Food Cravings The Role of Body Mass Index, Gender, and Affect

FOOD CRAVINGS: THE ROLE OF BODY MASS INDEX,
GENDER, AND AFFECT
Bridget L. Tribout, B.A., M.S.(R)
A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate

School of Saint Louis University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
2007
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FOOD CRAVINGS: THE ROLE OF BODY MASS INDEX,
GENDER, AND AFFECT
Bridget L. Tribout, B.A., M.S.(R)
An Abstract Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate

School of Saint Louis University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
2007
Abstract
Food cravings, defined as an intense desire to eat a specific food, constitute an
important and often neglected area of research. Research suggests that food cravings
may be associated with gender, body mass index (BMI), and affect and that the
strength of the association between food cravings and affect may vary according to
BMI and gender. Unfortunately, the food craving literature lacks studies that have
systematically examined these associations with instruments with known
psychometric properties. Therefore, a sample of 121 faculty and staff recruited from
a Midwest university participated in a study to test the following hypotheses: 1)
increasing BMI is associated with increases in food cravings, 2) women experience
more food cravings than men, 3) increasing negative affect is associated with
increases in food cravings, 4) BMI moderates the relationship between negative affect
and food cravings such that the relationship between negative affect and food
cravings is expected to be stronger among persons with higher BMIs, and 5) gender
moderates the relationship between negative affect and food cravings such that the
relationship between negative affect and food cravings is expected to be stronger
among women.
Results showed that food cravings were associated with BMI, negative affect,
and gender. For women, increases in BMI as well as increases in negative affect were
associated with increases in food cravings. Women reported greater food cravings
than men, even when menstrual phase was statistically controlled. In addition, the
relationship between negative affect and food cravings appeared to be stronger for
women than for men and for women with higher BMI’s than for women with lower
BMI’s. This study was among the first to systematically examine individual
differences in food cravings and associated characteristics, thereby paving the way for
future mechanistic and longitudinal studies. Although not all hypotheses were fully
supported, results suggest that negative affect and food cravings may be related to
weight control problems among women and that food cravings may be related to
weight control problems among men.
COMMITTEE IN CHARGE OF CANDIDACY:
Assistant Professor Jillon S. Vander Wal

Chairperson and Advisor
Professor Eddie M. Clark
Professor Michael J. Ross
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables........................................................................................................................... iv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.................... 1
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Challenges with Food Craving Research....................................................... 2
Food Cravings and Eating Pathology....................................................... 3
Food Cravings and Body Mass Index.................................... 4
Food Cravings and Affect............................................................................... 6
Food Cravings and Gender............................................................................. 7
Objectives of the Present Study...................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Participants......................................................................................................11
Measures.........................................................................................................11
Procedures........................ 16
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
Introduction......................................... 21
Food Cravings and BMI................................................................................ 25
Food Cravings and Gender........................................................................... 31
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of BMI.............................. 33
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of G ender.........................48
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
Objectives...................................................................................................... 55
Food Cravings and BMI.................................................................................55
Food Cravings and Gender........................................................................... 56
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of BMI........................ 57
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of Gender.........................58
Strengths of the Study................. 59
Limitations of the Study................................................................................ 60
Directions for Future Research.....................................................................60
Conclusions.................................................................................................... 61
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Demographic Questionnaire................................................... 62
Appendix B: Validation Questions...............................................................63
Appendix C: Food Craving Inventory......................................................... 64
Appendix D: Eating Inventory...................................................................... 65
Appendix E: Trait Version Food Cravings Questionnaire..........................70
Appendix F: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded F orm .....74
Appendix G: Short Affect Intensity Scale................................................... 75
Appendix H: Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale......... 76
ii
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................... 77
Vita Auctoris........................................................................................................................... 80
iii
LISTS OF TABLES
Table 1: Sample Characteristics.......................................................................................22
Table 2A: Descriptive Statistics for Measures of Food Cravings ..........................23
Table 2B: Descriptive Statistics for Measures of Affect.................................... 24
Table 3A: Partial Correlations between BMI and Measures of Food Cravings for
both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.............................................26
Table 3B: Partial Correlations between BMI and Measures of Food Cravings for
Men, Controlling for Time since E atin g .......................................................... 26
Table 3C: Partial Correlations between BMI and Measures of Food Cravings for
Women, Controlling for Time since Eating, and Menses Phase ................... 27
Table 4A: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for BMI and Measures of Food
Cravings, for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating......................29
Table 4B: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for BMI and Measures of Food
Cravings, for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating.................................... 30
Table 4C: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for BMI and Measures of Food
Cravings, for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating,
and Menses Phase....................................................................... 30
Table 5: Point by Serial Correlations between Gender and Measures of Food

Cravings for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.......................31
Table 6: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Gender and Measures of Food

Cravings, for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating......................33
Table 7A: Partial Correlations between Affect and Measures of Food Cravings for
both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.............................................36
Table 7B: Partial Correlations between Affect and Measures of Food Cravings for
Men, Controlling for Time since Eating........................................................... 36
Table 7C: Partial Correlations between Affect and Measures of Food Cravings for
Women, Controlling for Time since Eating, and Menses Phase.....................37
Table 8A: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating............ 39
iv
Table 8B. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating 40
Table 8C. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.............. 41
Table 8D. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating..........................42
Table 8E: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating........................43
Table 8F: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating............................... 44
Table 8G: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating and Menses
Phase................................................................................ 45
Table 8H: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating and Menses
Phase.................................................................................................................... 46
Table 81: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating and Menses
Phase..................................................................................................................... 47
Table 9A: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating............ 49
Table 9B: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.........50
Table 9C: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating............... 51
Table 9D: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (CESD) comparing Gender effects, Controlling for Time since Eating
for Males and Time since Eating and Menses Phase for Females.................. 52
Table 9E: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) comparing Gender effects...................................................... 53
Table 9F: Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (AIM) comparing Gender effects........................................................... 54
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Food cravings, defined as an intense desire to eat a specific food, constitute an
important and often neglected area of research. Research on food cravings has been
hampered by the lack of a universal definition as well as by the use of multiple measures
for which psychometric information may be weak or unavailable. Although patterns of
association among food cravings and body mass index (BMI), gender, and affect have
been reported in the literature, these patterns are evidenced only after assembling reports
from various literatures employing an assortment of instruments and operational
definitions of food cravings. The present study will systematically examine these
associations across a set of food craving measures with known psychometric properties.
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Challenges with Food Craving Research
Conducting food craving research has been problematic due to the lack of a
universal definition (Weingarten & Elston, 1990). For example, Weingarten and Elston
(1991) defined food cravings in their Craving Questionnaire as “an intense desire to eat a
specific food” (p. 174). Gendall, Joyce, Sullivan, and Bulik (1998) defined a food craving
as “a strong motivation to go out of ones’ way (if necessary) to obtain a specifically
desired food” (p. 353). Hill, Weaver, and Blundell (1991) defined food cravings as “a
strong urge to eat a particular food” (p. 188), and White Whisenhunt, Williamson,
Greenway, and Netemeyer (2002) defined food cravings in their research as “an intense
desire to consume a particular food (or food type) that is difficult to resist” (p. 109). A
common discrepancy among food craving definitions is the use of ambiguous references
regarding the intensity of the craving such as, “go out of one’s way,” “strong urge,” or
not indicating an intensity level at all (Cepeda-Benito, Fernandez, & Moreno, 2003;
Gendall et al., 1998; Lafay et al., 2001).
Varying definitions of food cravings have been found to significantly influence
prevalence rates. For example, Gendall and colleagues (1997) found that when
participants were asked if they had ever experienced a food craving, 58% said yes;
however, fewer participants, as low as 4%, reported experiencing cravings when they
were presented with more detailed definitions such as, have you experienced a food
craving that was “moderate” to “strong” in intensity, or have you experienced an “intense
craving” and experienced “anxiety or discomfort when abstaining from eating the craved
food” (p. 67). Although food craving definitions vary, there are some similarities. The
majority of food craving definitions in the literature indicate that food cravings involve a
desire to consume a particular type of food. The present study will use Weingarten and
Elston’s (1991) definition of food cravings, “an intense desire to eat a specific food”
(p.174).
The lack of a universal definition of food cravings makes the objective of
measuring this construct a difficult task. Food cravings are often measured using self-
report questionnaires. These self-report instruments vary in the way they measure food
cravings; for example, some use multiple item instruments with Likert scales and others
use visual analogue scales (VAS) to quantify and describe participants’ food cravings. In
addition, researchers often develop their own food craving measures and/or have their
participants keep cravings journals (Gendall et al., 1998; Hill et al., 1991). The reliability
o f these measures varies as well. Several of the multi-item questionnaires, such as the
Food Craving Inventory (FCI; White et al., 2002) and the Eating Inventory (El; Stunkard
& Messick, 1985), have been found to have adequate internal consistency and test-retest
reliability. However, other measures, such as the Craving Questionnaire (Harvey, Wing,
& Mullen, 1993) and the Conceptual Food Craving Scale (Hill et al., 1991), are lacking
psychometric data on their reliability and validity. The lack of a universal definition of
food cravings, coupled with various methods of measurement, hamper further study of
this construct.
Food Cravings and Eating Pathology
Despite these research challenges, studies suggest that most individuals
experience food cravings (Parker, Kamel, & Zellner, 2003); however, some research
suggests that individuals with eating pathology may experience food cravings differently
than those without pathological eating behaviors. For example, food cravings have been
found to be antecedents to binge eating for individuals with bulimia nervosa and binge
eating disorder (Gendall et al., 1998; White & Grilo, 2005). In a study investigating cue-
elicited food cravings, researchers found a significant association between cue-elicited
food cravings and binge eating behaviors (Sobik, Hutchison, & Craighead, 2005). Sobik
and colleagues (2005) found that as female participants’ cravings increased after the food
cue, so did the frequency of binge eating behaviors they reported. Research has also
revealed that individuals who binge eat are more likely to experience food cravings when
they are not hungry compared to people who do not engage in binge eating behaviors
(Mussell, et al., 1996; Waters, Hill, & Waller, 2001). For example, Waters et al. (2001)
revealed that participants were more likely to report binge eating after experiencing a
food craving when they were more tense but less hungry. However, Sobik et al. (2005)
reported that female participants with more tension had lower BMIs. They suggested that
this finding may imply that women who experience more tension in the presence of food
may engage in more restrictive eating and therefore have lower BMIs. The role of tension
in the relationship between eating pathology and food cravings is unclear. Furthermore,
Carter and colleagues (1996) found that women with bulimia nervosa felt less confident
in their ability to resist indulging in a food craving than women who did not have bulimia
nervosa.
Food Cravings and Body Mass Index
In addition to pathological eating behaviors, research suggests that there may be
an association between experiencing food cravings and having a higher BMI. Sobik et al.
(2005) suggest that the association between food cravings and BMI may differ for men
and women. In their study, they found that female participants reported experiencing
more food cravings and having higher BMIs than male participants. Lafay et al. (2001)
discovered that female cravers’ total daily energy intake on average was 110 kcals higher
than female non-cravers. As mentioned earlier, Sobik et al. (2005) discovered that
decreases in cravings were related to both lower BMIs and to lower levels of binge eating
behavior. Moreover, Gendall and colleagues (1998) revealed that food cravers who binge
eat were heavier as well as more likely to meet criteria for bulimia nervosa than cravers
who did not binge. Furthermore, it appears that those with higher BMI’s may crave
certain types of foods such as salty foods, especially those with high flavor intensity
(Rodin, Mancuso, Granger, & Nelbach, 1991).
Research suggests that dieting may also influence the relationship between BMI
and food cravings. For instance, Pelchat (1997) found that dieters had significantly higher
BMIs than non-dieters and reported experiencing more food cravings; however, when
BMI was used as a covariate, differences in food cravings between dieters and non
dieters become non-significant. Harvey et al. (1993) conducted a study investigating
obese participants with type two diabetes, who were either placed on a low calorie diet
(LCD) or on a very low calorie diet (VLCD). Participants placed on the VLCD compared
to those on the LCD reported a greater decrease in food cravings for the categories of
low-fat protein foods and for complex carbohydrates. Furthermore, there was a tendency
for those on the VLCD to lose more weight than participants assigned to the LCD.
Finally, Delahanty, Meigs, Hayden, Williamson and Nathan (2002) found, in a
population of individuals who were overweight or obese and had diabetes, that binge
eating severity, food cravings, and dietary restraint explained 15% of the variance in
BMI. Moreover, when a stepwise regression model was adjusted for age, sex, race-
ethnicity, and diabetic center from which the participants came, binge eating severity and
food cravings remained significant and the effect of dietary restraint was reduced,
suggesting that food cravings account for a significant amount of variance in BMI above
and beyond eating pathology.
Food Cravings and Affect
Researchers have also discovered an association between food cravings and
mood. Research participants with higher levels of psychological distress have been
found to experience more food cravings than research participants reporting lower levels
of psychological distress (Gendall, Sullivan, Joyce, Fear, & Bulik, 1997; Gendall et al.,
1998; Ghiz & Chrisler, 1995). For example, Hill and colleagues (1991) found that cravers
in their study had higher rates of boredom and anxiety and that they were more likely to
report a dysphoric mood prior to experiencing a food craving than were non-cravers.
Gendall et al. (1997) revealed that as cravers reported an increase in the strength and
intensity of their cravings, they also reported experiencing higher levels of anxiety if they
were unable to eat the craved food. In a study investigating self-identified chocolate
addicts, results indicated that those who experienced strong cravings for chocolate had
significantly higher rates of depression, had higher rates of body shape dissatisfaction,
and reported more disordered eating symptomatology than those without strong cravings
for chocolate (Macdiarmid & Hetherington, 1995). Some investigators have also found
that during certain phases of the menstrual cycle, women experience higher rates of food
cravings and negative mood (Dye, Warner, & Bancroft, 1995). For instance, Dye et al.
(1995) discovered that food craving ratings for the premenstrual phase were higher than
the postmenstrual phase for all levels of depression reported (i.e. none, mild, moderate,
severe); however, female participants with the most severe ratings of depression had the
highest mean ratings of food cravings for all phases of the menstrual cycle. Furthermore,
Dye and colleagues investigated the effects of relationship satisfaction and stress levels
on women’s food cravings. Their results indicated that women who experienced high
levels of stress and who were involved in an unhappy relationship reported the highest
levels of food cravings. However, women who reported being “very happy” in their
relationship reported the lowest level of food cravings despite their level of stress. It
appears that relationship satisfaction and/or stress may moderate the effects of stress on
women’s food cravings.
Food Cravings and Gender
The experience of food cravings appears to differ between the sexes. Women
have been found to experience food cravings almost twice as often as men (Cepeda-
Benito et al., 2003; Lafay et al., 2001; Pelchat, 1997; Weingarten & Elston, 1991). This
may partially be due to the high rate of women who report experiencing food cravings
during the pre-menstrual phase of their menstrual cycle (Dye et al., 1995). In North
America, women more often than men report craving sweets, in particular chocolate
(Zellner et al., 1999); however, this finding has not been found universally among all
women. Moreover, Lafay et al. (2001) found that the feeling associated with food
cravings most frequently quoted for men (40%) was relaxation and for women (40%) was
tiredness. In addition, women more often than men reported indulging in their cravings
when they were bored or depressed and when they were alone (Lafay et al.* 2001).
Furthermore, some researchers have found a relationship between food cravings and BMI
only for women but not for men (Sobik et al., 2005). As mentioned earlier, Lafay et al.
(2001) found that female cravers had higher total daily energy intakes than female non-
cravers. They also discovered that both female and male cravers consumed more simple
sugars and that they derived a higher proportion of their energy intake from between-
meal snacks. Moreover, both male (75.8%) and female (67.6%) cravers reported that their
food cravings were related to a “desire” and not a “need.” In addition, Lafay and
colleagues (2001) revealed that men reported being able to resist cravings more easily
than women. However, it is important to note that more women than men in their study
reported dieting and therefore they may have experienced more cravings due to hunger.
Additionally, because many commonly craved foods (i.e., sweet and savory) are
forbidden on most diets, the women may have craved a greater range of foods.
Furthermore, although men reported feeling more confident in their ability to resist a
craving, both the male and female cravers indicated that they indulged in their cravings
50% of the time (Lafay et al., 2001).
Objectives of the Present Study
The intent of the current study was to examine the relationships between food
cravings, BMI, gender, and affect. Although associations among food cravings and BMI,
gender, and affect have been reported in the literature, these reports have been assembled
from various literatures employing an assortment of instruments and operational
definitions of food cravings. No study has systematically examined these associations
across a single set of food craving measures. Some researchers have suggested that there
is a relationship between food cravings and individuals’ BMIs. Specifically, some
investigators have found that those with higher BMIs tend to experience more food
cravings (Gendall et al., 1998). The first objective of this study was to determine the
extent to which food cravings and BMI were associated and to determine whether
persons who were obese had more food cravings than did persons who were overweight
or average weight.
In addition to the association between food cravings and BMI, researchers have
also found an association between food cravings and gender. It appears that men and
women may experience and respond to food cravings differently (Lafay et al., 2001). The
second objective was to measure the strength of the association between food cravings
and gender and to determine whether men and women differed in their food cravings.
Researchers have also found a relationship between food cravings, BMI, and
affect. Investigators have found that individuals with higher BMIs tend to experience
more food cravings (Gendall et al., 1998). Therefore, the third objective was to determine
the strength of the relationship between negative affect and food cravings and to
determine the extent to which BMI moderates this relationship. Furthermore, researchers
have discovered that women, more often than men, tend to associate negative moods with
experiencing food cravings (Lafay et al., 2001). Therefore, the fourth objective was to
determine the extent to which gender moderates the relationship between negative affect
and food cravings.
For the third and fourth objectives, the intent of the study was to investigate the
relationships among the above stated variables utilizing food craving variables that
matched the study’s operational definition of the term, “an intense desire to eat a specific
food” Weingarten and Elston (1991) (p.174). In addition, objectives three and four
included an exploratory investigation of an intense desire to eat, including planning food
consumption, preoccupation with food, and the physical state of hunger.
10
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Participants
Participants were recruited from the faculty and staff population at Saint Louis
University via email. A total of one hundred and eight-five participants completed the
survey; however, 64 did not meet inclusion criteria, which resulted in a final sample size
o f 121 participants. Involvement in the study was voluntary and participants had the
option of being enrolled in a lottery to win one of two $50 gift certificates for gasoline.
Participants interested in enrolling in the lottery were instructed to email their name to
foodcravingresearcher@vahoo.com. This ensured that participants’ names would not be
associated with their responses to the survey. To participate in the study, participants had
to be between the ages of 18 and 65 and could not endorse any of the following: being
pregnant or breastfeeding, gaining or losing 10 or more pounds in the past 60 days, a
medication change within the past 60 days, diagnosis of a major systemic disease (e.g.
heart failure, cancer, autoimmune disease), uncontrolled diabetes, uncontrolled hyper- or
hypothyroidism, history of drug or alcohol abuse, or history of an eating disorder.
Measures
Demographic Questionnaire (Appendix A). On the Demographic Questionnaire,
various demographic characteristics of the participants were gathered including gender,
race, age, and highest level of education completed. In addition, participants were asked
about their dieting status as well as their current height and weight so that body mass
index (BMI; kg/m2) could be calculated. Because menstrual cycles have been found to be
associated with food cravings, women were asked to complete the survey during the two
weeks following the completion of their menses.
11
Validation Questions (Appendix B). A validation questionnaire was used to ask
participants to what extent they complied with the investigator’s instructions to not eat
two hours before completing the questionnaires. A validation question asked, “When did
you begin completing this survey?” The validation question had four answers from which
participants could choose, including, (a) 1 hour after completing a meal, (b) 2 hours after
completing a meal, (c) 3 hours after completing a meal, and (d) I did not pay attention to
the time o f my food intake prior to completing the survey. Participants who reported
answer choice “d” were not included in analyses. A second validation question asked
female participants the extent to which they followed the directions to complete the
survey during the two weeks following the completion of their menses. The validation
question had four answers from which participants could choose, including, (a) during
the first week following the completion o f my menses, (b) during the second week
following the completion o f my menses, (c) during the third week following the
completion o f my menses, and (d) I did not pay attention to the duration o f time that
lapsed since the completion o f my menses prior to completing the survey.
Food Craving Inventory (Appendix C). The Food Craving Inventory (FCI) was
developed by White, Whisenhunt, Williamson, Greenway, and Netemeyer (2002) to
measure specific food cravings. Craving was defined by White et. al. (2002) as a strong
desire for particular foods that is difficult to resist. This self-report questionnaire consists
of 28 items measuring the frequency of cravings for specific foods. The FCI consists of
four factors or subscales that measure food cravings for high fats, carbohydrates/starches,
sweets, and fast food fats, as well as a total score. There are eight items on the high-fats,
sweets, and carbohydrates/starches scales and four items on the fast-food fats scale.
12
Responses are provided on 5-point Likert scales that range from 1, never, to 5,
always/almost every day. The FCI is scored by generating means for each factor and the
total score is the mean of all items completed. Previous research indicates that the
internal consistencies for these factors range from .76 (fast food fats) to .93 (high fats;
White et al, 2002). In addition, White et al. (2002) reported that the two week test-retest
reliability for the subscales and total score were moderate ranging from .79
(carbohydrates/starches) to .91 (high fats).
Eating Inventory (Appendix D). Stunkard and Messick (1985) created the Eating
Inventory to assess dimensions of eating behavior. The Eating Inventory is a two-part
questionnaire with 36 true-false items in Part I, and 15 items with responses provided on
several different types of rating scales in Part II. The Eating Inventory has three factors:
(a) Cognitive Restraint o f Eating (21 items), (b) Disinhibition (16 items), and (c) Hunger
(14 items). Stunkard and Messick (1985) reported that the internal consistencies for
Factor I ranged from .79 to .93, for Factor II from .84 to .91, and for Factor III from .83
to .87.
Trait Version Food Cravings Questionnaire (Appendix E). The Trait Version of
the Food Craving Questionnaire (FCQ-T) is a 39-item self-report questionnaire that was
developed by Cepeda-Benito, Gleaves, Williams, and Erath (2000) to measure trait-based
food cravings. Responses are recorded on 6-point Likert scales ranging from 1, never/not
applicable, to 6, always. The FCQ-T measures 9 dimensions of food cravings found in
the research literature including: (a) an intention and plan to eat, (b) expectations of
receiving positive emotional rewards from eating, (c) anticipation of negative feelings
dissipating as a result of eating, (d) potential loss of control over food intake if food is
13
eaten, (e) perseverate about food, (f) physical states of craving, (g) feelings possibly
experienced prior or during food cravings or eating, (h) potential cues in the environment
that activate food cravings, and (i) the experience of remorse after undergoing a food
craving or giving into a food craving (Cepeda-Benito, et al., 2000, p. 154).
Cepeda-Benito et al. (2000) reported that the internal consistencies of the subscales
ranged from .81 to .94. In a sample of 109 adults, the FCQ-T three-week test-retest
reliability values ranged from .54 to .86 (Vander Wal, Johnston, & Dhurandhar, 2007).
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form (PANAS-X; Appendix F).
The PANAS-X was developed by Watson and Clark (1994) to measure two dimensions
of affect (i.e. positive and negative) as well as 11 specific affects: Fear, Sadness, Guilt,
Hostility, Shyness, Fatigue, Surprise, Joviality, Self-Assurance, Attentiveness, and
Serenity. This 60-item self-report measure consists of thirteen scales, one for each affect
dimension and one for each of the 11 specific affects. Responses are made on a 5-point
Likert scale ranging from 1, very slightly or not at all, to 5, extremely. In eleven studies
using both college and community samples, the median alpha reliabilities for the 11
specific affect scales were found to be moderate, ranging from .76 (Serenity) to .93
(Joviality; Watson & Clark, 1994).
Short Affect Intensity Scale (Appendix G). The Short Affect Intensity Scale was
developed by Geuens and De Pelsmacker (2002) to measure three areas of affect
including Positive Intensity (i.e., strong feelings of happiness, elation), Negative
Affectivity (i.e., negative emotions such as the feelings of anxiety or tension), and
Serenity (i.e., describing positive affect such as calm or being relaxed). The Short Affect
Intensity Scale is a brief version of the original 40-item Affect Intensity Measure (AIM),
14
developed in 1987 by Larsen and Diener. Correlational analyses were conducted between
the original and short version of the scale with three participant samples and the
correlations ranged from .93 to .94. The Short Affect Intensity Scale has 20 items and
consists of 3 scales, one for each of the affect dimensions. Responses are made on a 6-
point Likert scale ranging from 1 ,1 never feel like that, to 6 ,1 always feel like that. In a
study with 880 participants, consisting of college students and a community sample, the
alpha reliabilities for the total score and three affect scales where found to be moderate
ranging from .74 (Positive Intensity) to .88 (Total Score; Geuens & De Pelsmacker,
2002).
Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD; Appendix H). The
CESD is a 20-item self-report scale that was developed at the Center for Epidemiological
Studies in 1971 (Radloff, 1977) to measure depressive symptomatology in the general
population. The items on the scale survey somatic complaints, mood, motor functioning,
and interactions with others (Eaton, Muntaner, Smith, Tien, & Ybarra, 2004). The
response values are on a 4-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from 1,
rarely or none o f the time, to 4, most or all o f the time. Scores range from 0 to 60, with
higher scores indicating greater depressive symptomatology. People with scores of 16 or
greater are likely to have depression. Among community samples, internal consistency
estimates have ranged from .80 to .90; test-retest reliability, ranging from two weeks to
one year, has been reported to be between .40 and .70 (Devins et al., 1988; Radloff,
1977).
15
Procedures
Participants for the study were recruited through email. The email provided them
with a cover letter and recruitment statement about the study as well as a web link for
completing the online survey. The recruitment statement provided information about the
research project, explained that the study was about food cravings, stated that
involvement in the study was voluntary, and made requests for faculty and staff
participation. The recruitment statement also instructed individuals that to participate in
the study, participants must be between the ages of 18 and 65 and must not endorse any
of the following: being pregnant or breastfeeding, gaining or losing 10 or more pounds in
the past 60 days, a medication change within the past 60 days, diagnosis of a major
systemic disease (e.g. heart failure, cancer, autoimmune disease), uncontrolled diabetes,
uncontrolled hyper- or hypothyroidism, history of drug or alcohol abuse, or history of an
eating disorder. In addition, the email explained procedures for completing the online
survey, explained that responses to the survey were anonymous, and identified potential
risks that participants might endure from partaking in the study. This email also
instructed participants to complete the survey two to three hours after they completed a
meal and that snacks should not be consumed between meal completion and completion
of the survey. Female participants were instructed to complete the survey two weeks after
the completion of their menses.
All research surveys were provided online through Test Pilot. Measures provided
on the online survey network were presented in the following order: Food Craving
Inventory, Short Affect Intensity Scale, Eating Inventory, Positive and Negative Affect
Schedule-Expanded Form, Trait Version Food Craving Questionnaire, Center for
16
Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, Demographic Questionnaire, and then the
Validation Question. The measures were placed in this order to prevent participants from
becoming uninterested in completing the surveys due to repeated questions about the
same construct. A randomized or counter-balanced presentation was not possible in the
on-line format.
Results of participants’ responses to the questionnaires were loaded into a SPSS
database created by the primary investigator. Participants were given two weeks to
complete the online survey and to submit it electronically. In addition, they were
instructed to complete the survey without assistance from other individuals and to
complete the measures in the order provided.
Data Management. At the time of data collection, the individual surveys were
reviewed to ensure accuracy and completeness. An electronic copy of the data was stored
on the primary investigator’s personal computer and was password protected. No hard
copy o f the data exists. In addition, no identifying information, such as URLs, were
collected.
Preliminary Analyses. The data were sent by the online survey company to an
SPSS spreadsheet. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS version 11.5 with a
significance level of p < .05. Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations,
skewness, and kurtosis were computed for total scores and subscale scores in order to
describe the data, screen for outliers, check scoring, and ensure that the data did not
violate the assumptions of multivariate statistical techniques. Transformations were
employed as necessary.
17
Proposed Analyses. To test the first hypothesis that increasing BMI is associated
with increases in food cravings, Pearson and partial correlations were conducted. To
further explore the relationship between BMI and food cravings, a one-way analysis of
covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine the extent to which obese persons had
greater food cravings than overweight or average weight persons.
To test the second hypothesis that gender is associated with food cravings,
Pearson and partial correlations were conducted. To further explore the relationship
between food cravings and gender, a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was
used to determine the extent to which men and women experienced food cravings
differently.
To test the third hypothesis that negative affect is associated with specific food
cravings and multiple characteristics of food cravings, including planning food
consumption, preoccupation with food, and hunger, Pearson and partial correlations were
conducted. In the instance that negative affect and food cravings were significantly
related, a hierarchical regression, controlling for relevant covariates, was conducted to
determine the extent to which BMI moderated the relationship between negative affect
and food cravings using the methodology of Baron and Kenny (1986). Negative affect
was entered into the first step, BMI was entered into the second step, and the interaction
term between negative affect and BMI was entered into the third step. To the extent that
the interaction between negative affect and BMI was significant, the relationship between
negative affect and food cravings was found to be moderated by BMI.
In addition, a hierarchical regression, controlling for relevant covariates, was
conducted to determine the extent to which gender moderated the relationship between
18
affect and food cravings. Based on Baron and Kenny’s (1986) methodology for analyzing
dichotomous moderators, food cravings were regressed on negative affect separately for
women and men and the difference in the unstandardized regression coefficients was
tested. A significant difference suggested that gender served as a moderator.
Power Analyses. A power analysis was conducted to determine the requisite
number of subjects. A review of the literature was conducted to generate estimates of
effect size. The most power intensive proposed analysis was the test of moderation. In
this analysis negative affect, BMI, and their interaction term were used to predict food
cravings. A review of the literature showed that negative affect accounts for about 20
percent o f the variance in food craving frequency and intensity (Hill et al., 1991). This
review also showed that BMI accounts for between 3 and 9 percent of the variance in
food craving frequency and intensity (Hill et al., 1991). Assuming a desired power level
of .80, an alpha level of p < .05, that negative affect would account for approximately 20
percent of variance, and that BMI would account for approximately 4 percent of the
variance, a sample size o f 190 participants was found to ensure sufficient power to detect
an interaction effect that accounted for as little as 3 percent of the variance.
In the second moderation analysis, negative affect, gender, and their interaction
term were used to predict food cravings. As no studies had yet examined gender
differences on continuous measures of food cravings, a power analysis was not possible.
However, the assumptions underlying the percent of variance explained by BMI seemed
to provide a reasonable staring point.
To ensure that the sample size was sufficient to detect differences in food
cravings between men and women, a second analysis was conducted. Based on findings
19
from Weingarten and Elston (1991), showing that 97% of women versus 68% of men
reported food cravings, it was determined that a sample size of 30 per group would be
sufficient to detect a significant gender difference with a power of .86 and an alpha p <
.05. Power calculations were conducted with the use of SamplePower2.
20
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
Introduction
A total of one hundred and eighty-five participants completed the survey. O f the
185 who participated, 64 were excluded from analyses due to not meeting inclusion
criteria for the study, which resulted in a final sample size of 121 participants. Of the 64
participants who were excluded, one person did not indicate gender, five men and five
women reported not paying attention to the time that transpired between the last time they
ate and when they completed the survey, and 53 women indicated not paying attention to
the stage of their menses at the time they completed the survey. Table 1 shows the
demographic characteristics of the sample which consisted largely of middle aged,
Caucasian women, with at least a four year degree or greater, and who indicated they
were not actively participating in an organized weight loss program. Overall, the majority
of the participants (57.9%) were in the average weight range and approximately 26%
and 15% o f the sample were overweight or obese, respectively.
21
Table 1
Sample Characteristics (N = 121)
Variable N (%) or M (SD )
Age 36.7 (9.58)

Gender
Female 96 (79.3)
Male 25 (20.7)
Race
Native American 1 ( 0 .8 )
Asian 2 (1 .7 )
African American 4 (3.3)
Caucasian 105 ( 8 6 .8 )
Hispanic 7 (5.8)
Other 1 ( 0 .8 )
Education
GED/High School Diploma 2 (1 .7 )
1 to 2 years o f college 11(9.1)
3 to 4 years o f college 36 (29.7)
Masters 36 (29.8)
Doctorate or Professional Degree 36 (29.8)
Height (inches) 66.24 (3.37)
Weight (lbs.) 157.73 (38.24)
BMI 25.21 (5.06)
Average weight 70 (57.9)
Overweight 32 (26.4)
Obese 18(14.9)
Weight loss program
Yes 5(4.1)
No 116(95.9)
Descriptive statistics for each measure are presented in Tables 2A and 2B. For the
PANAS-X, two of its subscales, fear and guilt, were found to be positively skewed and
therefore transformations were completed. On average, participants appeared to crave
sweet foods more than other types of food. In addition participants endorsed greater
positive than negative affect.
Table 2 A
Descriptive Statistics for Measures o f Food Cravings
Variable Mean SD Range Alpha
FCI
(1) High Fat 1.57 0.43 1.5 .65
(2) Sweets 2.50 0.73 3.25 .81
(3) Carbohydrates 1.85 0.62 2.63 .79
(4) Fast Food Fats 2.33 0.76 3.00 .69
(5) Total 2.83 0.45 2 .1 1 .87
FCQ-T
( 1 ) Plan 8 .2 1 2.96 13 .81
(2) Positive 12.09 3.59 16 .78
(3) Negative 6.69 2.63 13 .82
(4) Control 13.65 6 .1 0 28 .93
(5) Thoughts 14.04 6.04 35 .93
( 6 ) Hunger 11.34 3.23 16 .67
(7) Emotions 10.40 4.55 19 .93
( 8 ) Environment 12.37 4.19 18 .82
(9) Guilt 7.22 3.14 13 .84
El
(1) Cognitive 8.59 3.56 15 .69
(2) Disinhibition 5.70 2.97 12 .67
(3) Hunger 4.76 3.13 13 .77
Note\ FCI = Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T = Trait Version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire; El =
Eating Inventory.
23
Table 2B
Descriptive Statistics for Measures o f Affect
Variable Mean SD Range Alpha
AIM
(1) Positive 26.60 6.61 37 .91
(2) Negative 2 1 .1 2 S.21 26 .91
(3) Serenity 23.04 4.42 23 .8 8
PANAS-X
(1) Positive 30.59 5.73 31 .8 6
(2) Negative 16.60 5.23 28 .84

(3) Fear 2 .8 6 0.44 1.91 .78
(4) Hostility 10.72 3.53 18 .79
(5) Guilt 2.62 0.58 2.27 .8 8
(6 ) Sad 8.43 3.72 19 .90

(7) Jovial 22.99 5.51 27 .91
( 8 ) Assured 14.67 4.09 22 .81
(9) Attentive 13.78 2.41 12 .79
(10) Shy 5.27 1.95 10 .78
(11) Fatigue 11.03 3.58 16 .89
(12) Serenity 9.36 2.29 11 .77
(13) Surprise 4.86 1.65 6 .67
CESD 8.57 7.98 39 .91
Note: AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale; PANAS-X = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-expanded
form; CESD= Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale.
Food Cravings and BMI
To test the first hypothesis that increasing BMI is associated with increases in
food cravings, correlational analyses were conducted. To control for participants’
responses regarding how soon after food consumption they completed the survey, which
varied from 1 to 3 hours, and womens’ reports of menstrual stage at the time of survey
completion, which varied from 1 to 3 weeks after menses, partial correlations using the
above responses as covariates were conducted. See Tables 3A-3C.
Table 3A presents partial correlations for both genders combined, controlling for
the time interval between food consumption and survey completion. Correlation analyses
revealed that increases in BMI were significantly correlated with an increase in food
cravings for high fat foods, (r = .35, p < .001). In addition, correlations indicated that
increases in BMI were significantly correlated with an increase in feelings of guilt related
to cravings and/or indulging in the craved food(s), (r = .29,p < .01). However, when
partial correlations were conducted separately for each gender, controlling for time of
food consumption for men, and controlling for time of food consumption and menstrual
stage for women, significant correlations between BMI and high fat food cravings and
between BMI and feelings of guilt related to food cravings were only found for female
participants, (r = .41, p < .001; r = .36,/? < .001), respectively. See Tables 3B and 3C.
25
Table 3A. Partial Correlations between BMI and Measures of Food Cravings for both
Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.__________________________________
Scale Subscales BMI
FCI
High Fats 35***
Sweets -.14
Carbohydrates -.12
Fast Food Fats .07
Total .03
FCQ-T
Plan .03
Positive .09
Negative .13
Lack of control .18
Thoughts -.08
Hunger -.05
Emotions .05
Environment .18
Guilt 29* *
Note\ FCI= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T= Trait Version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire.
**p <.01; *** p < .001
Table 3B. Partial Correlations between BMI and Measures of Food Cravings for Men,
Controlling for Time since Eating.
Scale Subscales BMI
FCI
High Fats .04
Sweets -.29
Carbohydrates -.23
Fast Food Fats .32
Total .25
FCQ-T
Plan .04
Positive -.13
Negative .05
Lack of control .20
Thoughts .19
Hunger -.35
Emotions .28
Environment .30
Guilt .09
Note: FCI= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T= Trait Version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire.
Table 3C. Partial Correlations between BMI and Measures of Food Cravings for Women,
Controlling for Time since Eating, and Menstrual Phase.___________________________
Scale Subscales BMI
FCI
High Fats 41 ***
Sweets -.05
Carbohydrates -.13
Fast Food Fats .16
Total .03
FCQ-T
Plan .08
Positive .19
Negative .21
Lack of control .15
Thoughts -.11
Hunger .00
Emotions .12
Environment .14
Guilt .36***
Note: FCI= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T= Trait Version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire. ***/?<.001
To further explore the extent to which obese persons had greater food cravings
than overweight or average weight persons, one-way analyses of covariance
(ANCOVA’s) were computed. The ANCOVA’s were used to examine the effect of BMI
on food cravings, with time of food consumption prior to survey completion and stage of
womens’ menstrual cycle at survey completion being treated as covariates. Univariate
analyses o f covariance were conducted for each of the dependent measures of food
cravings. See Table’s 4A-4C.
Table 4A reveals the results of the ANCOVA's for both genders combined,
controlling for the time interval between food consumption and survey completion. A
significant main effect for BMI was found for high fat foods, F(2, 115) = 9.60, p < .001.
Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means indicated that overweight
and obese individuals experienced greater cravings for high fat foods than average weight
persons (p < .01). A significant main effect for BMI was also found for the lack of
control subscale of the FCQ-T, which measures possible lack of control over eating if
food is eaten, F(2, 116) = 3.15,/? < .05. However, the Bonferroni pos hoc comparisons
tests were non-significant. Lastly, a significant main effect of BMI was found for the
guilt subscale of the FCQ-T, which measures feelings of guilt related to having food
cravings and/or indulging in food(s) craved, F(2,114) = 5.22, p < .01. Bonferroni post
hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means indicated that obese individuals experienced
greater feelings of guilt associated with food cravings than average weight persons (p <
.01 ).
Tables 4B and 4C present ANCOVA's for hypothesis one for each gender
separately. No significant main effects were found for the ANCOVA’s conducted on the
male sample. For the female sample, when time interval between eating and food
consumption and menstrual phase were used as covariates, a significant main effect for
BMI was found for high fat food cravings, F(2, 90) = 10.90,/? < .001. Bonferroni post
hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means indicated that overweight (/? < .01) and obese
(p < .001) women experienced greater cravings for high fat foods than average weight
women. No other significant main effects were found for BMI and specific food cravings.
A significant main effect for BMI was found for the positive trait subscale of the
FCQ-T, which measures anticipation of positive reinforcement that may result from
eating, F(2, 91) = 5.12,p < .03. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted
means indicated that obese women experienced more anticipation of positive
reinforcement from eating than average weight women (p < .05). A significant main
effect for BMI was also found for the negative trait subscale of the FCQ-T, which
measures anticipation of relief from negative states as a result of eating, F(2, 91) = 4.22,
28
p < .02. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means indicated that obese
women reported more anticipation of relief from negative feeling states than average
weight women (p < .05). Lastly, a significant main effect for BMI was found for the guilt
trait subscale of the FCQ-T, F(2, 89) = 6.42,/? < .002. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons
tests using adjusted means indicated that obese women experienced more feelings of guilt
related to their food cravings and/or indulging in their cravings than average weight
women (p < .01).
Table 4A. Analysis o f Covariance (ANCOVA) for BMI and Measures o f Food Cravings, for both Genders,
Controlling for Time since Eating.________________ ________________________________________________
Scale Subscale Average Overweight Obese F
M ±SE M +SE M ±SE
FCI
High Fats 1.43 ± 0.05 1.73 ± 0 .07 1.80 ± 0 .09 9.60***
Sweets 2.52 ± 0.09 2.61 ± 0.13 2.23 ± 0 .17 1.61
Carbohydrates 1.87 ± 0 .07 1.92 ±0.11 1.68 ± 0 .1 4 0.92
Fast Food Fats 2.27 ± 0.09 2.44 ± 0 .14 2.42 ± 0 .18 0.67
Total 2.81 ± 0.05 2.94 ± 0.08 2.77 ± 0.11 1 .2 2
FCQ-T
Plan 8.13 ± 0 .36 8.01 ± 0.53 8.89 ± 0.70 0.58
Positive 11.75 ± 0.43 12.19 ± 0 .64 13.23 ± 0.85 1 .2 0
Negative 6.29 ± 0.31 7.01 ± 0.46 7.67 ± 0.61 2.37
Control 12.48 ± 0.72 15.18 ± 1.07 15.44 ± 1.42 3.15*
Thoughts 14.35 ± 0.74 13.99 ± 1.08 12.94 ± 1.44 0.38
Hunger 11.26 ± 0 .39 11.81 ± 0 .58 10.80 ± 0 .76 0.61
Emotions 10.10 ± 0.55 10.54 ±0.81 11.23 ± 1.08 0.46
Environment 11.62 ± 0 .50 13.22 ± 0.74 13.72 ± 0 .98 2.70
Guilt 6.53 ± 0.37 7.69 ± 0.54 9.00 ± 0.72 5.22**
Note. FCI= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T = Trait version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire.
* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
29
Table 4B. Analysis o f Covariance (ANCOVA) for BMI and Measures o f Food Cravings, for Men,
M +SE M ±SE M ±SE
FCI
High Fats 1 .5 3 1 0 .2 2 1 .8 4 1 0 .1 7 1 .6 5 1 0 .2 4 0.56
Sweets 2.21 ± 0 .3 7 2 .4 8 1 0 .2 8 1.4910.41 1.98
Carbohydrates 1 .8 7 1 0 .2 9 2.08 1 0 . 2 2 1.51 ± 0.31 1.06
Fast Food Fats 2 .4 1 1 0 .3 5 2 .7 4 1 0 .2 7 1 .7 6 1 0 .3 8 2 .1 2
Total 2.75 1 0 .2 4 3 .0 2 1 0 .1 8 2.41 ± 0 .26 1.74
FCQ-T
Plan 6.23 1 0.95 7 .5 8 1 0 .7 2 6 .6 8 1 1.04 0.59
Positive 1 0 .9411.74 1 1 .5 6 1 1 .3 2 9 .5 3 1 1 .9 0 0.38
Negative 4 .3 4 1 1.33 7.3 2 1 1 .0 1 5 .1 7 1 1 .4 5 1.53
Control 1 2 .4012.37 1 4 .9 6 1 1 .8 0 1 5 .5 4 1 2 .5 9 0.49
Thoughts 10 .2 8 1 1 .5 7 1 3 .1311.57 1 3 .1 0 1 2 .2 6 0.63
Hunger 14 .1 8 1 1 .4 0 1 1 .3710.98 9 .4 8 1 1.44 2.95
Emotions 5 .7 1 1 1 .3 5 8 .0 4 1 1 .0 2 8 .1 0 1 1.47 1.04
Environment 10 .8 0 1 1 .8 9 12.7911.43 1 4 .1 8 1 2 .0 6 0.78
Guilt 5 .8 0 1 0 .8 9 6 .5 4 1 0 .6 7 6.78 1 0 .9 6 0.34
Note. FCF= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T = Trait version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire.
Table 4C. Analysis o f Covariance (ANCOVA) for BMI and Measures o f Food Cravings, for Women,
Controlling for Time since Eating, and Menstrual Phase.
M l SE M ±SE M +SE
FCI
High Fats 1.4 2 1 0 .0 4 1 .6 9 1 0 .0 8 1 .8 4 1 0 .1 0 10.90***
Sweets 2 .5 6 1 0 .0 8 2 .6 8 1 0 .1 4 2 .5 3 1 0 .1 7 0.32
Carbohydrates 1 .8 6 1 0 .0 7 1.8610.13 1 .7 3 1 0 .1 6 0.26
Fast Food Fats 2 .2 1 1 0 .0 9 2 .4 1 1 0 .1 6 2 .6 2 1 0 .1 9 2 .1 2
Total 2.81 ± 0.05 2.93 1 0 .0 9 2 .9 0 1 0 .1 1 0.89
FCQ-T
Plan 8 .3 6 1 0 .3 9 8 .1 9 1 0 .6 9 9 .7 6 1 0 .8 5 1.26
Positive 11.8810.43 12.43 1 0 .7 6 1 4 .6 9 1 0 .9 4 3.73*
Negative 6 .4 9 1 0 .3 0 6.93 1 0.53 8.58 1 0 .6 7 4.22*
Control 12.53 1 0 .7 9 1 5 .1211.40 1 5 .4911.73 2 .1 0
Thoughts 14.7810.81 14 .5911.42 12.901 1.76 0.48
Hunger 11.0410.41 11 .8 4 1 0 .7 4 1 1 .3 5 1 0 .8 9 0.46
Emotions 1 0 .6310.58 11.9111.03 1 2 .4 6 1 1 .2 7 1 .2 1
Environment 11.71 ±0.53 1 3 .5010.94 1 3.551 1.16 2 .0 2
Guilt 6 .6 5 1 0 .4 1 8.21 ±0.71 9.92 1 0.88 6.42**
* p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
To test the second hypothesis, that gender is associated with food cravings,
correlational analyses were conducted. To control for participants’ responses regarding
how soon after food consumption they completed the survey, point by serial correlations
using the above responses as covariates were conducted. Table 5 presents point by serial
correlations for both genders, controlling for the time interval between food consumption
and survey completion. Correlation analyses revealed that being male was significantly
correlated with an increase in food cravings for high fat foods, (r = -.18,/? < .05). In
addition, correlation analyses indicated that being female was significantly correlated
with an increase in food cravings for sweets, (r = .22,/? < .05). Furthermore, correlations
indicated that being female was also significantly correlated with an increase in
experiencing emotions during or before food cravings or eating, (r = .30, p < .01).
Table 5. Point by Serial Correlations between Gender and Measures of Food Cravings for
both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating. ______________________________
Scale Subscales BMI
FCI
High Fats -.18*
Sweets .22*
Carbohydrates -.04
Fast Food Fats -.06
Total .03
FCQ-T
Plan .16
Positive .14
Negative .10
Lack of control -.10
Thoughts .12
Hunger -.07
Emotions .30**
Environment -.04
Guilt .10
*p < .05; **p < .01
To further explore the relationship between gender and food cravings, one-way
analyses of covariance (ANCOVA’s) were computed. The ANCOVA’s examined the
effect o f gender on food cravings, with time of food consumption prior to survey
completion being treated as a covariate. Univariate analyses of covariance were
conducted for each of the dependent measures of food cravings. See Table 6.
A significant main effect for gender was found for high fat foods, F( 1,117) =
4.44, p < .05. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means indicated that
male participants experienced greater cravings for high fat foods than female participants
(p < .05). A significant main effect for gender was also found for sweet foods, F( 1,117)
= 5.65, p < .05. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means indicated
that women reported greater cravings for sweets than men, (p < .05). Furthermore, a
significant main effect for gender was found for the plan subscale of the FCQ-T, which
measures individuals’ intention and planning to consume foods, F( 1,118) = 4.61,/? < .05.
Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted means revealed that women
experienced more intentions and planning to consume foods than men, (p < .05). Lastly, a
significant main effect of gender was found for the emotion subscale of the FCQ-T,
which measures emotions that may be experienced before or during food cravings or
eating, F(l, 117) = 13.03,/? < .001. Bonferroni post hoc comparisons tests using adjusted
means indicated that women reported experiencing more emotions before or during food
cravings or eating than men, (p < .001).
32
Table 6. Analysis o f Covariance (ANCOVA) for Gender and Measures of Food Cravings,
for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.____________________
Scale Subscale Male Female F
M ±SE M ±SE
FCI
High Fats 1.73 ±0.08 1.53 ±0.04 4.44*
Sweets 2.20 + 0.14 2.57 ± 0.07 5.65*
Carbohydrates 1.90 +0.12 1.83 ±0.06 0.23
Fast Food Fats 2.43 ±0.15 2.31 ±0.08 0.47
Total 2.81 ±0.09 2.84 ± 0.05 0.07
FCQ-T
Plan 7.09 ± 0.59 8.50 ±0.30 4.61*
Positive 11.03 ±0.72 12.37 ±0.37 2.76
Negative 6.13 ±0.52 6.84 ± 0.27 1.49
Control 14.31 ± 1.23 13.48 ±0.63 0.36
Thoughts 12.27 ± 1.21 14.51 ±0.62 2.73
Hunger 11.81 ±0.66 11.22 ±0.33 0.65
Emotions 7.59 ±0.87 11.14 ±0.45 13.03***
Environment 12.46 ± 0.85 12.34 ±0.43 0.01
Guilt 6.44 ± 0.63 7.43 ± 0.32 1.93
* p < .05; *** p < .001.
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of BMI
To test the third hypothesis, that negative affect is associated with food cravings,
correlations were conducted. To control for participants’ responses regarding how soon
after food consumption they completed the survey, and women’s reports of menstrual
stage at the time of survey completion, partial correlations using the above responses as
covariates were conducted. See Tables 7A-7C.
Table 7A presents partial correlations for both genders combined, controlling for
the time interval between food consumption and survey completion. Correlation analyses
revealed that increases in positive affect were significantly correlated with an increase in
food cravings, (r = .36, p < .001). Increases in positive affect were correlated with
increases in specific food cravings for high fat foods, (r = .31 ,P < .01), carbohydrates, (r
= •34, p < .01), and fast food fats, (r = .27, p < .01). Increases in negative affect were also
33
correlated with increases in food cravings, (r = .24, p < .05), specifically for sweets, (r =
.22, p < .05) and fast food fats, (r = .34, p < .01).
In addition, correlations indicated that increases in positive affect were
significantly correlated with multiple subscales of the FCQ-T, including an intention or
plan to consume food, anticipation of positive reinforcement from eating, thoughts or
preoccupation with food, hunger, and environmental reactivity (r’s ranging from .27 to
.36). See Table 7A. Furthermore, correlations revealed that increases in negative affect
were significantly correlated with multiple subscales of the FCQ-T, including plans or
intentions to consume food, anticipation of positive reinforcement from eating, hunger,
feelings o f guilt related to cravings and/or indulging in the craved food(s), and feeling a
possible lack of control if food is eaten (r’s ranging from .21 to .32). See Table 7A.
Table 7B presents partial correlations for men only, controlling for the time
interval between food consumption and survey completion. Correlations revealed that
increases in positive affect were significantly correlated with increases in food cravings
for men, (r = .63,/? < .01), specifically for high fat foods, (r = .53,/? < .05), sweets, (r =
.58,/? < .05), and fast food fats, (r = .63,/? < .01). In addition, increases in negative affect
were found to be correlated with decreases in anticipation of positive reinforcement from
eating, (r - -.53,p < .05), and hunger, (r = -.52, p < .05).
Table 7C presents partial correlations for women only, controlling for the time
interval between food consumption and survey completion and for menstrual stage.
Correlational analyses revealed that increases in positive affect were significantly
correlated with increases in food cravings, specifically for high fat foods and
carbohydrates (r’s from .23 to .30). See Table 1C. Correlations also showed that
34
increases in negative affect were significantly correlated with increases in food cravings,
specifically for high fat foods, sweets, carbohydrates and fast food fats (r’s from .25 to
.34). See Table 1C.
In addition, increases in positive affect were significantly correlated with multiple
subscales of the FCQ-T, including plan or intention to consume food, preoccupation with
food, hunger, environmental reactivity, and feelings of guilt associated with craving
and/or indulging in craved foods (r’s from .23 to .33). See Table 1C. Moreover,
correlations showed that increases in negative affect were significantly correlated with
multiple subscales of the FCQ-T, including plan or intention to consume food,
anticipation of positive reinforcement from eating, anticipation of relief from negative
affect from eating, possible lack of control when eating, hunger, experiencing emotions
before or during food cravings or eating, environmental reactivity, and feelings of guilt
associated with experiencing food cravings and/or indulging in craved foods (r’s from .26
to .39). See Table 1C.
35
Table 7A. Partial Correlations between Affect and Measures of Food Cravings for both Genders,
Scale Subscale CESD PANAS- PANAS- AIM- AIM-
positive negative positive negative
FCI
High Fats .15 .1 2 -.06 31* * .15
Sweets .1 0 .09 .07 .2 0 .2 2 *
Carbohydrates .18 .16 .14 .34** .07
Fast Food Fats .15 - .0 2 ,1 2 .27** .34**
Total .18 .13 .1 1
3^ * * * .24*
FCQ-T
Plan .25* .04 .14 .23* .26*
Positive .05 .06 -.05 .2 1 * .2 2 *
Negative .18 -.13 - .0 0 .14 .08
Lack o f .25* - .1 2 .2 1 * .13 .18
control
Thoughts .08 .04 .0 1 .26* .13
Hunger .07 .14 .05 .32** .23*
Emotions .17 -.16 .09 -.08 .14
Environment .18 -.07 .17 .26* .14
Guilt .06 .0 2 .0 1 .2 0 .30**
Note. FCI== Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T = Trait version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire; CESD =
Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-
Expanded Form; AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. *p < .05; **p <.0 1 ; ***/?< .0 0 1
Table 7B. Partial Correlations between Affect and Measures o f Food Cravings for Men, Controlling for
Time since Eating. ______________________________________________________________________
FCI
High Fats - .0 1 .30 -.35 .53* -.05
Sweets -.07 .31 -.33 .58* -.18
Carbohydrates .15 .41 -.1 0 .43 .16
Fast Food Fats .15 .39 -.08 .63** .35
Total .04 .42 -.26 .63** .03
FCQ-T
Plan - .0 1 .39 -.16 .2 2 .09
Positive -.35 .2 2 -.53* .35 -.36
Negative - .1 2 .13 -.33 .31 - .2 2
Lack o f .03 .08 -.04 .17 .17
control
Thoughts -.03 .2 0 -.36 .25 -.40
Hunger -.41 .35 -.52* .42 -.18
Emotions -.0 0 -.08 -.18 .03 -.27
Environment -.05 .0 2 -.09 .35 -.04
Guilt .04 -.05 .08 -.18 .2 0
Note. FCI= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T = Trait version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire; CESD =
Expanded Form; AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. *p < .05; **p <.01
Table 1C. Partial Correlations between Affect and Measures o f Food Cravings for Women, Controlling for
Time since Eating, and Menstrual Phase._____________________ _________________________________ _
FCI
High Fats .2 0 .03 .0 2 .23* .25*
Sweets .26* - .0 0 .34** .06 .30**
Carbohydrates .23 .04 .24* .30* .06
Fast Food Fats .2 1 -.18 .15 .14 .34**
Total .32** -.04 .32** .25* .32**
FCQ-T
Plan .36** - .0 1 .27* .25* .26*
Positive .24* -.0 0 .17 .16 .32**
Negative .34** -.23 .15 .09 .13
Lack of .30** -.19 .29* .13 .23
control
Thoughts .14 -.0 1 .16 .26* .2 2
Hunger .2 0 .08 .23* .33** .39**
Emotions .27* -.15 .24* -.07 .16
Environment .26* -.1 2 .25* .23* .2 0
Guilt .09 .04 .05 .26* .31**
Note. FCI= Food Craving Inventory; FCQ-T = Trait version o f the Food Craving Questionnaire; CESD =
Expanded Form; AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. *p < .05; **p <.01
To further test the third hypothesis, multiple regression analyses were conducted
to determine the extent to which BMI moderated the relationship between various
measures of negative affect and food cravings. To control for time since eating, this
variable was entered into the model first followed by negative affect, BMI, and the
interaction term. This sequence was conducted for analyses performed on both genders
and men only. To control for time since eating and menstrual phase for women, these
variables were entered in to the model first (time interval) and second (menstrual phase)
followed by negative affect, BMI, and the interaction term. Independent variables were
centered.
Results of the analyses for both genders and men alone controlling for the time
interval between food consumption and survey completion showed that BMI did not
moderate the relationship between negative affect and food cravings. These findings
suggest that the magnitude of the relationship between negative affect and food cravings
is the same across various levels of BMI. See Tables 8A-8F. Results of the analyses for
women, controlling for the time interval between food consumption and survey
completion and menstrual phase, revealed that BMI significantly moderated the
relationship between negative affect and food cravings for high fat foods. This finding
suggests that the relationship between negative affect and food cravings and BMI was
stronger among women with higher BMI’s (r = .21, p < .09) than among women with
lower BMI’s (r = .02, p < .88); however, the post hoc analyses were non-significant.
None o f the other hypothesized moderation effects were statistically significant (See
Tables 8G-8I).
38
Table 8A. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating._____________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Time since eating -.1 0 .06 -:i 6 .04 -1.72
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 0 .29 .08 3 11**
BMI -.0 0 .0 1 -.04 .0 0 -0.46
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 - .0 1 .0 1 -0 . 1 0
Food Cravings for High Fat Foods
Time since eating -.07 .06 - .1 1 .0 1 -1.23
Negative affect-CESD .0 1 .0 0 .1 1 .0 1 1.28
BMI .03 .0 1 .38 .13 4 2 1 ***
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 .14 .0 2 1.53
Food Cravings for Sweets
Time since eating -.14 .1 0 -.13 .03 -1.36
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 1 ,24 .06 2.61**
BMI - .0 2 .0 1 -A l .0 2 -1.87
Interaction Term - .0 0 .0 0 -.08 .0 1 -0 . 8 6
Food Cravings for Carbohydrates
Time since eating -.16 .08 -.18 .05 -1.90
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 1 .26 .06 2.81**
BMI -.0 1 .0 1 -.13 .0 2 -1.38
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 - .0 1 .0 0 -0.07
Food Cravings for Fast Food Fats
Time since eating .0 2 .1 1 .0 2 .0 0 0.19
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 1 .2 1 .04 2.16*
BMI .0 1 .0 1 .05 .0 0 0.52
Interaction Term -5.66 .0 0 -.0 0 .0 0 -0.03
Plan and intent to consume food
Negative affect-CESD .1 0 .04 .27 .07 2.89**
BMI .0 2 .05 .03 .0 0 0.32
Thoughts or preoccupation with food
Time since eating 1.15 .80 .14 .0 1 1.44
Negative affect-CESD .1 1 .07 .16 .0 2 1 .6 8
BMI -.09 .1 0 -.09 .0 1 -.89
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 1 .03 .0 0 .35
Hunger
Time since eating -.46 .45 - .1 0 .0 1 - 1 .0 1
Negative affect-CESD .03 .04 .08 .0 1 0 .8 6
BMI -.03 .06 -.05 .0 0 -0.48
Note. CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. ** p < .01.
Table 8B. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.____________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Time since eating -.15 .06 -.2 1 .04 -2.33
Negative affect-PANAS .0 1 .0 1 .16 .0 2 1.69
BMI - .0 0 .0 1 -.0 2 .0 0 -0.16
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 .0 1 .0 0 0.07
Food cravings for high fat foods
Time since eating -.09 .06 -.14 .0 2 -.159
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 0 .0 1 -.05 .0 0 -0.59
BMI .03 .0 1 .34 .1 0 3.65***
Food cravings for sweets
Time since eating -.17 .1 0 -.16 .03 -1.69
BMI - .0 2 .0 1 -.1 2 .0 1 -1.30
Interaction Term -.0 0 .0 0 -.06 .0 0 -0.63
Food cravings for carbohydrates
Time since eating -.23 .09 -.24 .06 -2 .6 8 **
BMI - .0 1 .0 1 - .1 1 .0 1 -1.13
Food cravings for fast food fats
Time since eating -.07 .1 1 -.06 .0 0 -0.63
Negative affect-PANAS .03 .0 1 .17 .03 1.89
BMI .0 1 .0 1 .07 .0 1 0.70
Interaction Term -.0 0 .0 0 -.04 .0 0 -0.41
Time since eating -.41 .41 -.09 .0 1 -0.99
Negative affect-PANAS .1 2 .05 .2 1 .04 2.29*
BMI .0 2 .06 .04 .0 0 0.38
Time since eating .67 .8 8 .07 .0 0 0.76
Negative affect-PANAS .13 .1 1 .1 1 .0 1 1.19
BMI - .1 2 .1 2 -.1 0 .0 1 -0.98
Hunger
Negative affect-PANAS .03 .06 .04 .0 0 0.43
BMI -.04 .06 -.06 .0 0 -0.60
Note. PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. *p < .05.
Table 8C. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.______________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Negative affect-AIM .03 .0 1 .35 .1 2 3 94 ***
BMI .0 0 .0 1 - .0 0 .0 0 -0.05
Time since eating -.06 .06 -.1 0 .0 1 -1.16
Negative affect-AIM .0 1 .0 1 .18 .03 2 .0 2
*
BMI .03 .0 1 .36 .13 4 j9***
Time since eating - .1 1 .09 -.1 0 .03 -1.14
Negative affect-AIM .05 .0 1 .33 .1 1 3.77***
BMI -.0 2 .0 1 -.14 .0 2 -1.57
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 .0 1 .0 0 -0.07
Time since eating -.17 .08 -.19 .05 -2.04*
Negative affect-AIM .0 2 .0 1 .2 1 .04 2.33*
BMI -.0 1 .0 1 -.09 .0 1 -0.98
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 - .0 2 .0 0 -0 . 2 2
Time since eating .03 .1 0 .03 .0 0 0.34
Negative affect-AIM .05 .0 1 .36 .14 4.10***
BMI .0 1 .0 1 .07 .0 0 0.83
Negative affect-AIM .2 1 .05 .37 .13 4.19***
BMI .0 2 .05 .04 .0 0 0.50
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 1 - .0 0 .0 0 -0.04
Time since eating 1.09 .82 .1 2 .0 1 1.33
Negative affect-AIM .35 .1 0 .31 .08 3.35**
BMI - .1 0 .1 1 -.08 .0 1 -0.95
Interaction Term - .0 2 .0 2 -.1 1 .0 1 -1.17
Hunger
Negative affect-AIM .2 0 .05 .33 .1 0 3.57**
BMI - .0 1 .05 - .0 1 .0 0 -0.13
Interaction Term - .0 1 .0 1 -.06 .0 0 -0.69
Note. AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. ** p < .01; ***p< .001.
Table 8D. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating.____________________
DV IV b se 0 AR2 t
Food cravings
Negative affect-CESD .0 1 .0 2 .14 .0 2 0.51
BMI -.04 .03 -.32 .1 1 -1.37
Negative affect-CESD .0 1 .0 2 .1 0 .0 0 0.36
BMI - .0 0 .03 -.03 .0 0 -0 . 1 2
Interaction Term - .0 0 .0 0 -.1 0 .0 1 -0.35
Negative affect-CESD .0 0 .03 .0 1 .0 0 0.03
BMI -.07 .04 -.34 .1 2 -1.48
Time since eating - .2 1 .28 -.18 .05 -0.75
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 2 .25 .08 1 .0 0
BMI -.04 .03 -.29 .09 -1.29
Time since eating .69 .33 .46 .17 2.13*
BMI -.07 .04 -.40 .16 -1.99
Time since eating -1.07 .92 -.29 .05 -1.16
Negative affect-CESD - .0 2 .07 -.07 .0 0 -0.27
BMI .04 .1 0 .09 .0 0 0.37
Interaction Term .0 2 .0 2 .29 .06 1.06
Time since eating -1.27 2.07 -.15 .0 0 -0.61
Negative affect-CESD -.06 .15 -.1 1 .0 0 -0.43
BMI .24 .24 .24 .03 1 .0 1
Interaction Term .05 .03 .37 .1 0 1.37
Hunger
Time since eating -2.14 1.31 -.36 .04 -1.63
Negative affect-CESD -.19 .1 0 -.46 .09 -1.97
BMI -.24 .15 -.33 .14 -1.60
Interaction Term .03 .0 2 .30 .07 1.29
Note. CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale.
Table 8E. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating.___________________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Time since eating -.29 .24 -.28 .03 - 1 .2 0
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 2 .0 2 - .2 1 .0 1 -0.94
BMI -.06 .03 -.42 .1 1 -1.90
Time since eating -.23 .2 1 -.27 .05 - 1 .1 2
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 2 .0 2 -.25 .03 -1.07
BMI -.03 .03 -.27 .04 -1.15
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 1 .23 .04 0 .8 8
Time since eating -.47 .39 -.28 .05 - 1 .2 1
Negative affect-PANAS -.04 .03 -.25 .04 - 1 .1 1
BMI -.08 .05 -.35 .09 -1.53
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 1 .0 2 - .1 1 .0 0 -0.53
BMI -.08 .04 -.47 .1 2 -2 .2 2 *
Time since eating .30 .38 .19 .07 0.80
Negative affect-PANAS -.0 1 .03 -.05 .0 0 -0.23
BMI -.09 .05 -.38 .1 1 -1.65
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 1 .08 -.0 2 .0 0 -0.09
BMI -.06 .13 - .1 2 .0 0 -0.52
Interaction Term .03 .0 2 .34 .09 1.33
Time since eating -.49 2.03 -.06 .0 0 -0.24
Negative affect-PANAS - .2 1 .18 -.27 .03 -1.14
BMI .14 .28 .1 2 .04 0.52
Interaction Term .07 .06 .34 .09 1.33
Hunger
Time since eating - 1 .2 1 1.14 - .2 0 .04 -1.06
Negative affect-PANAS -.33 .1 1 -.57 .16 -3.03**
BMI -.51 .16 -.59 .23 -3.24**
Note. PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. **p < .01.
Table 8F. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for Men, Controlling for Time since Eating._____________________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Negative affect-AIM .0 2 .03 .1 1 .04 0.48
BMI -.0 1 .07 -.05 .03 -0.09
Time since eating - .1 2 .2 0 -.13 .0 2 -0.59
Negative affect-AIM .0 1 .03 .1 1 .0 1 0.45
BMI .0 2 .06 .16 .0 1 0.30
Negative affect-AIM - .0 0 .05 - .0 2 .0 1 -0.07
BMI -.03 .1 0 -.17 .07 -0.34
Negative affect-AIM .0 2 .04 .1 2 .04 0.49
BMI -.03 .08 -.23 .03 -0.44
Negative affect-AIM .06 .05 .31 .15 1.43
BMI .0 1 .09 .06 .03 0 .1 2
Negative affect-AIM .2 1 .1 2 .39 .08 1.75
BMI .17 .24 .34 .05 0.70
Interaction Term .0 1 .03 .1 0 .0 0 0 .2 0
Time since eating -.1 0 1.82 - .0 1 .0 0 -0.05
Negative affect-AIM - .0 1 .27 - .0 1 .0 1 -0.04
BMI .60 .54 .59 .04 1 .1 2
Hunger
Time since eating -.54 1 .2 1 -.09 .03 -0.45
Negative affect-AIM -.37 .2 1 -.43 .0 1 -1.76
BMI -.40 .34 -.55 .24 -1.16
Interaction Term .0 0 .05 .03 .0 0 0.07
Note: AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale.
Table 8G. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating and Menstrual Phase.
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Time since eating -.1 0 .05 -.17 .06 -1.82
Menses Phase .19 .05 .35 .1 0 3.83***
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 0 .37 .13 3 91 * * *
BMI .0 0 .0 1 .0 2 .0 0 0.27
Menses Phase .16 .05 .30 .08 3.35**
Negative affect-CESD .0 1 .0 0 .19 .0 2 2.09*
BMI .04 .0 1 .45 .16 4 9 5 ***
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 .25 .06 2 .6 6 **
Menses Phase .26 .08 .30 .07 3.04**
Negative affect-CESD .03 .0 1 .34 .1 2 3.44**
BMI -.0 1 .0 1 -.07 .0 0 -0.74
Menses Phase .19 .08 .23 .04 2.34*
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 1 .27 .07 2.63**
BMI - .0 2 .0 1 -.14 .0 2 -1.39
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 -.0 1 .0 0 -0.14
Menses Phase .19 .1 0 .2 0 .03 1.99*
Negative affect-CESD .0 2 .0 1 .27 .07 2.54*
BMI .0 2 .0 1 .15 .0 2 1.42
Interaction Term 8 .1 2 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 0.04
Time since eating .2 0 .46 .05 .0 0 0.44
Menses Phase .54 .42 .13 .0 1 1.30
Negative affect-CESD .13 .04 .34 .1 0 3.26**
BMI .05 .06 .08 .0 0 0.77
Time since eating 1.60 .8 8 .19 .0 2 1.82
Menses Phase 1.49 .80 .19 .03 1.87
Negative affect-CESD .15 .08 .2 0 .04 1.91
BMI -.14 .1 2 -.1 2 .0 2 -1.15
Hunger
Time since eating -.35 .48 -.08 .0 1 -.73
Menses Phase -.1 1 .44 -.03 .0 0 -.24
Negative affect-CESD .08 .04 .2 0 .03 1.83
BMI .0 0 .07 .0 0 .0 0 0 .0 2
Note. CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. **p < .01; ***p< .001.
Table 8H. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating and Menstrual Phase.
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Time since eating -.14 .06 -.2 2 .05 -2.37*
Menses Phase .2 0 .05 .35 .1 1
2 7 7 ***
Negative affect-PANAS .03 .0 1 .32 .09 3.35**
BMI .0 0 .0 1 .06 .0 0 0.63
Time since eating -.09 .05 -.14 .0 2 -157
Menses Phase .13 .05 .25 .08 2.71**
BMI .44 .15 4 4 9 ***
.03 .0 1
Time since eating -.1 0 .09 - .1 1 .0 2 -1.14
Menses Phase .29 .08 .33 .09 3.51**
Negative affect-PANAS .05 .0 1 .38 .14 2 92 * * *
BMI - .0 0 .0 1 -.03 .0 0 -0.33
Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 .2 1 .0 0 0 .2 1
Menses Phase .2 0 .08 .24 .04 2.42*
Negative affect-PANAS .0 2 .0 1 .2 0 .04 2 .0 0 *
BMI - .0 1 .0 1 -.1 0 .0 1 -0.92
Menses Phase .19 .1 0 .19 .03 1.90
Negative affect-PANAS .03 .0 1 .23 .05 2.28*
BMI .0 2 .0 2 -.03 .03 1.42
Interaction Term -.0 0 .0 0 .0 0 -0.32
Menses Phase .41 .42 .1 0 .0 1 0.97
Negative affect-PANAS .19 .06 .31 .08 2.97**
BMI .06 .07 .1 0 .0 1 0.96
Time since eating 1.03 .98 .1 1 .0 1 1.05
Menses Phase .98 .89 .1 1 .0 1 1 .1 0
Negative affect-PANAS .27 .13 .2 1 .05 2.03*
BMI -.15 .14 - .1 2 .0 2 -1.05
Interaction Term .0 1 .03 .0 2 .0 0 0 .2 1
Hunger
Menses Phase -.15 .46 -.03 .0 0 -0.33
Negative affect-PANAS .1 2 .07 .19 .03 1.73
BMI .0 2 .07 .03 .0 0 0.31
Note. PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. *p< .05.
46
Table 81. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, BMI, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for Women, Controlling for Time since Eating and Menstrual Phase.
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Time since eating -.09 .05 -.15 .05 -.163
Menses Phase .16 .05 .29 .1 1 3.28**
Negative affect-AIM .03 .0 1 .40 .15 4 27***
BMI .0 0 .0 1 -.0 0 .0 0 -.0 2

Interaction Term .0 0 .0 0 -.0 2 .0 0 -.23
Menses Phase .13 .05 .25 .09 2.81**
Negative affect-AIM .0 2 .0 1 .2 1 .06 2.30*
BMI .03 .0 1 .36 .13 3.70***
Menses Phase .2 1 .08 .25 .08 2.65**
BMI - .0 1 .0 1 -.08 .0 1 -0.80
Time since eating -.17 .08 -.2 0 .07 -2 .0 2 *
Menses Phase .15 .07 .2 0 .05 2.06*
Negative affect-AIM .03 .0 1 .26 .06 2 .6 6 **
BMI - .0 2 .0 1 -.14 .0 2 -1.34
Menses Phase .14 .09 .14 .04 1.52
BMI .0 1 .0 1 .09 .0 1 0 .8 6
Time since eating .19 .44 .04 .0 0 0.43
Menses Phase .1 2 .40 .03 .0 0 0.31
Negative affect-AIM .2 0 .06 .35 .1 2 3.37**
BMI .0 2 .06 .03 .0 0 0.32
Interaction Term -4.94 .0 1 .0 0 .0 0 0 .0 0
Menses Phase .42 .83 .05 .0 0 0.51
Negative affect-AIM .41 .1 2 .34 .1 0 3.35**
BMI -.18 .13 -.14 .03 -1.33
Hunger
Menses Phase -.44 .39 -.1 1 .0 0 -1.13
Negative affect-AIM .28 .06 .47 .2 1 4.85***
BMI .0 0 .06 .0 0 .0 0 0 .0 1
Note: AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. **p< .01; ***p < .001.
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of Gender
To test the fourth hypothesis, multiple regression analyses were conducted to
determine the extent to which gender moderated the relationship between various
measures of negative affect and food cravings. To control for time since eating, this
variable was entered into the model first followed by negative affect, gender, and the
interaction term. This sequence was conducted for analyses performed on both genders;
multiple regressions were then conducted separately for each gender. Multiple
regressions for men controlled for time since eating by entering this covariate into the
model first followed by negative affect. Multiple regressions for women controlled for
time since eating and menstrual phase by entering those variables into the model first
followed by negative affect. Following Baron and Kenny's (1986) recommendations on
how to test for moderation with a dichotomous moderator, gender specific multiple
regression standardized regression coefficients were compared using a one-way t-test.
Independent variables were centered.
Results of the analyses for both genders, controlling for the time interval between
food consumption and survey completion, showed that gender did moderate the
relationship between negative affect and food cravings for sweets. Gender also moderated
the relationship between negative affect and hunger. See Tables 9A-9C. These findings
suggests that the relationship between negative affect and food cravings for sweets, as
well as the relationship between negative affect and hunger are stronger for women than
men; however, the post hoc analyses comparing the unstandardized regression
coefficients were non-significant. See Table 9D-9F.
48
Table 9A. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (CESD) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating._______________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Negative affect-CESD .0 0 .0 1 .09 .07 0.46
Gender .0 1 .1 0 .0 1 .0 0 0.07
Interaction Term .0 1 .0 1 .2 0 .0 1 1 .1 2
Gender -.2 1 .1 0 -.2 0 .04 -2.08*
Time since eating -.1 0 .1 0 -.1 0 .0 2 -1.06
Gender .38 .17 .2 1 .04 2.27*
Gender -.1 2 .14 -.08 .0 1 -0 . 8 6
Time since eating .0 2 .1 0 .0 2 .0 0 0.19
Negative affect-CESD 8.48 .0 2 .0 0 .04 0 .0 0
Gender -.13 .18 -.07 .0 0 -0.74
Interaction Term .0 2 .0 2 .23 .0 1 1 .2 0
Time since eating - .0 0 .39 .0 0 .0 0 -0 . 0 0
Negative affect-CESD .03 .07 .08 .07 0.45
Gender 1.36 .67 .19 .03 2.04*
Interaction Term .09 .08 .2 2 .0 1 1.19
Negative affect-CESD .07 .13 .1 0 .0 2 0.52
Gender 1.54 1.31 .1 1 .0 1 1.18
Interaction Term .06 .15 .0 1 .0 0 0.41
Hunger
Negative affect-CESD - .1 0 .07 -.26 .0 1 -1.38
Gender -.69 .74 -.09 .0 1 -0.94
Interaction Term .17 .08 .37 .04 2.06*
Note. CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. *p< .05
Table 9B. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating.______________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 1 .0 1 - .1 1 .0 2 -0 . 6 6
Gender .03 .1 1 .03 .0 0 0.33
Interaction Term .03 .0 2 .32 .03 1 .8 8
Negative affect-PANAS - .0 2 .0 1 - .2 0 .0 0 - 1 .1 2
Gender -.18 .1 0 -.17 .03 -1.81
Time since eating -.1 1 .1 0 - .1 1 .0 2 -1.19
Negative affect-PANAS -.03 .0 2 -.23 .0 2 -1.35
Gender .33 .16 .18 .04 2.04*
Interaction Term .08 .03 .47 .06 2.78**
Time since eating -.2 1 .09 - .2 2 .05 -2.38*
Gender -.04 .15 -.03 .0 0 -0.29
Negative affect-PANAS .0 1 .03 .06 .03 0.35
Gender -.05 .18 -.03 .0 0 -0.31
Interaction Term .0 2 .03 .13 .0 0 0.74
Negative affect-PANAS .0 1 .1 0 .0 2 .04 0.09
Gender 1.38 .6 8 .19 .04 2.05*
Interaction Term .17 .1 1 .25 .0 2 1.45
Time since eating .84 .85 .09 .0 0 0.99
Negative affect-PANAS -.16 .2 0 -.14 .0 1 -0.79
Gender 2.03 1.41 .13 .0 2 1.44
Hunger
Time since eating -.6 6 .45 -.13 .03 -1.46
Negative affect-PANAS -.23 .1 1 -.36 .0 0 -2.03*
Gender -.70 .77 -.08 .0 0 -0.91
Note. PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. *p< .05; **p< .01
Table 9C. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (AIM) for both Genders, Controlling for Time since Eating._________________
DV IV b se P AR2 t
Food cravings
Gender -.08 .12 -.08 .01 -0.71
Gender -.23 .11 -.22 .06 -2.02*
Gender .29 .19 .17 .01 1.54
Gender -.21 .16 -.14 .01 -1.26
Interaction Term -.00 .03 -.04 .00 -0.18
Negative affect-AIM .09 .03 .61 .14 2.58*
Gender -.42 .20 -.23 .03 -2.15*
Interaction Term -.03 .04 -.18 .00 -0.82
Gender .87 .77 .12 .01 1.13
Time since eating 1.15 .80 .13 .01 1.43
Negative affect-AIM -.12 .28 -.11 .08 -0.44
Gender 2.49 1.61 .17 .00 1.54
Hunger
Negative affect-AIM -.10 .15 -.17 .10 -0.67
Gender -.42 .82 -.05 .03 -0.51
Note: AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. *p< .05
Table 9D. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (CESD) comparing Gender effects, Controlling for Time since Eating for Men and
Time since Eating and Menstrual Phase for Women._________ ____________________
DV IV b se P AR2 tw h
Food cravings for Sweets
Men
CESD -.0000813 .02 -.00 .00 -0.00
Women
Menses Phase .26 .08 .30 .07 3.09**
CESD .03 .01 .35 .12 3.63*** 1.48
Hunger
Men
Time since eating -1.60 1.21 -.30 .03 -1.33
CESD -.13 .09 -.34 .10 -1.47
Women
Menses Phase -.14 .44 -.03 .00 -0.32
CESD .07 .04 .19 .03 1.76 1.61
Note. CESD = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.
52
Table 9E. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (PANAS) comparing Gender effects, Controlling for Time since Eating for Men
and Time since Eating and Menses Phase for Women.__________________________
DV IV b se P AR2 tw h
Food cravings for Sweets
Men
PANAS -.03 .03 -.20 .04 -0.90
Women
Menses Phase .28 .08 .33 .09 3.52**
PANAS .05 .01 .37 .14 4.02*** 1.56
Men
PANAS .02 .08 .07 .00 0.31
Women
Menses Phase .44 .42 .11 .01 1.05
PANAS .18 .06 .29 .08 2.88** -0.47
Thoughts or preoccupation with
food
Men
Time since eating .05 1.68 .01 .00 0.03
PANAS -.14 .17 -.19 .03 -0.83
Women
Menses Phase .88 .89 .10 .01 0.99
PANAS .28 .13 .22 .05 2.09* 0.84
Hunger
Men
Time since eating -.36 1.16 -.06 .03 -0.31
PANAS -.24 .12 -.42 .16 -1.97
Women
Menses Phase -.16 .46 -.04 .00 -0.35
PANAS .11 .07 .17 .03 1.62 1.23
Note. PANAS = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule-Expanded Form. * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p <
.0 0 1 .
53
Table 9F. Hierarchical Multiple Regressions for Food Cravings, Gender, and Negative
Affect (AIM) comparing Gender effects, Controlling for Time since Eating for Men and
Time since Eating and Menses Phase for Women.__________________________
DV IV b se P A ft tw tb
Thoughts or preoccupation
with food
Men
AIM -.10 .24 -.09 .01 -0.42
Women
Time since eating 1.51 .92 .16 .01 1.64
Menses Phase .35 .83 .04 .00 0.42
AIM .38 .12 .32 .10 3.15** 0.81
Hunger
Men
AIM -.09 .18 -.11 .01 -0.50
Women
Menses Phase -.43 .38 -.10 .00 -1.12
AIM .27 .06 .46 .21 4 92*** 1.15
Note. AIM = Short Affect Intensity Scale. * p < .05; **/?< .01; *** p < .001.
54
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
Objectives
The current study examined the associations between food cravings, BMI, gender,
and negative affect. The objectives were to investigate whether increases in BMI were
associated with increases in food cravings, if men and women experienced food cravings
differently, and if increases in negative affect were associated with increases in food
cravings. Furthermore, BMI and gender were both explored as potential moderators of
the relationship between negative affect and food cravings.
Food Cravings and BMI
For the first hypothesis, that increases in BMI were associated with increases in
food cravings, results suggested that the relationship between increases in BMI and
increases in food cravings were specifically related to increases in food cravings for high
fat foods. In addition, individuals with higher BMI’s endorsed multiple traits related to
food cravings including anticipation of an increase in positive or a decrease in negative
emotional states, as well as an increase in feeling guilty related to experiencing or
indulging in a food craving. However, the above findings were only supported for women
and not men, a finding consistent with previous research suggesting a relationship
between increases in BMI and increases in food cravings only for women and not for
men (Sobik et al., 2005).
Among women, increases in BMI may be associated with increases in food
cravings for high fat foods because some research suggests that eating fatty foods
actually increases cravings for more fatty foods. The body does not interpret fat as an
immediate energy source and therefore the brain does not turn off hunger signals (Holt,
55
Miller, Petocz, & Farmakalidis, 1995). This cycle of fatty food consumption and
increased cravings for more fatty food may contribute to problems with weight gain and
obesity.
Furthermore, results suggested that women with higher BMI’s experience greater
anticipation of an increase in positive or a decrease in negative emotional states, as well
as an increase in feeling guilty related to experiencing or indulging in a food craving.
These findings are consistent with current food craving literature, which has found that
women with emotional difficulties, including pathological eating behaviors, often report
greater food cravings and that these women often also have higher BMI’s (Gendall et al.,
1998; White & Grilo, 2005).
Gender differences in these findings may reflect differences in statistical power,
due to the small sample of men (« = 25), rather than an actual difference between men
and women regarding the relationship between BMI and food cravings. In fact, several
of the correlations between BMI and food cravings for men, although not statistically
significant, were sizable, with increased BMI associated with decreased cravings for
sweets and carbohydrates, yet increased cravings for fast food fats. Higher BMI was also
non-significantly associated with less hunger and greater endorsement of eating to
alleviate negative emotions and in response to environmental cues.
The second hypothesis, that gender is associated with food cravings, was
supported. Results indicated that men and women experience food cravings differently.
Findings were consistent with the current literature in that women were found to
experience more food cravings than men, women reported higher rates of food cravings
56
for sweets, and men reported more cravings for foods other than sweets, in particular,
cravings for high fat foods (Cepeda-Benito et al., 2003; Zellner et al., 1999). It has been
suggested that women may be more likely to experience food cravings due to the
premenstrual phase of their menstrual cycle and to pregnancy (Dye et al., 1995). A
contribution of the current study is that pregnancy and menstrual phase were controlled
by conducting covariate analyses, which indicated that significant gender differences in
food cravings were still found.
Furthermore, women reported experiencing greater levels of affectivity before and
during a food craving than men. This finding is consistent with the current literature,
which has found that women more often than men have reported experiencing more
distressing emotions before and after food cravings (Lafay et al., 2001). These gender
differences may be influenced by several factors. For instance, women have a higher
prevalence rate of both eating and mood disorders, as well as experiencing more social
pressures regarding maintenance of a certain weight and exhibiting limited food
consumption.
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of BMI
Findings for the third hypothesis, that negative affect is associated with food
cravings, revealed a relationship between increases in negative affect and increases in
food cravings. However, once again this was only supported for women and not for men.
Some findings suggested that the relationship between negative affect and food cravings
may be the opposite for men, with decreases in negative affect being associated with
increases in food cravings. Indeed, previous research suggests that women more often
. 57
associate negative affect with food cravings, while men more often associate food
cravings with neutral and/or positive affect (Lafay et al., 2001).
Moreover, further investigation of the third hypothesis, that BMI moderates the
relationship between negative affect and food cravings, was partially supported by the
current data. The findings suggested that BMI moderated the relationship between food
cravings for high fat foods and negative affect for women but not for men. That is, the
relationship between negative affect and food cravings was stronger among women with
higher BMPs than among women with lower BMPs, but on only one measure of
negative affect and not for affective intensity. This trend suggests that interventions for
negative affect and coping with food cravings could be important components for weight
loss programs for women. Future studies may benefit from utilizing a larger sample of
both men and women, which would not only increase statistical power but would also
increase the variation in BMI among participants.
Food Cravings and Negative Affect: The Role of Gender
The fourth hypothesis, that gender moderates the relationship between negative
affect and food cravings, was also partially supported by the current data. Results
indicated that gender moderated the relationship between food cravings for sweets and
negative affect, and that gender moderated the relationship between hunger and negative
affect; however, analyses comparing differences between men and women were non
significant. Although these analyses were non-significant, it is important to note that
when comparing the unstandardized regression coefficients, the females’ coefficients
were consistently larger than males'. This pattern suggests that the relationship between
food cravings and negative affect may be stronger for women.
58
The suggested relationship between food cravings for sweets and negative affect
among women aligns well with current research, which has found that women more often
than men crave sweets and they more often associate negative affect with food cravings
(Lafay et al., 2001; Zellner et al., 1999). Furthermore, the relationship between hunger
and negative affect may be attributable to the greater likelihood of dieting and experience
of subsequent hunger among women than among men. Due to the small number of
participants who endorsed being in a weight loss program (n= 5), it was not possible to
use dieting status in any of the analyses. Although a few reported being in a weight loss
program, this number does not account for the possible number of individuals who may
have been dieting without professional assistance. The current literature has revealed
mixed findings on the relationship between dieting and food cravings (Delahanty et al.,
2002; Harvey et al., 1993; Pelchat, 1997).
Strengths of the Study
The current study has multiple strengths; most notably it is the fist study to
systematically examine the associations between food cravings, BMI, gender, and
negative affect across a set of food craving measures with known psychometric
properties. Use o f standardized measures facilitates replication and cross study
comparisons. Furthermore, although previous researchers have found associations
between food cravings and negative affect, this is the first study to investigate moderators
of the relationship between food cravings and negative affect. Moreover, this study
explored the effects of BMI, gender, and affect on specific and non-specific food
cravings. In addition, the current study controlled for female menstrual phase, which is a
variable that has been found to influence food cravings research. By controlling for
59
women’s menstrual phases, it was possible to show that a significant difference between
men and women’s food cravings exists, which cannot be fully explained by biological
differences between the sexes. Furthermore, the study attempted to control for the effects
of food consumption on results by using participants’ reported time intervals between
food consumption and survey completion as a covariate in all analyses.
Limitations of the Study
One of the main limitations of this study is that data were collected based on self-
report measures. Self-report measures are vulnerable to the provision of inaccurate
information due to memory errors or a need for socially desirable responding. Due to the
homogenous sample used, the current findings cannot be generalized to a more diverse
population. Furthermore, the number of male participants (n = 25) was comparatively low
relative to the number of female participants (n = 96). Results of the power analysis
suggested that this number was sufficient to examine gender differences in food cravings,
but may have been insufficient to detect potential moderation effects particularly with
regard to BMI and gender. Moreover, due to the small number of participants who
endorsed being involved in a weight loss program, the influence of dieting could not be
statistically controlled.
Directions for Future Research
Although not all of the hypotheses of this study were fully supported, the findings
do suggest that a relationship exists between food cravings, BMI, gender, and negative
affect. Replication of the present findings with a larger sample size and with men would
be beneficial. Continued food cravings research utilizing a systematic approach would
increase the research communities’ knowledge about food cravings and would facilitate
60
the ability to compare findings across studies. Longitudinal research is needed to
determine whether increases in food cravings are associated with prospective increases in
BMI. If such a relationship exists, identification of strategies to curb food cravings may
be of importance in the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity. Longitudinal
work is also needed to determine the role of negative and positive affect in the
development of food cravings. For instance, does the induction of negative affect
promote the development of food cravings or do individuals feel dysphoric for having
indulged in cravings? Should negative affect promote food cravings, interventions for
weight loss may need to incorporate interventions for negative affectivity.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the current study revealed that food cravings were associated with
BMI, negative affect, and gender. For women, increases in BMI as well as increases in
negative affect were associated with increases in food cravings. Women reported greater
food cravings than men, even when menstrual phase was statistically controlled. In
addition, the relationship between negative affect and food cravings may be stronger for
women than for men and for women with higher BMI’s than for women with lower
BMI’s. Although not all hypotheses were fully supported, the current study contributed to
the literature by showing that food cravings, BMI, gender, and negative affect are related,
utilizing systematic research methods that consisted of an operational definition of food
cravings and measures with known psychometric properties. Longitudinal support of
these relationships would suggest that interventions for weight gain and obesity should
address both negative affect and food cravings among women and food cravings among
men.
61
APPENDIX A: DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONARRIE
Demographic Questionnaire
1- Age:___________
2. Gender (please circle one): Female Male
3. What cultural or ethic group do you identify with?

(Please Circle one):
a.) American Indian or Alaska Native
b.) Asian
c.) Black or African American
d.) Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander
e.) White-Hispanic origin
f.) White-Non Hispanic origin
g.) Other: (please specify)____________
4. What is the highest level of education you have completed?

(Please circle one):
a.) Some High School
b.) GED/High School Diploma
c.) 1 year of college
d.) 2 years o f college/Associates degree
e.) 3 years of college
f.) 4 years of college/Bachelor Degree
g.) Masters
h.) Doctorate or Professional Degree
5. Height:________ Weight:___________
6. Are you currently participating in a weight loss program (e.g. Weight Watchers, Jenny
Craig)
Yes No
62
APPENDIX B: VALIDATION QUESTIONS
Follow-up Questions
1. When did you begin completing this survey?
(a) 1 hour after completing a meal

(b) 2 hours after completing a meal
(c) 3 hours after completing a meal
(d) I did not pay attention to the time or my food intake prior to completing the survey
2. How soon after the completion of your menses did you complete the survey?
(a) during the first week following the completion of my menses

(b) during the second week following the completion of my menses
(c) during the third week following the completion of my menses
(d) I did not pay attention to the duration of time that lapsed since the completion of my
menses prior to completing the survey.
63
APPENDIX C: FOOD CRAVING INVENTORY
Food Craving Inventory
A craving is defined as an intense desire to consume a particular food (or food type) that
is difficult to resist.
Over the past month, how often have you experienced a craving fo r the food?
l=never 2=rarely 3=sometimes 4=often 5=always/almost everyday
Fried Chicken
Sausage
Gravy
Fried fish
Bacon
Com bread
Hot dog
Steak
Brownies
Cookies
Candy
Chocolate
Donuts
_ _ Cake
Cinnamon rolls
Ice cream
Rolls
_ _ Pancakes or waffles
Biscuits
___ Sandwich bread
Rice
Baked potato
Pasta
Cereal
Hamburger
___ French fries
Chips
Pizza
APPENDIX D: EATING INVENTORY
Part 1
Directions: Please respond to each of the statements below by circling “T” for True c
“F” for False.
T F 1. When I smell a sizzling steak or see a juicy piece of meat, I find it

very difficult to keep from eating, even if I have just finished a meal.
T F 2. I usually eat too much at social occasions, like parties and picnics.
T F 3. I am usually so hungry that I eat more than three times a day.
T F 4. When I have eaten my quota of calories, I am usually good about not

eating any more.
T F 5. Dieting is so hard for me because I just get too hungry.
T F 6. I deliberately take small helpings as a means of controlling my

weight.
T F 7. Sometimes things just taste so good that I keep on eating when I am

no longer hungry.
T F 8. Since I am often hungry, I sometimes wish that while I am eating, an

expert would tell me that I have had enough or that I can have
something more to eat.
T F 9. When I feel anxious, I find myself eating.
T F 10. Life is too short to worry about dieting.
T F 11. Since my weight goes up and down, I have gone on reducing diets
more than once.
T F 12. I often feel so hungry that I just have to eat something.
T F 13. When I am with someone who is overeating, I usually overeat too.
T F 14. I have a pretty good idea of the number of calories in common food.
65
T F 15. Sometimes when I start eating, I just can’t seem to stop.
T F 16. It is not difficult for me to leave something on my plate.
T F 17. At certain times of the day, I get hungry because I have gotten used to
eating things.
T F 18. While on a diet, if I eat food that is not allowed, I consciously eat less
for a period of time to make up for it.
T F 19. Being with someone who is eating often makes me hungry enough to
eat also.
T F 20. When I feel blue, I often overeat.
T F 21. I enjoy eating too much to spoil it by counting calories or watching

my weight.
T F 22. When I see a real delicacy, I often get so hungry that I have to eat
right away.
T F 23. I often stop eating when I am not really full as a conscious means of
limiting the amount that I eat.
T F 24. I get so hungry that my stomach often seems like a bottomless pit.
T F 25. My weight has hardly changed at all in the last ten years.
T F 26. I am always hungry so it is hard for me to stop eating before I finish

the food on my plate.
T F 27. When I feel lonely, I console myself by eating.
T F 28. I consciously hold back at meals in order not to gain weight.
T F 29. I sometimes get hungry late in the evening or at night.
T F 30. I eat anything I want, any time I want.
T F 31. Without even thinking about it, I take a long time to eat.
T F 32. I count calories as a conscious means of controlling my weight.
T F 33. I do not eat some foods because they make me fat.
T F 34. I am always hungry enough to eat at any time.
T F 35. I pay a great deal of attention to changes in my figure.
T F 36. While on a diet, if I eat a food that is not allowed, I often then
splurge and eat other high calorie foods.
Part 2
Directions: Please answer the following questions by circling the number above the
response that is appropriate to you.
37. How often are you dieting in a conscious effort to control you weight?
1 2 3 4
rarely sometimes usually always
38. Would a weight fluctuation of 5 lbs. affect the way you live your life?
1 2 3 4
not at all slightly moderately very much
39. How often are you hungry?
1 2 3 4
only at sometimes often almost
meal times between between always
meals meals
40. Do your feelings of guilt about overeating help you to control your food
intake?
1 2 3 4
not at all slightly often always
67
41. How difficult would it be for you to stop eating halfway thought dinner and
not eat for the next four hours?
1 2 3 4
easy slightly moderately very
difficult difficult
42. How conscious are you of what you are eating?
1 2 3 4
not at all slightly moderately extremely
43. How frequently do you avoid “stocking up” on tempting foods?
1 2 3 4
almost never seldom usually almost always
44. How likely are you to shop for low calorie foods?
1 2 3 4
unlikely slightly moderately very
likely likely likely
45. Do you eat sensibly in front of others and splurge alone?
1 2 3 4
never rarely often always
46. How likely are you to consciously eat slowly in order to cut down on how much
you eat?
1 2 3 4
47. How frequently do you skip dessert because you are no longer hungry?
1 2 3 4
almost seldom at least almost every
never once a week day
68
48. How likely are you to consciously eat less than what you want?
1 2 3 4
49. Do you go on eating binges though you are not hungry?
1 2 3 4
never rarely sometimes at least once
a week
50. On a scale of 0-5, where 0 means no restraint in eating (eating whatever you
want, whenever you want it) and 5 means total restraint (constantly limiting
food intake and never “giving in”), what number would you give yourself?
0
eat whatever you want, whenever you want it
1
usually eat whatever you want, whenever you want it
2
often eat whatever you want, whenever you want it
3
often limit food intake, but often “give in”
4
usually limit food intake, rarely “give in”
5
constantly limiting food intake, never “giving in”
51. To what extent does this statement describe your eating behavior? “I start
dieting in the morning, but because of any number of things that happen
during the day, by evening I have given up and eat what I want, promising
myself to start dieting again tomorrow”.
1 2 3 4
not like me a little pretty good describes me perfectly
like me description
of me
69
APPENDIX E: TRAIT VERSION FOOD CRAVINGS QUESTIONNAIRE
FCQ-T
1. Being with someone who is eating often makes me hungry.

Never/Not Applicable Rarely Sometimes Often Usually Always
2. When I crave something, I know I won’t be able to stop eating once I start.
Never /Not Applicable Rarely Sometimes Often Usually Always
3. If I eat what I am craving, I often lose control and eat too much.
4. I hate it when I give in to cravings.

5. Food cravings invariably make me think of ways to get what I want to eat.
6. I feel like I have food on my mind all the time.

7. I often feel guilty for craving certain foods.

8. I find myself preoccupied with food.

9. I eat to feel better.

10. Sometimes, eating makes things seem just perfect.

11. Thinking about my favorite foods makes my mouth water.
12. I crave foods when my stomach is empty.

13. I feel as if my body asks me for certain foods.

14. I get so hungry that my stomach seems like a bottomless pit.

15. Eating what I crave makes me feel better.

16. When I satisfy a craving I feel less depressed.

17. When I eat what I am craving I feel guilty about myself.

18. Whenever I have cravings, I find myself making plans to eat.

19. Eating calms me down.

20. I crave foods when I feel bored, angry, or sad.

21. I feel less anxious after I eat.

22. If I get what I am craving I cannot stop myself from eating it.
71
23. When I crave certain foods, I usually try to eat them as soon as I can.
24. When I eat what I crave I feel great.

25. I have no will power to resist my food cravings.

26. Once I start eating I have trouble stopping.

27. I can’t stop thinking about eating no matter how hard I try.
28. I spend a lot of time thinking about whatever it is I will eat next.
29. If I give in to a food craving, all control is lost.

30. When I’m stressed out, I crave food.

31. I daydream about food.

32. Whenever I have a food craving, I keep on thinking about eating until I actually
eat the food.
33. If I am craving something, thoughts of eating it consume me.

72
34. My emotions often make me want to eat.
35. Whenever I go to a buffet I end up eating more than what I needed.

36. It is hard for me to resist thetemptation to eat appetizing foods that are in my
reach.
37. When I am with someone who is overeating, I usually overeat too.

38. When I eat food, I feel comforted.

39. I crave foods when I’m upset.

73
APPENDIX F: POSTIVE AND NEGATIVE AFFECT SCHEDULE-EXPANDED
FORM
PANAS-X
This scale consists of a number of words and phrases that describe different feelings and
emotions. Read each item and then mark the appropriate answer in the space next to that
word. Indicate to what extent you have felt this way during the past two weeks. Use the
following scale to record your answers:
1 2
very slightly a little moderately quite a bit extremely
or not at all
cheerful sad _ active angry at self

disgusted calm _ guilty enthusiastic
attentive afraid joyful downhearted
bashful tired _ nervous sheepish
sluggish amazed _ lonely distressed
daring shaky _ sleepy blameworthy
surprised happy _ excited determined
strong timid _ hostile frightened
scornful alone _ proud astonished
relaxed alert jittery interested
irritable upset _ lively loathing
delighted angry _ ashamed confident
inspired bold _ at ease energetic
fearless blue _ scared concentrating
disgusted shy drowsy dissatisfied
with self with self
74
APPENDIX G: SHORT AFFECT INTENSITY SCALE
The Short Affect Intensity Scale
Directions: The following questions refer to the emotional reactions to typical life-events.
Please indicate how YOU react to these events by placing a number from the following
scale in the blank space preceding each item. Please base your answers on how YOU
react, not on how you think others react or how you think a person should react.
Almost Almost
Never Never Occasionally Usually Always Always
1 2 3 4 5 6
When I feel happy it is a strong type of exuberance.

My happy moods are so strong that I feel like I’m “in heaven”.
If I complete a task I thought was impossible, I am ecstatic.
Sad movies deeply touch me.
When I’m happy it’s a feeling of being untroubled and content rather than
being zestful and aroused.
When I talk in front of a group for the first time my voice gets shaky and
my heart races.
When I’m feeling well it’s easy for me to go from being in a good mood to
being really joyful.
When I’m happy I feel like I’m bursting with joy.
When I’m happy I feel very energetic.
When I succeed at something, my reaction is calm contentment.
When I do something wrong I have strong feelings of shame and guilt.
When things are going good I feel “on top of the world”.
When I know I have done something very well, I feel relaxed and content
rather than excited and elated.
When I do feel anxiety it is normally very strong.
When I feel happiness, it is a quiet type of contentment.
When I’m happy I bubble over with energy.
When I feel guilty, this emotion is quite strong.
I would characterize my happy moods as closer to contentment than to
joy.
When I am nervous I get shaky all over.
When I am happy the feeling is more like contentment and inner calm than
one of exhilaration and excitement.
75
APPENDIX H: CENTER FOR EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES DEPRESSION
SCALE
CESD
Using the scale below, indicate the number which best describes how often you felt or
behaved this way DURING THE PAST TWO WEEKS
1- Rarely or none of the time

2- Some or little of the time
3- Occasionally or a moderate amount of time
4- Most or all of the time
I was bothered by things that usually don’t bother me.

I did not feel like eating; my appetite was poor.
I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family.
I felt that I was just as good as other people.
I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing.
I felt depressed.
I felt that everything I did was an effort.
I felt hopeful about the future.
I thought my life had been a failure.
I felt fearful.
My sleep was restless.
I was happy.
I talked less than usual.
I felt lonely.
People were unfriendly.
I enjoyed life.
I had crying spells.
I felt sad.
I felt that people disliked me.
I could not “get going”.
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79
VITA AUCTORIS
Bridget Tribout majored in psychology at the University of Connecticut where
she received a Bachelor of Arts in May of 1999. After graduation she went on to work for
the Yale Child Study Center for two years. During her stay at the Child Study Center she
worked as a teacher assistant in the Yale child psychiatric hospital and as a research
assistant for several programs at Yale, including the National Center for Children
Exposed to Violence and the Child Development Community Policing Program. Mrs.
Tribout then went on to pursue her Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy in
clinical psychology at Saint Louis University. After receiving her Master of Science
Research degree and upon completion of the academic requirements for her doctorate she
was accepted to an APA accredited predoctoral internship at the Central Arkansas
Veterans Healthcare System. Her current research interests are food cravings, health
psychology, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, and military and law enforcement
psychology.
80

Food Cravings The Role of Body Mass Index, Gender, and Affect

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FOOD CRAVINGS: THE ROLE OF BODY MASS INDEX,

GENDER, AND AFFECT

Bridget L. Tribout, B.A., M.S.(R)

A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate

GENDER, AND AFFECT

Bridget L. Tribout, B.A., M.S.(R)

An Abstract Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate

Food cravings, defined as an intense desire to eat a specific food, constitute an

systematically examined these associations with instruments with known

a Midwest university participated in a study to test the following hypotheses: 1)

increasing BMI is associated with increases in food cravings, 2) women experience

relationship between negative affect and food cravings is expected to be stronger

weight control problems among men.

Assistant Professor Jillon S. Vander Wal

Professor Eddie M. Clark

Professor Michael J. Ross

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Table 1: Sample Characteristics.......................................................................................22

Table 2A: Descriptive Statistics for Measures of Food Cravings ..........................23

Table 2B: Descriptive Statistics for Measures of Affect.................................... 24

Table 5: Point by Serial Correlations between Gender and Measures of Food

Table 6: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Gender and Measures of Food

Food cravings, defined as an intense desire to eat a specific food, constitute an

for which psychometric information may be weak or unavailable. Although patterns of

from various literatures employing an assortment of instruments and operational

Challenges with Food Craving Research

as “a strong motivation to go out of ones’ way (if necessary) to obtain a specifically

Gendall et al., 1998; Lafay et al., 2001).

Varying definitions of food cravings have been found to significantly influence

The lack of a universal definition of food cravings makes the objective of

Food Cravings and Eating Pathology

Despite these research challenges, studies suggest that most individuals

elicited food cravings, researchers found a significant association between cue-elicited

Food Cravings and Body Mass Index

In addition to pathological eating behaviors, research suggests that there may be

(Rodin, Mancuso, Granger, & Nelbach, 1991).

dieters become non-significant. Harvey et al. (1993) conducted a study investigating

Finally, Delahanty, Meigs, Hayden, Williamson and Nathan (2002) found, in a

and beyond eating pathology.

Food Cravings and Affect

Researchers have also discovered an association between food cravings and

women’s food cravings.

Food Cravings and Gender

50% of the time (Lafay et al., 2001).

Objectives of the Present Study

from various literatures employing an assortment of instruments and operational

definitions of food cravings. No study has systematically examined these associations

is a relationship between food cravings and individuals’ BMIs. Specifically, some

and food cravings.

consumption, preoccupation with food, and the physical state of hunger.

foodcravingresearcher@vahoo.com. This ensured that participants’ names would not be

pregnant or breastfeeding, gaining or losing 10 or more pounds in the past 60 days, a

heart failure, cancer, autoimmune disease), uncontrolled diabetes, uncontrolled hyper- or

hypothyroidism, history of drug or alcohol abuse, or history of an eating disorder.

Demographic Questionnaire (Appendix A). On the Demographic Questionnaire,

various demographic characteristics of the participants were gathered including gender,

weeks following the completion of their menses.

lapsed since the completion o f my menses prior to completing the survey.

developed by White, Whisenhunt, Williamson, Greenway, and Netemeyer (2002) to

(carbohydrates/starches) to .91 (high fats).

Inventory to assess dimensions of eating behavior. The Eating Inventory is a two-part

developed by Cepeda-Benito, Gleaves, Williams, and Erath (2000) to measure trait-based

applicable, to 6, always. The FCQ-T measures 9 dimensions of food cravings found in