A Brief History of Physics

Learn the History of Many Important Breakthroughs

in the Wonderful World of Physics In One Hour
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Introduction 4

Chapter One: History of Physics in the Ancient World 5

Chapter Two: Physics in the Medieval Ages 9

How Do You Like The Book So Far? 11

Chapter Three: Physics in the Early Modern Era 12

Chapter Four: Physics in the Later Modern Era 16

Chapter Five: Physics at the Beginning of the 21st century and History

of Subatomic Particles 23

Conclusion 26
Introduction
Physics is the most fundamental science that helps us understand this world and the world
beyond us. Encompassing studies that cover the smallest subatomic particles to galaxies that are
spread right across this vast, expanding universe, physics throws light on a wide repertoire of
nearly everything around us and inside of us. Physics is also the fundamental science for other
sciences such as astronomy, chemistry, seismology, oceanography, and more.

Physics answers many profound questions for us, including but not limited to:

! How does the universe operate?

! What holds matter together?
! What is that force that pulls an apple down from a tree and yet keeps everything moving in
their place?

While it was once believed that physics was more ‘hard science,' today, the knowledge gained
from physics has even begun to touch life sciences as well as biology, molecular biology and
biochemistry. Physics seems to be within and outside of our lives. All new technologies have a
basis in physics. These new technologies include the revolutionary internet, the mobile phones,
MRIs, and more.

To know and understand the unknown are some of the most basic human instincts and it is this
deep desire to know that has driven many, many men and women to discover things that seemed
unimaginable until the point of discovery. Some of the most powerful discoveries that have
changed the way we lived including:

! Bursting forth the power latent in an atom to release atomic energy

! Revealing the nature and power of light
! Helping us break down light into components each of which has helped us in understand our
world even better
! Revealing the many forces that act and interact with each other holding our entire universe
together

This book is written with the intention of creating a short, yet comprehensive, history of this
fascinating subject! At this juncture, I just wanted to mention that there are a few seemingly non-
physics discoveries in this book such as those that attempt to answer the question of how and
when life began. I believe it makes sense to put those discoveries in view of the wide horizon
that physics today covers.
Chapter One: History of Physics in the Ancient World
I have divided this book into four sections, each of which covers discoveries in physics in the
four eras including the ancient world, the medieval ages, the early modern era and in the modern
era (today). So, let’s go right in and start with the ancient world.

Moving Planets and Unmoving Stars

There have been findings (dated between 20th and 15th century B.C.) of ancient Babylonian
tablets with drawings that reflect the knowledge of physics in those times. These tablets show
figures of planets that are moving and stars that are unmoving or fixed. Also, there are findings,
which prove that our ancestors in the ancient world did know about the periodic and fixed
movements of planets around their orbits.

The Earliest Explanation of the Big Bang Theory

The Rigveda of Hinduism (dated before 5th century B.C.) speaks of how the universe originated.
It talks of a ‘cosmic egg’ (referred to as the Brahmanda) in which all the planets, stars, the sun,
the moon and the entire universe were enclosed in a single point. This single point expands and
bursts open to form the universe and again with time collapses into a single point. This ancient
theory seems to synchronize with the modern Big Bang and the oscillating universe theory.

Magnetism and Electricity

The Ancient Greeks in the 5th century B.C. observed and recorded a strange behavior in
lodestone, a naturally occurring mineral, found in the region of Magnesia. We now know this
effect to be magnetism. A practical use of magnetism was not discovered until nearly 1000 years
later when the compass was invented.

At the same time, the Greeks also noticed an abnormal behavior of amber which if rubbed with
fur attracted bits of straw and feathers. Today, we know that effect is called electricity (or the
effect of the transfer of electrons which is the Greek word for amber).

The Molecular Theory and the Rule of Rationality

Around the 5th century B.C. Anaxagoras, the Greek scientist, is believed to have formulated a
concept that we now know as the molecular theory of matter. He also regarded the physical
universe to be controlled by rules based on reason and rationality.

The Atom

Democritus and Leucippus, two ancient Greek scientists, established the school of Atomism.
They taught that the entire universe is made of minute, indestructible, and indivisible building
blocks called atoms. These atoms combine in various ways to form different shapes and sizes of
elements. Of course, now we know that the atom is further divisible.

The Geocentric Universe

In the 4th century B.C., Aristotle, the Greek philosopher proposed the geocentric theory of the
universe wherein the earth is the center of the universe surrounded by the stars, the sun, the
moon, and the other celestial entities. He also said that the universe is finite. Again, we know that
this theory was wrong.

The Geocentric-Heliocentric Theory

In the 4th century B.C. Heraclides, the Greek philosopher proposed another theory that combined
geocentric and heliocentric concepts. He said that the daily movement of the stars is due to the
rotation of the earth on its axis. The sun revolves around the earth taking one year to complete a
revolution. The other planets, he said, revolved around the sun.

The Stoic Philosophers

Around the 3rd century B.C., the Stoic philosophers talk of an ‘island universe’ defined by a
finite cosmos that is surrounded by an infinite emptiness (or void). This theory is syncretic with
the discovery of galaxies in the modern era.

The Earth is Round

In the 3rd century B.C., Eratosthenes, the Greek mathematician and philosopher, proved that our
planet was round and calculated its circumference and the tilt very accurately.

The Heliocentric Theory

In the third century B.C., Aristarchus of Samos, a Greek mathematician and philosopher, was the
first person to argue the heliocentric theory of our Solar System. He placed the sun at the center
of the universe as known to man at that point in time. He presented that the earth rotated on a
tilted axis completed one rotation in one day and revolved around the sun in a fixed, circular
orbit.

The Archimedes Principle

The legendary ‘Eureka’ moment in which it is believed that one of the greatest scientists of all
times (definitely of the ancient Greeks’ era) got up from his bath completely in the nude
screaming ‘Eureka’ because the idea of the law of buoyancy flashed to him in that instant. While
the legend behind the discovery could be a myth, the actual discovery is not. The principle of
buoyancy is, perhaps, the primary step towards marine industrialization and militarization what
with the invention of fabulous ships, submarines, and more.

The First Star Catalog

In 2 B.C., Hipparchus of Nicea, another Greek astronomer, compiled the first star catalog. The
modern theory of apparent magnitudes is based on this astronomer’s compilation.

More Support for the Heliocentric Theory

Seleucus of Seleucia, a Greek philosopher and astronomer of the second century B.C., supported
the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus of Samos and connected the influence of the moon on the
movement of the tides.

The Geocentric Theory Back in Action

Ptolemy, the famous Roman-Egyptian mathematician in 2 A.D., created and described in detail
the geocentric model founded on the ideas of Aristotle. He created a model in which all the
planets and stars and other heavenly bodies orbited around the earth. This theory remained the
accepted one for almost two millennia until the 16th century when Copernicus was able to prove
otherwise.

Ptolemy was also responsible for giving complex and detailed movement of the stars, planets,
and their planetary paths employing equants using which astronomers were able to predict and
foretell planetary positions.

A Little More on the Physics Theories about Our Cosmos

The Cosmic Egg (the Brahmand Theory) – The Rig Veda of Hinduism is an ancient text which
describes an oscillating or cyclical universe (cosmos) wherein all the elements of the universe
including stars, planets, moons, life forms, and everything else is concentrated in a single point
referred to as the Bindu. When this expands, the universe is manifested.

The Anaxagorean Cosmos – Anaxagoras, the 5th century B.C. Greek philosopher, proposed that
the original universe was a conglomeration of all its ingredients in minutely small proportions.
Moreover, this mixture was not a homogenous one and the amount of ‘ingredients’ varied from
place to place. The nous (or the mind) worked and churned these ingredients and separated them
out into differently manifested objects with varying properties, just like how we see it in the
material world, he said.

The Atomist Universe – Proposed by Democritus and Leucippus who founded the school of
Atomism, this theory of physics states that our entire universe or cosmos is made up of
extremely minute and indivisible particles (or building blocks) called atoms (from ‘atomos,’ the
Greek word for ‘uncuttable’)

The Aristotelian Cosmos – In the 4th century B.C., Aristotle set up the geocentric theory of the
universe wherein a round Earth was the center of the cosmos and all other heavenly bodies
revolved it. He is also credited with establishing four elements of nature including air, fire, water,
and earth all of which were held together through the use of two kinds of forces including:

! Gravity – the natural tendency of water and earth to sink or fall down
! Levity – the natural tendency of fire and air to rise

Aristotle also added a fifth element, the ether, which was what filled up the void in our cosmos
that existed above and outside the influence of our planet.
The Heliocentric Universe – As far back as the 3rd century B.C., there were scientists who
proposed the concept of the heliocentric universe, led by Aristarchus of Samos, who was the first
to explicitly argue in favor of a heliocentric model of our Solar System. Other scientists in the
ancient times who supported and favored the heliocentric model included:

! Seleucus of Seleucia who lived in the 2nd century B.C. in Greece

! Aryabhatta – the Indian mathematician and astronomer who lived in 5th century A.D. who
also describes the orbit of planets moving around the sun as being elliptical
! Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi – the Muslim astronomer from Persia of the 9th
century A.D

However, the geocentric model of Aristotle and Ptolemy ruled the roost for nearly two millennia!

Like the above, there were many more theories that were proposed about our universe including
the Stoic Universe. However, the geocentric theory proposed by Aristotle and firmly established
by Ptolemy was accepted as the orthodox standard until the time of Copernicus.
Chapter Two: Physics in the Medieval Ages
This chapter covers physics discoveries made after 5 A.D. until the Renaissance Period (around
the end of the 16th century).

Aryabhatta – 5 A.D.

This Indian astronomer and mathematician proposed the idea of our planet rotating on its own
axis. He also proposed the theory of elliptical orbits of the planets around the sun. Many
scientists associate this with the heliocentric concept of the universe.

The universe has a beginning

In the 6th century A.D., John Philoponus of Alexandria argues against some of the ancient
Greeks’ idea that our universe has been in existence from an infinite time. He argued that our
universe is finite and, therefore, it has a beginning.

The Force of Gravity

In the 7th century A.D., Brahmagupta, an Indian astronomer and mathematician and a follower of
Aryabhatta’s theory of planets moving around the sun on individual elliptical orbits, describes a
certain force existing between the sun and the earth which he calls the force of attraction.
Brahmagupta describes this force of attraction in his work, ‘The Opening of the Universe’
written in 628 A.D. In fact, his work has had a profound influence on the study and discoveries
of physics and astronomy done later on in the Islamic world.

The Heliocentric Model Returns

Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, the Persian astronomer and mathematician, creates
a model of our solar system based on heliocentricity.

The Cosmos is Finite Again

Between the 9th and 11th centuries, early Muslim and Jewish theologians such as Al-Ghazal, Al-
Kindi, and Saadia Gaon argue and offer logical explanations for the finiteness of our cosmos.

Using Exact Science and Experimentation Methods

During 11th century A.D., Ibn al-Haytham also called as Alhazen, an Arab mathematician and a
great scholar in other spheres of learning as well, uses scientific methods and applications as we
use them in our labs today. He is also referred to as the first scientist. He was the first man to
create hypotheses and then conduct verifiable experiments to prove and/or disprove the
hypotheses. He is credited with having invented the pinhole camera. In fact, the first famous of
Newton's laws of motion was already in place given to the world by Alhazen.

The Earth’s Gravity

Abu al-Rayhan al-Birun, an 11th-century Persian astronomer, describes the concept of the earth’s
gravity as being the cause of pulling everything towards its center. He also presented his ideas on
the rotation of the earth on its own axis on a daily basis and the revolution of the earth around the
sun on an annual basis.

The Calculation of One Solar Year

Omar Khayyam, the Persian polymath in the 11th century A.D., calculated the solar year to be
365.242198.

The Heliocentric Model is here to Stay

In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus proved unequivocally the heliocentric model of our solar system.
He adapted the Maragha model of Ibn al-Shatir, an Arab engineer of the 14th century. The
Copernican principle is the insight that helped in creating an entirely new branch of science
under physics, cosmology, instead of it being included under metaphysics.

The Existence of Innumerable Stars

In 1576, Thomas Digges, an English astronomer, extrapolated Copernican principle and

presented the idea of the existence of innumerable stars that could extend to infinity as against
the fixed version of Copernicus’ idea.

Even the Solar System is not the Center of the Universe

In 1584, Giordano Bruno, the Italian philosopher, went even further and said that even our solar
system is not the center of the universe. Our sun is only an insignificant star among billions of
other stars that exist in the cosmos.
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Chapter Three: Physics in the Early Modern Era
This chapter deals with physics discoveries from the 17th century until the end of the 19th century.

Laws of Planetary Motion

In 1605, Johannes Kepler, established the three laws of planetary motion that cast in stone the
theory of elliptical orbits of the planets moving around the sun

The First Astronomical Telescope

In 1610, Galileo developed the first working astronomical telescope which was powerful enough
to identify Jupiter’s moons, the different phases of Venus, and the sunspots on the sun. All these
discoveries were aligned to the heliocentric model of our solar system and brought the geocentric
model crashing down.

The Law of Inertia

In 1613, Galileo used the inclined plane experiment to create the first inkling into the law of
inertia, which was incorporated by Newton as his first law of motion.

Snell’s Law

In 1621, also called Snell-Descartes law is related to light and refraction and describes the
relationship between the rays (and angles) of incidence and refraction.

The Principle of Relativity

In 1632, Galileo described the Principle of Relativity.

The Infinite Universe

In 1633, Rene Descartes outlines a model for an infinite and static cosmos made up of corpuscles
of matter (similar to the school of atomism of the ancient Greeks). The empty space in the
cosmos model of Descartes is filled with swirling whirlpools of really fine ethereal matter that
produce some kind of force of attraction (which we later know to be gravitation)

All Objects Will Fall at the Same Speed

In 1638, Galileo demonstrated that all objects irrespective of their masses fall to the ground at
the same speed. All falling objects have the same constant acceleration, an effect of the earth’s
gravity.

Pascal’s Law

In 1660, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, established a law regarding how pressure is
transmitted in a fluid, which is the underlying principle for various instruments that are in use
even today including the hydraulic jack and hydraulic press.
Light is Made up of Particles

In 1675, Sir Isaac Newton, the English physicist, argues that light is also matter that is made up
of particles

Speed of Light is Finite

In 1676, Ole Romer, a Danish physicist, was able to demonstrate that the speed of light is finite
which led to the postulate that it does travel instantaneously. Romer used the eclipses of Jupiter’s
moon to arrive at this finite speed of light.

The Principia

In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his now-famous paper, Principia, in which he describes the
following:

! The three laws of motion

! The Universal law of gravitation
! A steady, static, and infinite universe in which matter (on a large scale) is uniformly
distributed
! Motion of heavenly objects can be described by using the same set of laws of motion used on
the ground

The Hierarchical Universe

In 1734, Emmanuel Swedenborg, a Swedish philosopher and scientist, proposes a hierarchical

universe. Although it is largely based on the Newtonian universe that is static, steady, and
infinite, the difference is that of matter. Emmanuel Swedenborg proposed that matter is clustered
on scales of hierarchy and is recycled endlessly. This idea of a nebular universe has been studied
and developed further by Immanuel Kant (1775) and Thomas Wright (1750).

Groupings of Stars

In 1761, Johann Heinrich Lambert supported the concept of a hierarchical universe. He also puts
forth another hypothesis that the stars close to our sun form a group that travels and moves
together throughout the Milky Way. He added that there are many such star groupings all over
our galaxy.

The Laws of Electrostatic Attraction

In 1779, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a French physicist and military engineer, established the
laws of electrostatic attraction. He invented and built very sensitive instruments to measure the
electrostatic forces of attraction and repulsion. Coulomb is also credited with inventing the
torsion spring.

The First Idea of a Black Hole

In 1783, John Mitchell, a British astronomer spoke of an object so huge and massive that even
light will not be able to withstand its gravitational pull. This idea has since been named as the
black hole. John Mitchell was of the view that this huge object would not be visible directly, but
its effect can be felt by the movements of other companion stars and celestial objects that are part
of this celestial system.

In the year 1795, Pierre-Simon Laplace proposed a similar idea independently and without being
influenced by John Mitchell.

The Law of Conservation of Mass

In 1789, Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, a French chemist formally formulated the law of

conservation of mass. However, it must be noted here that this was not something new. Scientists
in the earlier eras including those from ancient Greece like Epicurus, medieval scientists like
Mikhail Lomonosov, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Henry Cavendish, Joseph Black, and Jean Ray had
similar ideas documented already.

The Light is a Wave

In 1803, Thomas Young demonstrated that light is not a particle as proposed by Sir Isaac Newton
but a wave. He used the double-slit experiment to prove his theory.

The Atomic Theory

In 1805, John Dalton developed and proposed the atomic theory wherein he said that all elements
are made up of indivisible minute particles called atoms that are unique to the element. While
they cannot be destroyed and they are immutable, they can combine together to form complex
structures.

Law of Electric Resistance

In 1827, George Simon Ohm, a German physicist discovered the existence of electric resistance
and established the Ohm’s law.

Photography on Paper

In 1835, William Talbot, an English polymath, is credited with having taken photographs on
paper for the first time.

Work on Electromagnetism

In 1839, Michael Faraday did extensive research on electromagnetism and he established that
divisions that seem to exist between different types of electricity are only illusory. He also
confirmed that magnets affect light rays and there is a connection between the two.

Life Cannot Come From Non-Living Matter

In 1861, Louis Pasteur conducted many experiments through which he was able to prove that
fungi and bacteria cannot appear on their own in any nutrient-rich environment. This theory was
a complete contradiction of the belief at that time which held that life could spontaneously
happen from non-living matter.

Light, Electricity, And Magnetism Are All Different Forms of Electromagnetism

In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell was able to demonstrate that magnetic and electric fields travel
through space at the same constant speed as light and in the form of waves. He also said that
light, electricity, and magnetism are all but varying forms of electromagnetism. He also collected
and formulated in a formal way the various laws originally derived and proposed by André-
Marie, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Michael Faraday.

Discovery of X-rays

In 1695, Wilhelm Roentgen, the German physicist discovered the X-rays. This is a traditionally
accepted driven by the intense amount of study he did on the subject and the nomenclature he
gave to it although he was not the first one to observe its effects.

Radioactivity

In 1896, Henri Becquerel saw that some types of matter could emit radiation of their own. This
was the beginning of the discovery of radioactivity.

The Discovery of the Electron

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the electron, the first sub-atomic particle to be discovered.
Chapter Four: Physics in the Later Modern Era
This chapter is dedicated to physics discoveries made during the period 1900 until 2000.

The Beginning of Quantum Physics

In 1900, Max Planck described an idea that light could be emitted in discrete frequencies, also
referred to as, ‘quanta.’ He calculates and establishes the value of the Planck’s constant, which
described the value of these discrete frequencies. This was the start of the concept of Quantum
Physics.

First Successful Wireless Telegraph

In 1901, Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian inventor, developed and sent the first successful
commercial transatlantic wireless broadcast through telegraphy. It was the culmination of years
of research and work done by many other physicists and scientists in this realm.

The Photoelectric Effect and Quanta of Light

In 1905, Albert Einstein elicited the connection between the concept of quanta of light and the
photoelectric effect. Einstein showed that quanta of light (or photons) are absorbed by bodies
resulting in the photoelectric effect. This experiment was an important milestone in the history of
physics discoveries, which helped us understand the nature of electrons and light in a better way
than before. Moreover, this experiment also influenced the wave-particle duality theory in
Quantum Theory.

The Special Theory of Relativity

In 1905, transferring the Theory of Relativity of Galileo from mechanics to physics, Albert
Einstein introduced the Special Theory of Relativity, which states that the speed of light is
constant for all observers on an inertia mode and is not dependent on their state of motion.

E=mc2

In 1905 again, Albert Einstein published his paper on the derivation of mass-energy equivalence
and the famous E=mc2 came into the realm of Physics.

The Four-Dimensional Space

In 1907, Hermann Minkowski showed that the best way to understand the concept of Einstein's
Special Theory of Relativity is to do so in a four-dimensional space in which the concepts of
space and time are not disparate from each other and instead, intermingle to the form the 4D
space.

The Planetary Model of the Atom

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford, the New Zealand chemist, established the planetary model of the
atom for the first time. The model consisted of a central nucleus, which had electrons orbiting it
much like the planets revolving around the sun. For this, Rutherford uses the experiments of
1909 conducted by Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger.

The Schwarzschild Radius

In 1915, before Einstein could even publish his theory of field equations, Karl Schwarzschild, a
German physicist, offers the precise solution for one limited case of a non-rotating, single,
spherical mass, which was referred to as the Schwarzschild radius. The Schwarzschild Radius
defines the event horizon of a black hole.

General Theory of Relativity

In 1916, Einstein published his paper on the General Theory of Relativity which combines
Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation and his own special relativity theory. He describes
gravity to be a phenomenon borne from the effects of curvature of 4D space-time warps. He
states that objects like planets fly on account of their own inertia through a warped 4D space-
time. They take a curved path because it is the shortest possible path that can be taken in the
warped 4D space.

The Beginnings of the Discovery of the Worm-Hole

In 1916, Ludwig Flamm, an Austrian physicist, studied the solutions to Einstein’s field equations
given by Schwarzschild. Based on these solutions, he said that it is theoretically possible for
some sort of invisible link to exist between distinct between two disparate regions of space-time.
This was later to be called wormholes.

The Cosmological Constant

In 1917, Einstein introduced the cosmological constant into his General Theory of Relativity. He
was trying to explain how the entire universe operates and, strangely, believed it to be his biggest
mistake. However, there are new discoveries made today which seem to point in the exact same
direction of the cosmological constant theory that Einstein had about a century ago.

The Discovery of the Proton

In 1919, Ernest Rutherford discovered the presence of protons in the nucleus of an atom. He
noticed their presence when he saw the signatures left behind by hydrogen nuclei when alpha
particles were bombarded into nitrogen gas. This was the experiment in which Ernest Rutherford
was the first one to successfully transmute two elements together through the use of a deliberate
nuclear reaction set off artificially.

More Evidence in Support of the General Theory of Relativity

In 1919, Arthur Eddington, the English physicist, confirms the deflection of starlight because of
Sun’s gravity. Eddington used his eclipse measurements to confirm this theory that was predicted
in Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.

The Fifth Dimension

In 1919, Theodor Kaluza, a German mathematician, argues in favor of adding a fifth dimension
to Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. This theoretical fifth dimension was a precursor to a
superstring theory (which came much later) in an attempt to combine quantum theory and
general relativity. A similar fifth element idea was proposed again in 1926 by Oskar Klein, a
Swedish physicist.

The Beginning of Life

In 1922, Alexander Oparin, a Russian biochemist theorizes that life started off in a primeval soup
somewhere between 3.9 and 3.5 million years ago. He postulates that chemical reactions in this
primeval soup resulted in minute organic molecules, which later reorganized themselves into
larger and more complex molecules, which became the basis of life.

The Oscillating Theory of the Universe

In 1922, Alexander Friedmann, a Russian mathematician and cosmologist, again worked with
Einstein’s field equations of general relativity and discovered the expanding universe solution to
them. An answer to a universe that has a positive curvature or a spherical shape results in a space
that is alternately expanding and contracting (because of the pull of its own gravity).

The solution discovered by Friedmann translates to a universe that is expanding for a period of
time and then contracting (because of its own gravitational pull). This sets up a perpetual cycle of
the Big Bang and the Big Crunch alternately. Now, this theory is known as the oscillating theory
of the cosmos

The ‘Great Debate’ Settlement

In 1925, Edwin Hubble, the American astronomer, conclusively proved that nebulae like the
Andromeda Nebula are too far away from us to be part of our galaxy. He proposed that these
nebulae are galaxies in their own right thereby reaching a settlement for the ‘Great
Debate’ (regarding the nature of spiral nebulae) and about the size of our universe.

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

In 1925, Wolfgang Pauli, the Austrian physicist, established an important theorem in the realm of
Quantum Mechanics. He said that no two identical fermions (or subatomic nuclear particles like
the neurons or the electrons) might simultaneously occupy the same quantum space. This
theorem is called as the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

The Uncertainty Principle

In 1926, Werner Heisenberg, the German physicist, establishes the Uncertainty Principle, which
postulates that it is not possible to precisely know the value of both variables in certain pairs. He
says that in such pairs the more precise knowledge is available for one of the pairs, the less
precise is the knowledge of the value of the other pair. This is one of the central ideas of
Quantum Physics.

The Schrodinger Equation

In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger, an Austrian physicist, published the Schrodinger equation (though
the name became famous later on and not during the publication of the paper). This was another
huge breakthrough in the history of Quantum Physics. In 1935, the same Schrodinger proposed a
paradoxical thought experiment called the ‘Schrodinger’s Cat’ regarding quantum entanglement,
superposition, and decoherence.

The Theory of the Expanding Universe

In 1927, Georges Lemaitre, a Belgian physicist and a Roman Catholic priest, proposes the theory
of the Expanding Universe. This was followed by the first definite version of the Big Bang
Theory in 1931 regarding the origin of our universe.

The Existence of Antimatter

In 1928, Paul Dirac, the British physicist, describes the spinning of elementary particles likes the
electrons. This spinning description is aligned both with the principles of the Special Theory of
Relativity and Quantum mechanics. This discovery led him to predict the existence of antimatter.

The Raman Effect

In 1928, C.V.Raman, an Indian physicist, published the paper now called the Raman Effect in
which he described how wavelengths of light changed on being deflected by molecules.

The Expanding Universe Theory Gets More Support

In 1929, Edwin Hubble definitely demonstrated that all galaxies in our universe are moving
away. He used the Hubble Law to demonstrate this theory in a definitive way. Therefore, he was
able to prove that our universe is not static but is expanding.

The Discovery of the Neutron, the Positron, and Splitting of the Atom

In 1932, James Chadwick, the English physicist, discovered the neutron. In the same year, Carl
Anderson, the American physicist, identified the presence of positron or the anti-electron (as
predicted by Paul Dirac in 1928). John Croft, the British physicist, and Ernest Walton, the Irish
physicist, were able to transmute lithium into other chemical elements such as helium by using
the power of high-energy protons. This process is called as the ‘splitting of the atom.’

The Theory of Supernova

In 1934, many discoveries and theories were proposed including:

! Fritz Zwicky, the Swiss-American astronomer, and Walter Baade, the German-American
astronomer, coined the name, supernova.
! They also hypothesized that these supernovas are transitions of neutron stars from normal
stars.
! They also theorized the origin of the cosmic rays.
! The concept of dark matter (or the unseen matter) in the universe was also deduced by Fritz
Zwicky by using the virial theorem.
! He discovered the effect of gravitational lensing.

The Einstein-Rosen Bridge

In 1935, Albert Einstein working together with Nathan Rosen, the Israeli physicist, finds a
solution to Einstein’s field equations referred to as the Einstein-Rosen Bridge or the Lorentzian
wormhole of the Schwarzschild wormhole.

The Chandrasekhar Limit

In 1935, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, an Indian-American physicist, established the

Chandrasekhar Limit (roughly about 1.4 solar masses). Above this limit, a star must necessarily
collapse towards becoming a neutron star instead of becoming a white dwarf.

Nuclear Fission Tests

In 1939, the Berlin experiments conducted by Otto Frisch, Fritz Strassmann, Lise Meitner, and
Otto Hahn resulted in the discovery of nuclear fission.

The Steady State of the Universe

In 1948, Fred Hoyle, the English astrophysicist and Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, two
Austrian astrophysicists, proposed a cosmos theory that was very different from the Big Bang
theory. They called it the steady state of the universe. In this concept, they proposed that our
universe has neither beginning nor end and it is expanding continuously. However, as expansion
takes place, new matter is created and put into the universe so that its density is maintained
constant and there is no change in its profile over time.

The Miller-Urey Experiments

In 1953, two American biochemists, Harold Urey and Stanley Miller, try to support the
beginning of life as hypothesized by Alexander Oparin through chemical reactions in the
primeval soup. The Miller-Urey experiments demonstrated that it is feasible for basic organic
monomer like amino acids to be formed by intensely reducing a mixture of gases.

The Spinning Black Hole

In 1965, Roy Kerr, a New Zealand mathematician, discovered solutions to Einstein’s field
equations which described a black hole that was spinning. He argues that such spinning black
holes are very likely to be common elements found all over the universe.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias, two American astronomers discovered one of the most
important evidence in favor of the Big Bang Model. They found the existence of cosmic
microwave background radiation. This discovery effectively disproved Hoyle and his team’s
theory of a steady state universe.

Matter-Antimatter Postulates and Parallel Universes

In 1966, Andrei Sakharov, a Russian scientist laid out three conditions that are necessary for the
imbalance that exists between matter and antimatter. He also postulates theories about parallel
universes.

Evidence of Life in Outer Space

In 1966, the Murchison meteorite fell on Australia, which contained a lot of organic compounds
including amino acids, which are considered to be the basis of life on earth. It added credence to
the theory that life could have originated in outer space.

More about Black Holes

In 1970, a physicist duo consisting of Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose provided theorems
regarding space-time singularities, which indicated that black holes and singularities are a
generic aspect of general relativity. Stephen Hawking also predicted that black holes should emit
radiations (theoretically) continuously until all their energy is exhausted and they evaporate. This
radiation is referred to as Hawking radiation.

A New Model of the Universe

In 1980, Alan Guth, an American physicist, proposed a model of our cosmos that was based on
the Big Bang theory with a few changes to explain and solve the flatness and horizon problems
of the Big Bang theory. He postulated an initial short duration of exponential cosmic inflation to
explain the aberration.

The Scanning Tunneling Microscope

In 1980, Heinrich Rohrer, a Swedish scientist, and Gerd Binnig, a German scientist, invented the
Scanning Tunneling Microscope, which revealed that matter is made of spherical atoms that are
stacked row upon row.

The Advancement of the Cosmic Inflation Idea

In 1983, Andrei Linde, the Russian-American physicist, developed the cosmic inflation idea of
Guth and included his own theory of a chaotic inflation theory. This theory views our universe as
just one among multiple bubble universes developed as part of a huge ‘multiverse.'

The Advancement in the String Theory

Between 1984 and 1986, there were many discoveries made in the realm of the string theory
leading to the first superstring revolution. It was then realized by the physicist community that
the string theory could possibly explain all elementary particles and the interactions that take
place between them.

Shor’s Algorithm

In 1994, Peter Shor created an algorithm that changed the perception of quantum computers.
This algorithm revealed that quantum computers could do tasks at an exponentially faster rate
than the classic computer.

The M-Theory

In 1995, Edward Witten, an American theoretical physicist along with his team, developed the
M-theory, which sparked many more research studies on this subject. This phase is referred to as
the ‘second superstring theory.'

Universe Expanding at an Accelerated Rate

In 1998, Brian Schmidt and Nick Suntzeff, two Australian astrophysicists, and Saul Perlmutter,
an American astrophysicist, independently observed the Type 1a supernovas. They both
concluded that these distant supernovas are even further away than anticipated which suggests
that our universe is expanding at an accelerated rate.
Chapter Five: Physics at the Beginning of the 21st century and History of
Subatomic Particles
This chapter is dedicated to physics discoveries made in the 21st century and those that are work-
in-progress as well. The latter part of this chapter is dedicated to the discovery of subatomic
particles.

Extra-Solar Planets

In the last two decades, there have been nearly 1000 planets discovered that lie outside of our
solar system. Thanks to advanced observatories like COROT and Kepler, the rate at which we
are discovering new planets is quite staggering. The physicist communities believe that these
work-in-progress planet discoveries could possibly offer an alternate home in the far future.

Higgs-Boson Field

The discovery of the Higgs-Boson particle (or field) in 2012 have helped physicists, in particular,
and scientists, in general, understand the working of our world in a better way than before.

Quantum Error Correction

This is another discovery that has changed the way quantum computers can work. Managing
quantum data while battling the odds of decoherence is a huge deterrent in the way of quantum
computers. To be able to correct errors and keep fault-tolerance at minimal levels will go a long
way in finding great breakthroughs in quantum computing.

Topological Insulators

Until recently, we only knew of four phases of matter including solids, liquids, gases, and
plasmas. In 2006, topological insulators were discovered which throws up a multitude of options
with regard to physical systems. With some very unique properties, these topological insulators
could change the way the electronics world will work in the future while helping us
understanding fundamental physics in a better way than before.

Bose-Einstein Condensates

Another quantum physics-related discovery, these BECs could counter the limits of the
Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg.

Quantum Teleportation

Using laser lights, there is a theory that is being developed wherein by employing offbeat classic
and quantum resources it might be possible to teleport quantum states across the universe. This
hypothesis states that the only restriction will be the ability to send pulses of laser lights!

History of Subatomic Particles

Similar to finding the expanding universe fascinating as more and more celestial objects were
found as astrophysicists went farther away into the cosmos, the same way as physicists and
scientists dug deeper and deeper into atoms, they continue to discover new subatomic particles.
So, it makes sense to build a small sub-chapter on the history of the discoveries of subatomic
particles. So, here goes.

1801 – Discovery of ultraviolet radiation by J. W. Ritter when he noticed that silver chloride
changed from white to black at a faster rate when placed in a dark area of the solar spectrum.

1895 – Discovery of UV rays with wavelengths below 200nm, which were later on identified as
photons

1895 – Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays

1897 – While studying cathode ray properties, J. J. Thompson discovered electrons

1899 – With the help of the gold foil experiment, Ernest Rutherford discovered the alpha particle

1900 – Gamma rays were discovered by Paul Villard while he was experimenting with
radioactivity

1911 – The atomic nucleus was discovered by Ernest Marsden and Hans Geiger

1919 – Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford

1932 – Positrons were discovered by Carl D. Anderson when he was studying the energy
distribution of cosmic-ray particles.

1932 – James Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle, which remained anonymous
until later on when it found out that it was the neutron.

1936 – Discovery of a new negatively charged particle called muon by Carl Anderson and Seth
Neddermeyer

1946 – Discovery of the pi-meson (or the pion), a very heavy subatomic particle by C. F. Powell

1947 – A new and ‘strange’ particle was discovered by Clifford Charles Butler and George Dixon
Rochester called kaon

1947 – During the study of cosmic ray interactions, the first lambda or ^0 was discovered.

1955 – Antiproton was discovered by Thomas Ypsilantis, Clyde Wiegand, Emilio Segrè, and
Owen Chamberlain

1956 – The electron neutrino, a subatomic particle with no electric charge, was discovered by
Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines.
1962 – Muon neutrino, another kind of neutrino, was discovered by Jack Steinberger, Leon
Lederman, and Melvin Schwartz

1964 – The cascade baryon or the xi was observed for the first time at New York’s Brookhaven
National Laboratory

1974 - J/ψ, a flavor-neutral meson, was discovered by two research groups including one led by
Samuel Ting at Brookhaven National Laboratory and another led by Burton Richter at Stanford
Linear Accelerator Center

1975 – Lepton was discovered by Martin Perl, the American physicist

1977 – Led by Leon Lederman, Fermilab discovered Upsilon meson

1979 – German Electron Synchrotron, topnotch research firm engaged in particle physics in
Germany observed Gluon for the first time.

1983 – W and Z bosons were discovered by the Cern

1995 – The Top Quark was discovered by Physicists at Fermilab's Department of Energy

1995 – For the first time, CERN succeeded in artificially producing antihydrogen, hydrogen’s
antimatter counterpart

2000 – Tau neutrino was discovered by Fermilab

2011 – Antihelium-4, helium nucleus’ antimatter was detected by an international collaboration

team of STAR
Conclusion
Physics is not just a dry subject bordering on philosophy. It is a fascinating topic that covers
everything from the outreaching limits of the expanding universe to the deep depths of the yet-
to-be-completely known minute atom and includes the routine everyday aspects of life as well.

There is physics when you toast your slice of bread in the toaster. There is physics when you
cook food in your microwave. There is physics when you turn on the gas stove. There is physics
when you look out of the window and see the beautiful shadow patterns formed by the leaves of
the nearby tree. There is physics everywhere in this world and beyond.

Yes, it also covers philosophy considering the fact that a study in physics will invariably lead one
to the metaphysical aspects of our life, our planet, our galaxy way and this entire cosmos.
Another thing about learning any subject, especially those like physics which requires deep
insightful thoughts for improved learning, there are bound to be mistakes along the way.

What was once considered orthodoxy in science (for example, the geocentric theory of the
cosmos) gave way to new ideas that were brought to the fore opposing ideas with compelling
reason. However, the old thinkers cannot be regarded as wrong. They dug deep and found
thoughts and insights that answered questions of those times. As we evolved and new
information came to light, new thinkers had more power in their thinking and innovation went a
step further.

While trying to fit in all the details regarding the history of physics in a small book like this is
impossible, this attempt to collate as much as possible for the interested reader is only to kindle
the spirit of inquiry in the minds of readers.

I hope your interest is piqued enough through the reading of this book to start your own research
about the fascinating and amazing subject of Physics and learn more and read more about the
facts and discoveries.
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Resources

https://www.du.edu/nsm/departments/physicsandastronomy/whyphysics.html
https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/dates.html https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/
cosmological.html
https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/dates.html
https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/dates.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/17th-century-timeline-1992482
https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/dates.html
https://quantumfrontiers.com/2013/10/23/the-10-biggest-breakthroughs-in-physics-over-the-
past-25-years-according-to-us/
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/list-of-important-discoveries-in-
physics-1488521669-1
https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/timeline-discoveries-subatomic-particles-266857