PRONOUNS

____________________________________________________________________________________

We use the following PRONOUNS before the verb as the subject:

I am at school. We are football players.

You (singular) are a student. You (plural) are students.
He wants a pencil. They are teachers.
She speaks French.
It is on the table.
______________________________________________________________________

We use the following PRONOUNS after the verb or a preposition as the object:

Give me the book. Dr. Jones knows us.

I saw you (singular) last night. Mr. Smith teaches you (plural).
We met him at the stadium. These books are for them.
They gave her a new watch.
John put it on the table.
______________________________________________________________________

We use the following POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES before NOUNS to show that something belongs to someone or
something:

I have my book. We have our books.

You have your book. You have your books.
He has his book. They have their books.
She has her book.
It is eating its food.

______________________________________________________________________

We use the following PRONOUNS to show that something belongs to someone or something. We do not use a
NOUN after these words.

That’s my book. It’s mine. We have our books. Ours are blue.
I have my book, but I don’t have yours. Our books are blue. Yours are green.
My book is on the table. Where is his? I found my pencil. Did they find theirs?
Sara put my cookie on the table and ate hers.
______________________________________________________________________

We use THIS and THAT before NOUNS to show that the nouns are near or far:

This book in my hand is very old. That man over there is my teacher.

The plural form of THIS is THESE. The plural form of THAT is THOSE.

These pens in my pocket are mine. Those birds up in the sky are beautiful.

______________________________________________________________________

1
PRONOUN CHART
____________________________________________________________________________________

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE

ADJECTIVES

I me my mine
You you your yours
He him his his
She her her hers
It it its its
We us our ours
You you your yours
They them their theirs

2
VERBS

PART ONE -- THE VERB TO BE

____________________________________________________________________________________

1. SIMPLE PRESENT

I am We are
You are very busy. You are very busy.
He/She/It is They are

SIMPLE PAST

I was We were
You were hungry yesterday. You were hungry yesterday
He/She/It was They were

2. The be-verb is used for the following topics:

time What time is it? It is 2:00.

weather Yesterday was 35 degrees. It was hot and humid.

color His shoes are black.

occupation They are pilots in the airforce.

nationality I am French and you are Japanese.

age How old are you? I am 25.

physical / mental state They were happy, but I was sad.

names My name is John.

place The books were on the desk.

3. The be-verb is followed by verb+ing when the action is happening at the present moment:

Ali is eating dinner right now

We are studying English at the moment.
I am watching TV at the present time.

===========================

Note:

For additional uses of the verb To Be see the following sections of this book:

AUXILIARY VERB QUESTIONS and PASSIVE VOICE

3
 VERBS

PART TWO -- SUMMARY of PRESENT & PAST TENSES

____________________________________________________________________________________

Simple Present Tense

The simple present tense usually means that the action of the verb is repeated.

X X X X X X X I study everyday.

past now future

Present Continuous Tense

The present continuous tense usually means that the action of the verb is happening right now.

X I am studying right now.

past now future

Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense means that the action of the verb began and ended in the past, usually at a specific time.

X I studied yesterday.

past now future

Past Continuous Tense

The past continuous tense is used when the action of the verb occurred at a point in time in the past, or
when the action of the verb continued through a time in the past

X I was studying yesterday at 11:55 AM.

(11:55 AM)

past now future

---------------
X X I was studying when you arrived.
(was studying) (arrived)

past now future

4
VERBS

PART THREE -- SUMMARY of PERFECT TENSES

____________________________________________________________________________________

Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used when the action of the verb happened at an unspecified time in the past (“before
now”), or when action of the verb began in the past and continues to now.

X I have studied.

(time?)

past now future

--------------
X X I have studied for 2 hours.
I have studied since 10:00.

(10:00) (12:00)

past now future

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The present perfect continuous tense is used when the action of the verb began in the past and continues to now.

--------------
X X I have been studying for 2 hours.
I have been studying since 10:00.

(10:00) (12:00)

Past Perfect Tense

The past perfect tense is used when the action of the verb began and ended before another time in the past. It is
often combined with another clause using the simple past tense.

X X I had studied before they arrived.

(had studied) (arrived)

past now future

5
VERBS

PART FOUR -- SUMMARY of FUTURE TENSES

____________________________________________________________________________________

Future Tense

The future tense is used when the action of the verb will happen at a time in the future. We use will when it is certain
[sure] that something will happen.

X I will pray at noon.

past now future

“Going to” Future

The “going to” future is used when an action is planned for the future. We use going to when we plan to do
something, but it may not happen.

?X? I am going to visit my friends tomorrow.

past now future

6
TAG QUESTIONS
____________________________________________________________________________________

Use the proper auxiliary (helping) or modal verb to make the tag.

1. AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE, NEGATIVE TAG.

He came, DIDN'T HE?

They agree, DON'T THEY?

You will help, WON'T YOU?

We have seen it, HAVEN'T WE?

We can leave, CAN’T WE?

She was left here, WASN'T SHE?

2. NEGATIVE SENTENCE, AFFIRMATIVE TAG.

He didn't come, DID HE?

They don't agree, DO THEY?

You won't help, WILL YOU?

We haven't seen it, HAVE WE?

We can’t leave, CAN WE?

She wasn't left here, WAS SHE?

_________________________________________________________________

NOTE:

The tag question after I AM is AREN'T I.

I'm next in line, AREN'T I?

I am on duty soon, AREN'T I?

_________________________________________________________________

7
MODAL AUXILIARIES
____________________________________________________________________________________

1. WILL = BE GOING TO for the FUTURE

John will have a test tomorrow. John is going to have a test tomorrow.
_________________________________________________________________________

2. CAN = AM/IS/ARE ABLE TO for ABILITY

They can speak French. They are able to speak French.
_________________________________________________________________________

3. COULD = WAS/WERE ABLE TO for ABILITY IN THE PAST

He could swim a mile last year. He was able to swim a mile last year.
_________________________________________________________________________

4. MUST = HAVE TO, NEED TO for NECESSITY

I must go to the office this morning. I have to go to the office this morning.
I need to go to the office this morning.

NOTE: MUST NOT, DON’T HAVE TO, and DON'T NEED TO are not the same.

MUST NOT means the action is prohibited.

You must not drive 100 miles per hour. (You cannot drive 100 mph.)

DON’T HAVE TO and DON'T NEED TO means the action is not necessary.
You don’t have to come early tomorrow. (It isn’t necessary to come early.)
He doesn't need to call home. (It isn't necessary for him to call home.)

_________________________________________________________________________

5. SHOULD = OUGHT TO, HAD BETTER for ADVISABILITY

We should study for the test. We ought to study for the test. We had better study for the test.

NOTE: BE SUPPOSED TO often functions like the modal SHOULD.

You are supposed to do your homework.
_________________________________________________________________________

6. MAY = MIGHT, COULD for POSSIBILITY

It may rain this afternoon. It might rain this afternoon. It could rain this afternoon.
_________________________________________________________________________

7. CAN = MAY for PERMISSION

You can leave when you finish. You may leave when you finish.
_________________________________________________________________________

8. WOULD for CONDITION, PAST HABIT

I would go if I had the time.
I used to live in Taif. I would walk in the mountains in the afternoons.
_________________________________________________________________________

9. MODALS are always followed by the first form of the verb.

___________________________________________________________________

8
AUXILIARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS
_____________________________________________________________________

1. DO, DOES, DID, and MODALS are followed by the first form (verb one).

DO you KNOW the phone number?

DOES he DRIVE to work everyday?
DID they PASS the test?
WILL you LEND me ten dollars?

_____________________________________________________________________

2. AM, ARE. IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN are followed by the -ING FORM.

AM I TYPING this correctly?

ARE you COMING to class tomorrow?
IS she MAKING dinner now?
WAS he DRIVING carefully?
WERE they SLEEPING in class?
WILL they BE EATING at 1:30?
HAVE they BEEN WRITING for two hours?

WARNING: THIS IS NOT TRUE IF THE SENTENCE IS PASSIVE!

_______________________________________________________________________

3. HAVE, HAS, and HAD are followed by the third form (verb 3).

HAVE you DONE your homework?

HAS he ARRIVED yet?
HAD they EATEN before they left?

________________________________________________________________________

4. MODALS are followed by the first form (verb one).

CAN you SPEAK German?

COULD I BORROW your pencil?
MUST they BRING notebook to class?
WILL you LEND me ten dollars?
WOULD you STOP talking in class?
MAY I OPEN the window?
SHOULD he SEE the doctor?

9
PASSIVE VOICE
______________________________________________________________________

The SUBJECT does not do anything. The streets are cleaned every morning.

Someone or something does it TO the SUBJECT. The book was written by Tom.
The house was damaged by the fire.
______________________________________________________________________

Use the verb BE + the PAST PARTICIPLE That car IS MADE in Japan.
The cat WAS FED by the lady.
The windows have BEEN BROKEN.
______________________________________________________________________

The planes ARE inspected daily. (present)

The job WAS finished early. (past)
The verb BE shows the tense. A new school was being built. (past continuous)
The chairs HAVE BEEN painted. (present perfect)
The letter had been mailed. (past perfect)
He is BEING punished now. (present continuous)
______________________________________________________________________

Passive voice sentences may or may not have the word BY.

The car was driven very fast by Ali. or The car was driven very fast.

The window was broken by someone. or The window was broken.

______________________________________________________________________

Use BE or HAVE BEEN + the PAST PARTICIPLE after MODALS.

The tire MUST BE CHANGED.

Such conduct CANNOT BE ALLOWED.
You COULD HAVE BEEN KILLED.

______________________________________________________________________

GET-Verb can be used instead of BE-Verb in a passive sense.

The car IS WASHED by Bob. The car GETS WASHED by Bob.

The books WERE TAKEN. or The books GOT TAKEN.
The students HAVE BEEN TOLD. The students HAVE GOTTEN TOLD.

______________________________________________________________________

10
To make a verb passive, use a form of BE (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will be, to
be) and the past participle (verb 3) like mailed, taught, written, helped, etc.

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

(BE + VERB THREE)
SIMPLE Mr. Smith teaches me. I am taught by Mr. Smith.
PRESENT Mr. Smith teaches Ahmed. Ahmed is taught by Mr. Smith.
Mr. Smith teaches us. We are taught by Mr. Smith.

PRESENT That company is publishing the book. The book is being published by that company.
PROGRESSIVE Mr. Smith is teaching me. I am being taught by Mr. Smith.
Harry is writing some letters. Some letters are being written by Harry.

SIMPLE PAST Mr. Jones taught me. I was taught by Mr. Jones.
Mr. Jones taught us. We were taught by Mr. Jones

PAST The Air Force was hiring some new Some new teachers were being hired by the
PROGRESSIVE teachers. Air Force.
Someone was building a new school. A new school was being built.

PRESENT Harry has written the letter. The letter has been written by Harry.
PERFECT Harry has written the letters. The letters have been written by Harry.

FUTURE Harry will mail the letter. The letter will be mailed by Harry.
Harry is going to mail the letter. The letter is going to be mailed by Harry.

MODALS Harry will send it. It will be sent by Harry.

Harry can send it. It can be sent by Harry.
Harry should send it. It should be sent by Harry.
Harry ought to send it. It ought to be sent by Harry.
Harry must send it. It must be sent by Harry.
Harry has to send it. It has to be sent by Harry.
Harry may send it. It may be sent by Harry.
Harry might send it. It might be sent by Harry.

Harry should have sent it. It should have been sent by Harry.
Harry couldn’t have sent it. It couldn’t have been sent by Harry.

11
PARTS OF SPEECH -- PART 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

NOUNS

1. A noun is a person, a place, or a thing. A noun can be singular or plural. The following are
nouns:

book cats Riyadh men Ali airforce

ADJECTIVES

2. Adjectives describe nouns. They often are in front of the noun that they describe.

The new books are in the classroom. A tall, fat man bought a small, cheap car.

3. Adjective can follow the be-verb.

That student is intelligent. Shwarmas are delicious. My vacation was expensive.

ADVERBS

4. Adverbs tell how something is done. They often end in -ly.

He drives slowly. Abdullah ran quickly from the room. She sing beautifully.

5. Adverbs are often used in comparisons.

AS . . . . . AS for equality He drives as carefully as I do.

MORE/LESS . . . . . THAN for two He drives more/less carefully than I do.
THE MOST . . . . . . for three or more He drives the most carefully [of all].

Exception: EARLY / EARLIER THAN / THE EARLIEST

Salim came earlier than Fuad. Misfer came the earliest of all the students.

ADVERBS -- SPECIAL CASES

6. FAST and HARD do not end in -ly.

They work hard. Saad types fast.

7. Do not use -ly after the verbs SEEM, TASTE, SOUND, FEEL, SMELL.

The flowers smell nice (not nicely).

That chair feels comfortable (not comfortably).
The music sounds loud (not loudly).
This food tastes bad (not badly).
Ahmed seems happy (not happily).

8. WELL is the adverb of GOOD.

Saleh speaks English well. He is a good speaker.

My father drives well. He is a good driver.

12
PARTS OF SPEECH -- PART 2
____________________________________________________________________________________

NOUNS

1. Nouns come after "a", "an", or "the".

2. Words that end in -er, -ment, -ty, -cy, -ness, -tion are nouns.

He bought a new computer for his office.

We made the reservation on time.
They made an agreement to stay inside for many hours.

ADJECTIVES

3. A plural noun can be changed to an adjective by adding a hyphen (-) and removing the "s".

The shirt cost ten dollars. It is a ten-dollar shirt.

The car has four doors. It is a four-door car.

4. Some verbs can be changed to adjectives.

VERB ADJECTIVE
interest interesting / interested
excite exciting / excited
annoy annoying / annoyed
irritate irritating / irritated
surprise surprising / surprised
amaze amazing / amazed

_ed adjectives (interested, frightened, etc.) tell us how a person feels about something
_ing adjectives (interesting, frightening, etc.) tell us what caused that feeling.

The children were interested. Why? Because the book was interesting.

The woman was frightened. Why? Because the snake was frightening.

The students were bored. Why? Because the teacher was boring.

PARTS OF SPEECH
SEE APPENDIX FOR ADDITIONAL EXPLANATION & EXERCISES

13
COUNT / NON-COUNT NOUNS
____________________________________________________________________________________

A FEW and MANY are used with count nouns.

I ate a few apples yesterday.

Many people fly from Riyadh to Jeddah.
__________________________________________________________________

A LITTLE and MUCH are used with non-count nouns.

(MUCH is usually used in questions or negative sentences.)

There is a little tea in the cup.

Was there much rain last night?
I didn’t see much snow on the mountains.
___________________________________________________________________

A LOT OF, LOTS OF, A GREAT DEAL OF and PLENTY OF are used with both count and non-count nouns.

He ate a lot of cookies and drank a lot of tea.

Lots of people drink lots of Pepsi.
A great deal of information can be found in encyclopedias.
This college has a great deal of science courses.
He drank a great deal of water because it was so hot.
Plenty of people can fly on a 747.
He bought plenty of rice at the supermarket.
___________________________________________________________________

SOME is used in affirmative sentences with both count and non-count nouns.

Ahmed needs some money.

There are some books on the table.
___________________________________________________________________

ANY is used in negative sentences with both count and non-count nouns.

Ahmed doesn't need any money.

There aren’t any books on the table.
He eats hardly any bread.
John has never seen any whales.
__________________________________________________________________

SOME or ANY are used in questions with both count and non-count nouns.

Do you have some paper?

Did he bring some cookies for us to eat?

Do you have any paper?

Did he bring any cookies for us to eat?

14
COMPARATIVE / SUPERLATIVE
____________________________________________________________________________________

COMPARATIVE

1. Use the COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE for TWO people, things or groups.

My brother is OLDER THAN I am.

Who is FASTER, BOB or CHARLES?
A mile is LONGER THAN a kilometer.

2. Use _______ -ER THAN if the word has one syllable or if the word has two syllables and ends with -ow,
-y, or consonant + -le (narrow, easy, simple).

John is TALLER THAN Fred.

It's COOLER in Taif THAN in Jeddah.
This lesson is HARDER THAN the last one.

3. Use MORE __________ THAN if the word has two or more syllables.

His car is MORE EXPENSIVE THAN yours.

A man is MORE INTELLIGENT THAN an animal.
Does Sally sing MORE BEAUTIFULLY THAN Mary?

_________________________________________________________________

SUPERLATIVE

4 Use the SUPERLATIVE for THREE OR MORE.

He is the OLDEST of my four children.

Horses are THE SMARTEST of all the animals.

5. Use THE __________ -EST if the word has one syllable or if the word has two syllables and ends with -ow, -y, or
consonant + -le (narrow, easy, simple).

This is THE BIGGEST building in the city.

What is THE HIGHEST mountain in the world?

6. Use THE MOST __________ if the word has two or more syllables.

He is THE MOST IMPORTANT man in the country.

Bob is THE MOST HANDSOME student in class.

WARNING: DON'T USE MOST AND -EST TOGETHER.

_________________________________________________________________

IRREGULAR FORMS:

7. GOOD/BETTER/BEST

These tools are GOOD.

These tools are BETTER THAN those.
These are the BEST tools you can buy.

8. BAD/WORSE/WORST

Ted is a BAD driver.

Ted is a WORSE driver THAN John.
Ted is THE WORST DRIVER here.

15
9. (A) LITTLE/LESS/LEAST

I have A LITTLE money.

I have LESS money THAN you.
I have THE LEAST money of all of.

10. LESS / LEAST are the opposite of MORE / MOST.

I took MORE time THAN you did.

You took LESS time THAN I did.

Tom took THE MOST time of all the students.

Allan took THE LEAST time of all the students.
_________________________________________________________________

11. Use AS __________ AS to show equality.

This box is AS heavy AS that box.

Fred is AS intelligent AS I am.
He works AS quickly AS you do.
_________________________________________________________________

16
PREPOSITIONS
_________________________________________________________________

1. IN or DURING is used with months, seasons, years, morning, afternoon, evening.

I left in June. It is warm in the spring.

He arrived here in 1990. We have classes in the morning.
_________________________________________________________________

2. IN is used with cities, countries.

They live in Dallas. Dallas is in Texas. Texas is in the United States.

_________________________________________________________________

3. IN is used with FUTURE TIME that is COUNTED.

The film will be over in two hours.

BY is used with FUTURE TIME that is NOT COUNTED.

The film will be over by 6 o'clock.

_________________________________________________________________

4. ON is used with days of the week, dates, streets names (no address number).

The first class is on Saturday. He was born on July 3, 1975.

Mr. and Mrs. Jones live on West River Street.
_________________________________________________________________

5. AT is used for house numbers + street names, exact times, night, noon, midnight.

John Smith lives at 321 East River Street. Classes begin at 6:55 a.m.
Most people sleep at night. He was still awake at midnight.
_________________________________________________________________

6. BY is used for transportation, except when there is another word before the type of transportation.

This morning I went to work by taxi.

This morning I went to work in a taxi.
_________________________________________________________________

7. OPPOSITE means ACROSS FROM.

The pharmacy is opposite the bank.The pharmacy is across from the bank.
_________________________________________________________________

8. Words such as INTERESTED IN / AFRAID OF / LEAVE FOR / DROP IN / RUN INTO should be learned
in combination with the preposition.

17
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
____________________________________________________________________________________

1. ALWAYS(100%) = CONSTANTLY, ALL OF THE TIME

I ALWAYS finish on time. I CONSTANTLY finish on time. I finish early ALL THE TIME.
________________________________________________________________________________________

2. USUALLY (95%) = GENERALLY, ALMOST ALWAYS, MOST OF THE TIME, ORDINARILY,

REGULARLY

They USUALLY prepare well. They GENERALLY prepare well.

They prepare well MOST OF THE TIME. They ORDINARILY prepare well.
________________________________________________________________________________________

3. OFTEN (75%) = FREQUENTLY, MUCH OF THE TIME

They OFTEN review. They FREQUENTLY review. They review MUCH OF THE TIME.
________________________________________________________________________________________

4. SOMETIMES (40%) = OCCASIONALLY, NOW AND THEN, FROM TIME TO TIME

He SOMETIMES helps me. He OCCASIONALLY helps us. He helps us NOW AND THEN.
________________________________________________________________________________________

5. SELDOM (10%) = RARELY, ALMOST NEVER, HARDLY EVER

You SELDOM visit us. You RARELY visit us. You ALMOST NEVER visit us.
________________________________________________________________________________________

6. NEVER (0%) = NOT EVER

They NEVER answer. They DON'T EVER answer.

________________________________________________________________________________________

7. Special Case -- EVER: EVER is often used in questions and after negatives. [Ever means ‘at any time’].

Do they EVER eat at McDonalds? They don't EVER eat at McDonalds.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

8. DAILY = EVERY DAY WEEKLY = EVERY WEEK

I ride the bus DAILY. I visit my parents WEEKLY.
I ride the bus EVERY DAY. I visit my parents EVERY WEEK.

MONTHLY = EVERY MONTH YEARLY = EVERY YEAR

The race is held MONTHLY. We have one vacation YEARLY
The race is held ONCE A MONTH. We have one vacation EVERY YEAR.
________________________________________________________________________________________

9. ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY usually come:

a. Before the main verb: I ALWAYS COME to class on time. He will OFTEN VISIT them.

b. After the be-verb: You ARE SELDOM late. He WAS NEVER sick.

NOTE: DAILY, WEEKLY, MONTHLY, and YEARLY come after the main verb.

We GO to school DAILY. They get PAID MONTHLY.

18
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
______________________________________________________________________

1. The PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE is formed by using WAS + VERB-ING or WERE + VERB-ING

I WAS We WERE
You WERE EATING. You WERE EATING.
He/She/It WAS They WERE

______________________________________________________________________

2. Use the PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE with the following words:

YESTERDAY They WERE DOING homework YESTERDAY.

LAST - week/month/year I WAS WORKING in Riyadh LAST YEAR.
AGO He WAS LIVING there two years AGO.
______________________________________________________________________

3. We often use the PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE in sentences with the SIMPLE PAST TENSE.

I WAS SLEEPING when the phone RANG.

They WERE PLAYING when the rain STARTED.
______________________________________________________________________

4. We often use the PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE for the longer actions with while.

The fire STARTED while she WAS SLEEPING.

I ARRIVED while they WERE HAVING dinner.
______________________________________________________________________

5. We often use the PAST SIMPLE TENSE for the shorter actions with when.

WERE the boys EATING when you CALLED?

He WAS STUDYING when you ARRIVED?
______________________________________________________________________

6. PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE can be used for a point in time in the past.

Abdullah WAS SLEEPING at 7:52 AM.

______________________________________________________________________

7. We can often change the order of the clauses in the sentence, but the meaning of the sentence will not
change.

While they WERE STUDYING, the phone RANG.

or
The phone RANG while they WERE STUDYING.

He WAS WALKING with John when I saw him.

or
When I SAW him, he WAS WALKING with John.

19
FOR / SINCE / AGO / ALREADY / YET / DURING / UNTIL / BEFORE / STILL
______________________________________________________________________

1. Use SINCE with a point in time.

SINCE Monday SINCE 21 May 1992 SINCE 1975 SINCE I arrived SINCE 3:00
______________________________________________________________________

2. SINCE is used with PRESENT PERFECT tense or PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tense with a point of
time.

I HAVE STUDIED here SINCE last month. I HAVE BEEN READING SINCE 9:00.
______________________________________________________________________

3. Use FOR with a length of time.

FOR a few minutes FOR two days FOR two months FOR several years FOR a long time
______________________________________________________________________

4. FOR can be used with many tenses like PRESENT PERFECT, PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS,
SIMPLE PAST, or FUTURE.

I HAVE STUDIED here FOR one month. I HAVE BEEN STUDYING here FOR one month.
I STUDIED here FOR one month. I WILL STUDY here FOR one month.
______________________________________________________________________

5. Use the PAST with AGO. [Ago means ‘before now’].

They LEFT two hours AGO. They WERE STUDYING a few minutes AGO.
______________________________________________________________________

6. ALREADY means before now, before this time. It is used in positive sentences. It is often used with
PRESENT PERFECT.

John has ALREADY eaten lunch. The computer has ALREADY been fixed.
______________________________________________________________________

7. YET means up to this time . It is used in negative sentences and questions. It is often used with PRESENT
PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE .

The plane hasn’t arrived YET. Have you eaten dinner YET?
______________________________________________________________________

8. DURING or IN means in that time.

I will take my vacation IN the summer. The shops are closed DURING prayer-time.
______________________________________________________________________

9. UNTIL or TILL means from the time of doing something up to a later time.

He kept turning the key UNTIL the engine started. I will wait here TILL he arrives.
______________________________________________________________________

10. BEFORE is used to talk about a time that is EARLIER than another time.

I haven't eaten capsa BEFORE. He hadn't seen snow BEFORE he went to Canada.
______________________________________________________________________

11. STILL means the action isn't finished.

He is STILL reading the report. My family STILL lives in Jeddah.

______________________________________________________________________

20
CONDITIONALS
_____________________________________________________________________

FIRST CONDITIONAL (real condition about the present or future)

WILL
CAN + simple verb (IF) PRESENT TENSE
MAY

PRESENT TENSE (IF) PRESENT TENSE

BE-VERB + V-ING

example: I will go if I have enough money.

can
may

I go if I have enough money.

I am going if I have enough money.
______________________________________________________________________

SECOND CONDITIONAL (unreal condition about the present)

WOULD
COULD + simple verb (IF) PAST TENSE
MIGHT

example: I would go if I had enough money.

could
might

(I can’t go because I don’t have enough money.)

______________________________________________________________________

THIRD CONDITIONAL (unreal condition about the past)

WOULD HAVE
COULD HAVE + past participle (IF) PAST PERFECT TENSE
MIGHT HAVE

example: I would have gone if I had brought enough money.

could have
might have

(I didn’t go because I didn’t have enough money.)

______________________________________________________________________

Use WERE after IF in the SECOND CONDITIONAL.

DON'T use WAS.

examples: I WOULD BUY an airplane IF I WERE rich.

He WOULD TELEPHONE IF he WERE lost.

______________________________________________________________________

NOTE: The IF-clause can go at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.

If I have enough money, I will buy the car.

or
I will buy the car if I have enough money.

21
SO / TOO / EITHER / NEITHER / ALSO / AS WELL (AS)
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1. If the two verbs in your combined sentence are both positive ( + , + )

use SO, TOO, ALSO, AS WELL.

I enjoy my work. He enjoys his work.

examples: I enjoy my work and SO does he.

I enjoy my work and he does TOO.
I enjoy my work and he does ALSO.
I enjoy my work and he does AS WELL.
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2. If one of the verbs in your combined sentence is negative and the other verb is positive ( - , + )
use NEITHER.

He didn't like the film. I didn't like the film.

example: He didn't like the film and NEITHER did I.

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3. If both verbs in your combined sentence are negative ( - , - )

use EITHER.

Tom isn't coming. Fred isn't coming.

example: Tom isn't coming and Fred isn't EITHER.

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4. SO and NEITHER come after "and", and the verb comes before the subject.

He likes rice. We like rice.

example: He likes rice and SO DO we.

They haven’t gone. We haven’t gone.

example: They haven't gone and NEITHER HAVE we.

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5. AS WELL comes AT THE END of the sentence.

AS WELL AS comes IN THE MIDDLE of the sentence.

Do not use AND with AS WELL AS.

examples: He smokes a pipe and cigarettes AS WELL.

He smokes a pipe AS WELL AS cigarettes.

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QUESTION WORDS
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Question Word Example

Who (refers to people) Who ate a hamburger in the snack bar at 1:30 yesterday?
John ate a hamburger in the snack bar at 1:30 yesterday.

Where (refers to a place) Where did John eat a hamburger at 1:30 yesterday?
John ate a hamburger in the snack bar at 1:30 yesterday.

When (refers to time) When did John eat a hamburger in the snack bar?
John ate a hamburger in the snack bar at 1:30 yesterday.

Why (refers to reason) Why did John eat a hamburger in the snack bar?
John ate a hamburger because he was hungry.

What (refers to a thing) What did John eat in the snack bar at 1:30 yesterday?
John ate a hamburger in the snack bar at 1:30 yesterday.

Which (refers to a specific noun) Which book did John buy?

John bought the blue book.

Whose (refers to possession) Whose book is on the table?

John's book is on the table.

How (refers to a method) How did John come to school yesterday?

John came to school by car yesterday.

How often (refers to frequency) How often does John arrive late?
John never arrives late.

How many (refers to count number) How many books did John read last month?
John read five books last month.

How much (refers to non-count number) How much rice did John eat?
John ate a little rice.

How far (refers to distance) How far is Al Kharj from Riyadh?

Al Kharj is 80 kilometers form Riyadh.

How long (refers to length of time) How long are our classes?
Our classes are 45 minutes long.

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EMBEDDING
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There are DIRECT QUESTIONS and there are EMBEDDED QUESTIONS.

Direct Question Embedded Question
Where is Ali? Do you know where Ali is?
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An EMBEDDED QUESTION is:

1. A question inside statement.
Direct Question Embedded Question
When will Mary leave? I'm not sure when Mary will leave.
2. A question inside a question.
Direct Question Embedded Question
What is he doing? Can you tell me what he is doing?
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A Wh-question (who, what, when, where, why, etc.) in an EMBEDDED QUESTION is made as follows:

Direct Question Embedded Question

Introduction + Wh-question + Subject + Verb

Where is the classroom? Could you show me where the classroom is?
When should he go? He wonders when he should go.

A Yes/No question in an EMBEDDED QUESTION takes IF or WHETHER:

Direct Question Embedded Question

Introduction + If/Whether + Subject + Verb

Are they at home? He doesn't know if they are at home.

Has he eaten lunch? Can you tell me whether he has eaten lunch?
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Special Case:
The auxiliary verbs Do, Does, Did are not used in an EMBEDDED QUESTION.
Direct Question Embedded Question
Does she like capsa? Could you tell me if she likes capsa?
(Not -- Could you tell me if she does like capsa?)
Where did Abdulla go yesterday? I wonder where Abdullah went yesterday.
(Not -- I wonder where Abdullah did go yesterday.)
But the negative auxiliary verb Don't, Doesn't, and Didn't are used:
Direct Question Embedded Question
Did they go to Jeddah? I wonder why they didn't go to Jeddah.
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RELATIVE CLAUSES
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1. A relative word joins two sentences into one sentence.

I bought a new car. The car is very big. I bought a new car that is very big.

2. For PEOPLE the relative words that can join two sentences are WHO and THAT

The man looks mean. The man is holding a gun The man who is holding a gun looks mean.
or
The man that is holding a gun looks mean.

3. For THINGS the relative words are WHICH and THAT

This is the letter. The letter arrived yesterday. This is the letter which arrived yesterday.
or
This is the letter that arrived yesterday.

4. For PLACES the relative word is WHERE

They drove down the street. A hotel is being built on the street.
They drove down the street where a hotel is being built.

5. For TIME the relative word is WHEN

The vacation was fun. We went to London during the vacation.

The vacation when we went to London was fun.

6. For POSSESSIVES the relative word is WHOSE

Those are the people. I met their son. Those are the people whose son I met.

7. For REASON the relative word is WHY

He was absent for a reason. The reason was because his father was sick.
The reason why he was absent was because his father was sick.

Note! It is not always necessary to use a relative word.

The man who is fixing the car is my friend. or The man fixing my car is my friend.

The book which I bought is very popular. or The book I bought is very popular.

Note! Do not use HE, SHE, IT, HIM, etc. when they mean the same as the relative word.

Do you see the woman who is wearing the hat?

Not -- Do you see the woman who she is wearing the hat?

The plane which has just left is going to Paris.

Not -- The plane which it has just left is going to Paris.

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INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH
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1. You can say things using DIRECT SPEECH or INDIRECT SPEECH.

DIRECT SPEECH is used to say exactly what a person said.

Ali said, "The bus will be late today."

INDIRECT SPEECH is used when you tell someone what a person said.

Ali said that the bus would be late today.

2. STATEMENTS -- The verb tense usually changes from DIRECT SPEECH to INDIRECT SPEECH.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Present tense Past tense

Amir said, "They write letters on Tuesday." Amir said (that) they wrote letters on Tuesday.

Future tense Would

The teacher said, "The test will be tomorrow." The teacher said (that) the test would be tomorrow.

Past tense Past perfect tense

She said, "Ali drove the car." She said (that) Ali had driven the car.

Present perfect Past perfect tense

They said, "the students have taken the test." They said (that) the students had taken the test.

Commands Infinitive (TO + Verb One)

He said, "Go to the office." He said to go to the office.

3. WH-QUESTIONS -- change the verb tense, place the subject before the verb, and remove DO, DOES, DID

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Bill asked, "Where does Saleh live?" Bill asked where Saleh lived.

4. YES/NO QUESTION -- change the verb tense, add IF or WHETHER, and remove DO, DOES, DID

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

They asked, "Does she play football?" They asked IF she played football.
We asked, "Will they come?" We asked WHETHER they would come.

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NOTE!

In an indirect statement or question, the pronouns must agree with the person whose speech is being reported.

He asked, "Where are you going?" He asked where I was going.

Nora asked, "Can I buy a new dress?" Nora asked if she could buy a new dress.

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EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE
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If you want to tell the REASON WHY use these words:

1. TO + SIMPLE VERB
IN ORDER TO + SIMPLE VERB

examples: WHY do you come to school? I come to school TO study English.

I come to school IN ORDER TO study.

2. BECAUSE + Clause (subject + verb)--reason

SO + Clause (subject + verb)--result

examples: WHY did he leave early? He left early BECAUSE he was sick.
He left early SO he could go to bed.

3. FOR + NOUN

example: WHY will they go to the store? They will go to the store FOR some milk.

4. TO + SIMPLE VERB

examples: WHAT are hammers used FOR? Hammers are used TO drive nails.
Hammers are used TO drive nails.
We use hammers TO drive nails.

5. FOR + VERB-ING

examples: WHAT are knives used FOR? Knives are used FOR CUTTING meat.
Knives are used FOR CUTTING meat.
We use knives FOR CUTTING meat.

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TOO, SO, SUCH, ENOUGH, HARDLY
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1. TOO + ADJECTIVE + INFINITIVE

This coffee is TOO HOT TO DRINK.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR

This coffee is TOO HOT FOR me.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR + INFINITIVE

This coffee is TOO HOT FOR me TO DRINK.

TOO + ADJECTIVE

I can't drink this coffee because it is TOO HOT.

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2. SO + ADJECTIVE/ADVERB + THAT (CLAUSE)

This process is SO complex THAT I don't understand it.

He left SO quickly THAT I didn’t see him go.
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3. SUCH + (ADJECTIVE) NOUN + THAT (CLAUSE)

He is SUCH a busy man THAT it is difficult to see him.

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4. ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + INFINITIVE

It's WARM ENOUGH TO REMOVE your coat.

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR

The coffee is SWEET ENOUGH FOR me.

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR + INFINITIVE

The process is SIMPLE ENOUGH FOR us TO UNDERSTAND.

ENOUGH + NOUN + INFINITIVE

There is ENOUGH HEAT TO MELT the metal.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR + INFINITIVE

There are ENOUGH CHEMICALS FOR us TO COMPLETE the experiment.

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5. HARDLY + ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + INFINITIVE

It's HARDLY STRONG ENOUGH TO DO the job.

[It may do the job, but it might break or fail].

HARDLY + ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR

He has HARDLY ENOUGH MONEY FOR the rent.

[He has money for the rent, but not for anything else].
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GERUNDS & INFINITIVES
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1. A gerund is a verb+ing which is used as a noun.

Examples: Walking is very good exercise.

The student is in trouble for talking in class.
I enjoy visiting my family.

2. Gerunds follow certain verbs:

verb + gerund

Ali keeps driving.

practices
misses
avoids
enjoys
goes
doesn't mind
finishes
mentions

3. Gerunds sometimes are used at the beginning of a sentence.

Example: Studying is important in this class.

4. Gerunds can follow prepositions (in, on, by, about, after, before, etc.)

Examples: I will talk to you about flying to Jeddah.

He called his family on hearing the news.
You should eat before taking a test.

INFINITIVES

5. An infinitive is TO + VERB 1.

Example: I need to call my brother.

6. Infinitives follow certain verbs:

verb + infinitive

We plan to study.
need
want
intend
hope
forget
promise
decide

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SPECIAL CASES

7. Certain verbs can be followed by gerunds or infinitives:

verb + gerund/
infinitive
They like reading.
to read.
begin
love
hate
stop

8. Gerunds follow to with these verbs:

look forward to She looks forward to seeing you.

be used to We are used to living in a hot climate.

be accustomed to They are accustomed to getting up at 5:00 AM.

object to Some students object to having class in the afternoon.

SEE APPENDIX FOR ADDITIONAL USES OF GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES – Page 94

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CAUSATIVES
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Causatives with People -- When you have someone do something, use

1. HAVE + PERSON(S) + SIMPLE VERB

I HAVE the STUDENTS READ aloud in class.

The man HAD the MECHANIC INSPECT the engine.
They will HAVE the BARBER CUT their hair.

2. GET + PERSON(S) + TO + SIMPLE VERB

I will GET the CLERKS TO WRITE the report.

You should GET BOB TO ARRANGE the desks.
John hasn't GOT ANYONE TO MAKE the tape yet.

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Causatives with Things -- When you have something done, use

3. HAVE + THING(S) + PAST PARTICIPLE

We are HAVING the FURNITURE REMOVED.

Did we HAVE the BUILDING CLEANED?
He WILL HAVE the CARS REPAIRED next week.

4. GET + THING(S) + PAST PARTICIPLE

He GOT his BOOK PUBLISHED.

They have GOT their TEETH CHECKED.
You should GET the FILES ARRANGED.

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CAUSATIVES: SAMPLE SENTENCES

PERSON

1. I had John fix the car.

2. The officer will have the men stand at attention.

3. I got John to fix the car.

4. Harry can't get his son to drive carefully.

THING

1. I had the car fixed.

2. We will not have our house painted.

3. You should get the files arranged.

4. John hasn't got the tape made yet.

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