight = 0.74 kg/m (P.S.G. design data book, Page no. 9.4)
Breaking strength per rope = 103 x 103 N
While required breaking strength per rope = 13.88 x 103 x n = 13.88 x 103 x 4
= 55.52 kN, so it is safe.
Pulley
Diameter of lower pulley and drum, D = 23 x d = 23 x 14
= 322 mm
Diameter of compensating pulley, D1 = 0.6 x D = 0.6 x 322
= 195 mm
For 14 mm wire rope diameter, dimension of sheave groove
(P.S.G. design data book, Page no. 9.10)
a = 40 mm b = 30 mm
c = 7 mm e = 1 mm
h = 25 mm l = 10 mm
r = 8.5 mm r1 = 4 mm
r2 = 3 mm r3 = 12 mm
r4 = 8 mm
Drum
Diameter of drum, D = 322 mm
Hi 8  103  2
No. of turns on the drum for one rope, Z  2  2
D   322
= 17.8 ≈ 18 turns
 2Hi 
Length of drum for one rope, L    12  S  l1 (Pitch, S = d+1 mm)
 D 
Free space, l1 = 100 mm
 2  8  103  2 
L  12   15  100
   322 

L = 754.5 mm ≈ 755 mm
Diameter of groove of sheaves and drums = d + 3.2 mm
= 14 + 3.2 mm = 17.2 mm
Depth of grooves to be less than 0.1 d = 0.1 x 14
= 1.4 mm
Wall thickness of C.I. drum, w = 0.02D + (6 to 10) mm
= 0.02 x 322 + (6 to 10) mm
= 12.44 mm to 16.44 mm
≈ 15 mm
Flange diameter of rope drum, Df = D + 6d
= 322 + (6 x 14) = 406 mm
(D  d)
Torque on drum, T  F 
2
(322  14)
T  13880 
2
3
T = 2331.8 x 10 N.mm
Now, D = Di + 2w
322 = Di + 2(15)
Di = 292 mm
 (D4  Di 4 )
Torque, T  
16 D
16TD
Maximum shear stress,  
 (D4  Di 4 )
16  2331.8  103  322

 (3224  2824 )
= 0.86 N/mm2
8FLD
Maximum bending stress,  b 
 (D4  Di 4 )
8  13880  755  322
b 
 (3224  2924 )
= 2.468 N/mm2
F 13880
Crushing stress,  c  
wS 15  15
= 61.68 N/mm2
Total normal stress,  n   b2   c2  2.4682  61.682
= 61.73 N/mm2
Combined equivalent stress,  e   n2  4 2  61.732  (4  0.862 )
= 61.75 N/mm2

Example 6.5: Design a crane hook for lifting capacity of 5 tonnes. It is made from forged
steel and has triangular section. Take permissible tensile stress 80 N/mm 2 .Use data design
book to standardize the dimension of hook.
W = 5 tonnes = 5 x 1000 x 9.81 = 49050 N
σt = 80 N/mm2
Constant K = 12
Fig. 5.8
Bed diameter C  K W  12 49.05

= 84 mm
Nearest standard size is 85 mm. now major dimension of hooks are:
A = 2.75 C = 233.75 mm ≈ 234 mm
B = 1.31 C = 111.35 mm ≈ 112 mm
D = 1.44 C = 122.4 mm ≈ 123 mm
E = 1.25 C = 106.25 mm ≈ 107 mm
F = C = 85 mm
H = 0.93 C = 79.05 mm ≈ 80 mm
J = 0.75 C = 63.75 mm ≈64 mm
K = 0.92 C = 78.2 mm ≈ 79 mm
L = 0.7 C = 59.5 mm ≈ 60 mm
M = 0.6 C = 51 mm
N = 1.2 C = 102 mm
P = 0.5 C = 42.5 mm ≈ 43 mm
R = 0.5 C = 42.5 mm ≈ 43 mm
U = 0.3 C = 25.5 mm ≈ 26 mm
Z = 0.12 C = 10.2 mm ≈ 11 mm
Designing shank portion : it is considered under tensile failure.

W dc 2 t
4


5  1000  9.81  dc 2  80
4
dc = 27.94 mm
From C= 85 mm, Gl = 42 mm and G = 45 mm (P.S.G. design data book, Page no. 9.10)
Checking the hook section:
ri = C/2 = 85/2 = 42.5 mm
ro = ri + H = 42.5 + 80 = 122.5 mm
R = ri + H/3 = 42.5 + 80/3 = 69.17 mm
The radius of curvature of neutral axis,
(b1  b2 )
h
rn  2
(b1  r2  b2  r1 ) r
log e 2  (b1  b2 )
h r1
For a triangular section (b2 = 0, r2 = ro, b1 = M and h = H)
M H 51  80
rn  2  2
(M ro ) ro (51  122.5) 122.5
log e  M log e  51
H ri 80 42.5
= 64.4 mm
e = R - rn = 69.17 – 64.4 = 4.77 mm
h1 = rn - ri = 64.4 – 42.5 = 21.9 mm
h2 = ro - rn = 122.5 – 64.4 = 58.1 mm
M  H 51  80
Area, A   =2040 mm2
2 2
Resultant stress induced at the intrados of the section due to bending action is given by
( t )Total   d  ( t )ri
W Mb  h1 W W  R  h1
( t )Total    
A A  e  ri A A  e  ri
49050 49050  69.17  21.9
 
2040 2040  4.77  42.5
= 24.04 + 179.67
= 203.71 N/mm2
Resultant stress induced at the extrados of the section due to bending action is given by
( c )Total   d  ( c )ro
W Mb  h2 W W  R  h2
( c )Total    
A A  e  ro A A  e  ro
49050 49050  69.17  58.1
 
2040 2040  4.77  122.5
= 24.04 + 165.37
= 189.41 N/mm2

Example 6.6: A single point hook is made from a 50 mm M.S. bar with 84 mm bed diameter.
Calculate the safe load that can be taken by this hook, if the design permissible stress is
limited to 160 MPa. If the hook section is changed to trapezoidal section from triangular
section for the same bar what will be the change in load carrying capacity?
For trapezoidal section
(bi  bo )
H
rn  2
(bi  ro  bo  ri ) r
log e o  (bi  bo )
H ri
H(bi  2bo )
R  ri 
3(bi  bo )
For triangular section
put bo = 0 in above relations
H = 50 mm C = 84 mm σ = 160 N/mm2
Triangular Cross-Section
Width of cross-section, bi = 0.65 H = 0.65 x 50
= 32.5 mm
1 1
Cross-sectional area, A  Hbi   50  32.5
2 2
= 812.5 mm2
Inner and outer radii :
ri = C/2 = 84/2 = 42 mm
ro = ri + H = 42 + 50 = 92 mm
Radius of neutral axis (rn) :
(bi  bo )
H
rn  2 For triangular section, bo = 0
(bi  ro  bo  ri ) ro
log e  (bi  bo )
H ri
bi H 32.5  50
rn  2  2
bi  ro ro 32.5  92 92
log e  bi log e  32.5
H ri 50 42
= 56.46 mm
Radius of centroidal axis (R) :
H(bi  2bo )
R  ri  For triangular section, bo = 0
3(bi  bo )
Hbi H 50
R  ri   ri   42 
3bi 3 3
= 58.66 mm
e = R - rn = 58.66 – 56.46 = 2.2 mm
h1 = rn - ri = 56.46 – 42 = 14.46 mm

h2 = ro - rn = 92 – 56.46 = 35.54 mm
( t )Total   d  ( t )ri
W Mb  h1 W W  R  h1
( t )Total    
W W  58.66  14.46
 
812.5 812.5  2.2  42
160 = 0.00123W + 0.0108W
W = 13300 N
( c )Total   d  ( c )ro
W Mb  h2 W W  R  h2
( c )Total    
W W  58.66  35.54
 
812.5 812.5  2.2  92
- 160 = 0.00123W - 0.0126W
W = 14072 N
Taking lowest of two values, the load carrying capacity of crane hook, W = 13300 N
Trapezoidal Cross-Section
Widths of cross-section,
bi = 0.65 H = 0.65 x 50
= 32.5 mm
bo = 0.5 bi = 0.5 x 32.5
= 16.25 mm
bi  bo (32.5  16.25)
Cross-sectional area, A  H  50
2 2
= 1218.75 mm2
Inner and outer radii :
ri = C/2 = 84/2 = 42 mm
ro = ri + H = 42 + 50 = 92 mm
Radius of neutral axis (rn) :

(bi  bo )
H
rn  2
(bi  ro  bo  ri ) r
log e o  (bi  bo )
H ri
 32.5  16.25 
   50
rn   2 
 32.5  92  16.25  42  92
  log e  (32.5  16.25)
 50  42
= 61.13 mm
Radius of centroidal axis (R) :
H(bi  2bo )
R  ri 
3(bi  bo )
50  (32.5  2  16.25)
R  42 
3(32.5  16.25)
= 64.22 mm
e = R - rn = 64.22 – 61.13 = 3.092 mm

h1 = rn - ri = 61.13 – 42 = 19.13 mm
h2 = ro - rn = 92 – 61.13 = 30.87 mm
( t )Total   d  ( t )ri
W Mb  h1 W W  R  h1
( t )Total    
W W  64.22  19.13
 
1218.75 1218.75  3.092  42
160 = 0.00082W + 0.0077W
W = 18779 N
( c )Total   d  ( c )ro
W Mb  h2 W W  R  h2
( c )Total    
W W  64.22  30.87

1218.75 1218.75  3.092  42
-160 = 0.00082W - 0.0125W
W = 13668 N
Taking lowest of two values, the load carrying capacity of crane hook, W = 13300 N


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1

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

the bigger one the gear wheel.

Fig. 1.1 Spur Gears in Mesh

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

III. Power cannot be transmitted over long distances.

1.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

Fig.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

 In helical gears the tooth traces are helices.

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(vi) Worm Gears (viii) Hypoid Gears

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Fig. 1.4 Terminology of spur gears

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

1.3.2 Tangential Load on Gear Tooth

1.3.5 Maximum Tangential Load, (Ft)

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

2. Errors in tooth spacing,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Number of teeth on the gear zg= i zp = 4 x 18 = 72

Pitch diameters of pinion and gear,

Lewis form factors:

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Lewis equation for beam strength of gear tooth,

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

For 45C8 steel pinion, (σ ut) p = 630 MPa,

Minimum number of teeth on pinion to avoid interference, zp = 18 for ɸ =20⁰ involute.

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Lewis form factors:

For pinion, ep  32.0  2.50(5  0.25 90)  50.42  m

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

1.7 HELICAL GEARS

Fig. 1.6 Helical Gear Terminology

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Normal circular pitch, pn: It is the distance between corresponding points of

Fig. 1.7 Tooth Relationships

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Fig. 1.8 Concept of virtual number of teeth

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Static Beam strength

Pitch line velocity

Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI Department of Mechanical Engineering

50 1.6 115.47 1.44

Safe tangential load

Power transmitting capacity

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: SUNIL G. JANIYANI

Lewis form factors

Pitch diameters of gears,