Specific methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation are called Research Methods.

1. Qualitative Research: An approach for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or
groups ascribe to a social or human problem.
- Words (qualitative data); Open-ended questions; Inductive; and the meaning of data is interpreted by
researchers.
2. Quantitative Research: An approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship
among variables.
- Numbers (quantitative data); Close-ended questions; Deductive; and the data are analyzed through
statistical procedures.
3. Mixed Methods Research: An approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and
qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve
philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.

3 components of an approach
1. Philosophical worldviews
2. Research methods
3. Research designs

Philosophical worldviews
1. Postpositivist – Quantitative, objective
2. Constructivist – Qualitative, subjective
3. Transformative
4. Pragmative – Mixed method

Quantitative designs
1. Experimental design  treatment group
2. Non-experimental design (correlational design)  sample to population
Qualitative designs
1. Grounded theory
2. Ethnography
3. Case study
4. Narrative research
5. Phenomenological research
Mixed method design (PRAGMATIC WORLDVIEW)
Using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or a program of
inquiry.
1. Convergent parallel mixed method – parallel of quantitative and qualitative  compare or
relate  interpret
2. Explanatory sequential mixed methods – quantitative  qualitative  interpret
3. Exploratory sequential mixed methods – qualitative  quantitative  interpret
What is qualitative research?
Qualitative Research begins with assumptions and the use of interpretive/theoretical framework that
inform the readers of research problems addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem.

We conduct qualitative research when:

(1) A problem or issue needs to be explored
(2) Detailed understanding of a complex issue is needed

Ethical Issues with Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers face various ethical issues in all stages of their study. The typical issues are:
(1) Anonymity
(2) Confidentiality
(3) Informed consent
(4) Researchers’ potential impact on the participants

Types of Qualitative Data

1. Qualitative Observation: Filed notes on the behavior and activities of individuals at a research
site.
2. Qualitative Interview
3. Qualitative Documents: Public documents (e.g., newspapers, minutes of meetings, official
reports) or private documents (e.g., diaries, letters, emails).
4. Qualitative Audio and Visual Materials: Photos, art objectives, videotapes, YouTube movies,
any forms of sound.

Types of Qualitative Interview I

(1) Structured Interview
(2) Non-structured Interview
(3) Semi-structured Interview

Types of Qualitative Interview II

(1) Face-to-face Interview
(2) Telephone Interview ‒ You do not need any makeup;
(3) Skype Interview ‒ You do not need to wear good pants;
(4) Focus Group Interview
What Is Content Analysis?
Content Analysis is a method of analyzing written, verbal, or visual data. It can be used for either
qualitative or quantitative study.
i) a systematic and objective means of describing and quantifying phenomena;
ii) a research method for making replicable and valid inferences from data to their context, with the
purpose of providing knowledge, new insights, a representation of facts.

Types of Content Analysis II

(1) Qualitative Content Analysis:
“is a research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the
systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns” (Hsieh & Shannon,
2005, p.1278).
(2) Quantitative Content Analysis
is a research method for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of text data (e.g.,
frequency of words, pattern of using a combination of words, proportion of several categories in text).

Intercoder (interrater) reliability refers to the extent to which two or more independent coders agree
on the coding of the content of interest with an application of the same coding scheme.

What Is Survey?
The purpose of the survey is to produce statistics, that is, quantitative or numerical descriptions
about some aspects of the study population;
The main way of collecting information is by asking people questions; their answers constitute
the data to be analyzed;
Generally, information is collected about only a fraction of the population, that is, a sample, rather
than from every member of the population.

Three components of survey  Sampling, question design, and data collection.

(1) Error associated with who answers

- Sampling error: Data variation between a sample and the population
- Bias: people responding to a survey are different from the population in some systematic way.
(2) Error associated with answers - Measurement error - The assignment of numbers to some
phenomenon that we are interested in analyzing.
Measurement Reliability & Validity
Measurement Reliability
- A reliable indicator consistently assigns the same number to some phenomenon that has not, in fact,
changed.
Measurement Validity
- A valid indicator accurately measures the concept it is intended to measure (very little error).

SUBJECTIVITY is main threat to reliability…

Types of questions
1. Open and Close Ended questions
2. Agree-Disagree questions

Increasing reliability
1. Inadequate wording (e.g. putting “others”)
2. Poorly defined terms
3. Multiple questions (question inside question)

Increase validity
1. Lack of knowledge
2. Social desirability bias

Sampling People
A main goal of survey methodology has been to develop statistical techniques of sampling: how to
select a small subset of a population representative of the whole population.

Three components of sampling

1. Sample framework (Sample population)
2. Sample size
3. Specific design of selection procedure

Types of sampling
1. One stage sampling  simple random sampling
2. Multi stage sampling  area probability sampling
Response rate
The number of people who complete the survey divided by the number of eligible people (or units)
sampled; A basic parameter for evaluating a data collection effort.

Methods of data collection

1. In-person
2. Mail
3. Internet

Estimating sampling error

-Key Points-
• The smaller standard error (SE), the less sampling errors;
• SE becomes smaller when n (sample size) becomes larger.

Experimental
Internal validity  Causality
External validity  generalizability
Internal validity tends to be low in an observational study since it is difficult to find all possible
causal relationships.
External validity tends to be low in an experimental study since any lab setting is different from real
life setting.

Endogeneity: Issues with Observational Studies

1. Selection problems:
a. explanatory (independent) variable is correlated with the error term
b. Omitted-variable bias: A model created incorrectly leaves out one or more important
variables.
c. Multicollinearity: two or more independent variables are correlated in a multivariate
regression model.
2. Simultaneity: Two-way causation
What Is a Case Study?
An intensive study of a single unit with an aim to generalize across a larger set of (similar) units.

Case selection methods

1. Typical cases
2. Diverse cases
3. Extreme cases
4. Deviant cases
5. Influential cases