NUCLEAR FUEL MINING

SUBMITTED TO: DR. NASEEM IRFAN

GROUP 2

 CH. ASAD SAEED

 ARSLAN AHMED
 FAREED HUSSAIN QADRI
 AWAIS NISAR
 BABAR ALI
 FAISAL ALI
 MUHAMMAD UMAR FAROOQ
 CH ABDUL REHMAN RAZA
 AMIR RIZWAN
 ATTIQUE UR REHMAN
 BILAL SHAHID
 AQSA YOUSAF
 TAHIRA
 AKBAR ABBAS
 MUHAMMAD UZAIR
 AMMAR SAGHEER
Contents
1 History of Uranium Mining: ................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Mining in the19th Century ............................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Start of mining in the USA ........................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Belgian Congo .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.4 Manhattan Project ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Soviet Russia................................................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Post WWII .................................................................................................................................... 4
2 Uranium Deposits ................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1 Tabular .......................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Roll Front ...................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Uranium Deposits in breccia ............................................................................................................ 4
2.4 veins…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

2.5 uranium deposits in pakistan …………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

2.6 open cut mining ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

2.7 under ground mining……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5

2.8 ventilation considerations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5

3 Breccia Pipe Mining ............................................................................................................................. 7

3.1 Effects of Breccia Pipe Mining ..................................................................................................... 7
3.2 The Micro Hammer process of Mining:........................................................................................ 7
4 Heap leaching........................................................................................................................................ 7
4.1 Types of leaching: ......................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.1 Acidic Leaching: ................................................................................................................... 8
4.1.2 Oxidizing agents: ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2 Introduction of Leaching Solution: ............................................................................................... 8
5 In-situ leaching...................................................................................................................................... 8
5.1 Disadvantages: ............................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6 HEALTH RISKS OF URANIUM MINING ........................................................................................ 9
6.1 The basis of radiation protection standards................................................................................... 9
6.2 Achieving effective radiation safety in Mining .......................................................................... 10
7 World Uranium Mining Production .................................................................................................... 10

8 Uranium mining in Pakistan ........................................................................................................... 11

8.1 First ever uranium mine discovery in Pakistan ........................................................................... 12
8.2 Geological surveys and further prospection by PAEC ............................................................... 12
8.3 Uranium favorable rock mines in Pakistan ................................................................................. 12
8.4 Future targets and requirement of pakistan ................................................................................. 12
Introduction:
Uranium is a strategic resource that is the basis for both nuclear power and nuclear weapons.
Nuclear power accounts for around 16% of the world’s electricity and uses uranium as a fuel
to drive steam turbines. Production of uranium typically begins with mining of some uranium-bearing
ore. For purposes of a quantitative estimate of uranium production from a mine three parameters are of
key importance:
 First is the “production capacity” of the mine, by which is intended the rate of production
of material from the mine, under ideal conditions. Here production capacities typically will be
denominated in metric tons of material per (working) day.
 Second is the “grade” of the ore. This is the percentage, by weight, of the ore that is uranium.
Grades may be denominated in terms of weight percentage of the element uranium, or of one of
its stable compounds, most often U3O8, which often is termed “yellowcake.”
 The third key mining parameter is the “average mining recovery,” which means the percentage
of the material extracted from the mine that is actually (uranium-bearing) ore.

1 History of Uranium Mining:

Uranium minerals were noticed by miners for a long time prior to the discovery of uranium in 1789.
The uranium mineral pitchblende, also known as uraninite, was reported from the Krusne Hory
(OreMountain), Sexony, as early as 1565. Other early reports of pitchblende date from 1727 in Jáchymov
and 1763 in Schwarzwald.
1.1 Mining in the19th Century
In the early 19th century, uranium ore was recovered as a byproduct of mining in Saxony,
Bohemia, and Cornwall. The first deliberate mining of radioactive ores took place in Jáchymov, a silver-
mining city in the Czech Republic. Marie Curie used pitchblende ore from Jáchymov to isolate the
element radium, a decay product of uranium. Until World War II uranium was mined primarily for its
radium content. Sources for radium, contained in the uranium ore, were sought for use as luminous paint.
The byproduct uranium was used mostly as a yellow pigment.
1.2 Start of mining in the USA
In the United States, the first radium/uranium ore was discovered in 1871 in gold mines near
Central City, Colorado. This district produced about 50 tons of high grade ore between 1871 and 1895.
However, most American uranium ore before World War II came from vanadium deposits on the
Colorado Plateau of Utah and Colorado.
1.3 Belgian Congo
The Shinkolobwe deposit in Katanga, Belgian Congo now Shaba Province, Democratic Republic
of the Congo (DRC) was discovered in 1913.
1.4 The Manhattan Project
Because of the need for the uranium for bomb research during World War II, the Manhattan Project
used a variety of sources for the element. The Manhattan Project initially purchased uranium ore from the
Belgian Congo. Later the project contracted with vanadium mining companies in the American
Southwest. Purchases were also made from the Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited company in
Canada. This company had large stocks of uranium as waste from its radium refining activities.
1.5 Soviet Russia
Similar efforts were undertaken in the Soviet Union, which did not have native stocks of uranium
when it started developing its own atomic weapons program.
1.6 Post WWII
Intensive exploration for uranium started after the end of World War II as a result of the military and
civilian demand for uranium. There were three separate periods of uranium exploration or "booms."
These were from 1956 to 1960, 1967 to 1971, and from 1976 to 1982.
In the 20th century the United States was the world's largest uranium producer. Canada has since
surpassed the United States as the cumulative largest producer in the world. In 1990, 55% of world
production came from underground mines, but this shrank to 33% by 1999. From 2000, new Canadian
mines again increased the proportion of underground mining, and with Olympic Dam it is now 37%.

2 Uranium Deposits
Uranium deposits are present in sedimentary rocks like sandstones and conglomerates.
There are two main sub-types of sandstone deposits.

2.1 Tabular
Tabular deposits consist of irregular tabular or elongate lenticular zones of uranium mineralization
within selectively reduced sediments. The mineralized zones are oriented parallel to the direction
of groundwater flow. Examples are Akouta, Arlit, and Imouraren (Niger) and those of the Colorado
Plateau (USA).
2.2 Roll Front
Roll-front uranium deposits are generally hosted
within permeable and porous sandstones or conglomerates. The mechanism for deposit formation is
dissolution of uranium from the formation or nearby strata and the transport of this soluble uranium into
the host unit. When the fluids change redox state, generally in contact with carbon-rich organic matter,
uranium precipitates to form a 'roll front'. Examples are Budenovskoye, Tortkuduk, Moynkum, Inkai and
Mynkuduk (Kazakhstan) and Crow Butte and Smith Ranch (USA).
2.3 Uranium deposits in breccia
Breccia uranium deposits are found in rocks that have been broken due to tectonic
fracturing, or weathering. Typical underground workings followed ring fracture zones in oxidized
breccia pipes. Mineral processing is not done on site. Ore is sorted from waste on site and shipped to
mills for processing. On site environmental concerns include radon from mines and gamma radiation
from ore and waste piles.

2.4 Veins:

Vein deposits consist of uranium lenses or sheets in joints, fractures, breccias or stockworks. Uranium,
generally occurring as pitchblende and/or coffinite, is commonly accompanied by gangue and alteration
minerals. Size of veins may vary and their configurations may be complex
2.5 Intrusive

Deposits in intrusive or anatectic rocks consist of disseminated primary, non-refractory uranium

minerals. Deposits are generally low grade (20–200 ppm).

2.6 Uranium Deposits in Pakistan

Uranium is reported from the following localities in Pakistan.

1) Baghal Chur in Dera Ghazi Khan
2) The fluvial, cross- bedded sandstone of Dhok Pathan and Nagri Formations host the uraniferous
placers.
3) In the Salt Range the Warcha Sandstone of Permian Nilawahan Group is reported to have
significant uranium potential.
4) Reconnaissance hydrological survey for uranium has revealed three zones in the Charsada,
Mardan, and Sawabi region of the Peshawar Basin.
5) In the northern areas, uranium occurs extensively, though in minute quantities in the placers of
the Indus and its tributaries. Ahmad et al. have reported uraniferous placers from the following
localities.
Indus River- Skardu-Oldhang section,Shigar Valley and Astor Valley.
Hunza River- Hunza section
Chirtal River- Khunhar Valley and Chitral Valley.

6) Baqal Chur, Kabul Khel, Tunsa, Naganavi and Shanawa (karak).In these areas, uranium is hosted
by sandstone of siwalik group.

2.7 Open cut mining:

Open cut mining is employed to access ore that occurs at or near the ground surface or close enough
to the surface that removal of barren or waste rock (overburden) to access the ore is viable. Access to an
open cut mine, often called an open cut or open pit, is via one or more ramps constructed at a suitable
gradient and width to allow access by mining equipment. The design of the pit walls is strongly
dependent on the geotechnical strength of the soil, sediment, or rock material. In general, steeper pits are
more economically favorable, but the possibility of wall failure must be taken into account; the same
geotechnical considerations as any open cut mine apply. In general, the higher the grade and the larger the
deposit, open pit mining is economically employed to greater depths than would be considered for lower-
grade or smaller deposits. Hence, a large open pit for uranium may be over a kilometer across and
hundreds of meters deep.
2.8 Underground Mining:
Underground mining is employed to access ore that occurs below the ground surface. Hand-dug
underground mines for minerals other than uranium are known since antiquity. Underground uranium
mines, or mines with a significant uranium byproduct, have all been undertaken in the era of mechanized
mining. Access to an underground uranium orebody is by one or more means, and the design depends on
the topography of the ground surface, the depth of the orebody, rock strength conditions, and possible
requirements for road access. The three main access methods are shafts, adits, and declines.
Shafts are vertical openings typically a few meters in diameter or width. Shafts may be tens or
hundreds of meters deep, or over a thousand meters in some cases. Shafts may start at the surface or be
created between different levels within an underground mine. Shafts are typically lined with concrete (or
historically with timber); although in strong, competent rock they may be unlined. A combination of
lined and unlined shafts is possible in changing rock strength conditions. Lining or grouting may also be
required to control the inflow of groundwater, even if rock strength would otherwise allow an unlined
shaft. Materials and miners are transported in cages or large containers supported on cables operated by a
winch beneath a headframe.
Adits are near horizontal openings, typically from the side of a hill or mountain to access an orebody
at a similar elevation. Again, they are typically a few meters in the vertical and horizontal dimensions,
although in early mines the openings might only be 1.52 m in size. A railway may be installed in an audit
to transport material and miners, or access may require using wheeled vehicles. Conveyors systems might
also be installed in an adit for the removal of ore and waste rock. As with shafts, lining with concrete,
steel, or timber may be required if potential collapse is a risk at the particular site. An adit may also act as
a drain for ground water that enters a mine, in which case it would slope gently upward from the entrance.
Declines are inclined ramps, often in the form of a spiral, constructed to allow vehicular access to the
orebody. The entrance to a decline is typically called a portal. Declines are typically no steeper than a
15% slope. Most of a decline is wide enough only for the largest vehicle that uses it, so passing spaces
must be provided at various intervals to allow two-way traffic. Again, lining may be required, depending
on rock strength conditions. These access options are often used concurrently: typically, a mine can have
multiple shafts with one or more adits or declines, depending on the size and situation of the underground
workings that require access. Where a single access point is used, particular attention to emergency access
is required, should that access become blocked, such as via a ventilation shaft.
The different methods of underground fuel mining is as follows.
 Cut and fill technique.
  Drift and fill technique
 Room and pillar technique
 Block caving technique

2.9 Ventilation considerations

Ventilation is always important for underground mines, and this requirement must be a special
consideration for uranium mines, or mines with significant uranium associated with them. Uranium itself
is radioactive, but most of the radioactivity associated with uranium ore is from the radioactive decay
products. Of these, radon gas and its decay products and radionuclides associated with dust must be taken
into account. Ventilation is forced by fans and controlled within a mine by special ventilation shafts and
internal mine connections, as well as through general access shafts and tunnels. Special doors and vents
can be opened or closed to direct air where it is needed. Personal protective equipment
such as a respirator of dust mask may still be required for some tasks such as drilling.

3 Breccia Pipe Mining

Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary rocks that are composed of large angular
fragments (over two millimeters in diameter). The spaces between the large angular fragments are filled
with a matrix of smaller particles and a mineral cement that binds the rock together.
3.1 Effects of Breccia Pipe Mining
Mining of breccia pipes has the potential to enhance release of chemical constituents (such as uranium
and associated trace elements) into the environment, which can then expose soil, water and biological
resources to mining-related contaminants.
3.2 The Micro Hammer process of Mining:
It’s very different from conventional extraction techniques. This is “pre-treatment process” that is applied
to Uranium ore before it is passed through grinders. The ore is exposed, as it flows through the process, to
the microwave treatment for a very short period of time, and what happens is certain mineral phases
within the ore heat in response to the alternating electromagnetic field. This heating creates stress, which
creates fractures within the structures of the material. And when the ore is passed through the
conventional grinding circuit, micro fractures are created within the structure of the material, that we
liberation are produced more at the native grain size of the ore, rather than at the size of the smallest
grains, which is what you would find in a conventional circuit The result of this micro fracturing is that
much coarser ore can be processed than in traditional operations In addition to lowering the overall
energy consumption of the process by around 30%, the technology dramatically reduces the amount of
waste ore – grains that contain Uranium, but which are too small to be conventionally processed – that is
fed into processing plants. This effectively opens up more of the world’s Uranium reserves to treatment.

4 Heap leach Mining

Heap leaching is uranium ore processing applicable to open cut or underground uranium mines.
The heap leaching option is often investigated as the only option for low-grade uranium deposits. In heap
leaching, crushed ore is placed up to several meters thick on relatively flat pads having an engineered
slope for correct internal drainage and an impermeable base such as a robust plastic liner or bitumen-
coated clay. The uranium is extracted by the percolation of extracting fluid.
In recent past, the heap leaching is undertaken with agglomeration of more finely crushed ore before it is
placed on the pads. The technique of agglomeration, the preparation of stable pellets of ore that allow an
optimal combination of contact of ore with the leaching fluid and rate of drainage of that fluid.
4.1 Leaching process:
The extracting fluid may be acidic or alkaline depending upon the composition of ores. Uranium oxides
(such as pitchblende and uraninite) and silicates (such as coffinite) dissolve quite readily in oxidizing acid
or carbonate solutions. As the dissolution in carbonate solutions is typically slower than in acid solutions,
this requires finer grinding, and may be less complete. So, the acidic processing route is most commonly
used, except where a carbonate content of more than 13% makes acid consumption uneconomic and then
alkaline leaching is used. Acidic leaching is typically at a pH of between 1.5 and 2.0, which will also
bring into solution other elements and compounds, such as iron, calcium, and magnesium. Alkaline
leaching may leach vanadium from some ores along with uranium.
4.1.1 Acidic Leaching:
Acidic leaching is usually completed with sulfuric acid. Nitric and hydrochloric acids can be
used, but are generally more expensive and may cause more serious environmental pollution Maintaining
a suitable oxidizing environment during acid leaching is critical to high yields of uranium. The amount of
sulfuric acid that must be added varies from a few to tens of kilograms per ton of ore (15.50 kg/t ore).
Higher amounts of sulfuric acid are required for “refractory” uranium-bearing minerals such as
brannerite, a uranium calcium titanium iron oxide, or uranium-bearing zircon, or in the presence of
alkaline minerals such as carbonates. An economic tradeoff between uranium recovery and acid
consumption means there is usually some residual uranium in the ore after treatment, especially in
resistant mineral forms such as brannerite.
4.2 Introduction of Leaching Solution:
The leaching fluid, acid or alkaline is spread on the heaps by lines of drippers or sprinklers. The solution
passes through the heap, dissolving uranium and other elements or ions. The leach solution (Pregnant
solution) is collected under gravity, sometimes with the assistance of drains previously installed on the
impervious base, then processed conventionally to extract the uranium. Used leach solution is returned to
the optimal pH and chemical composition and reused, thus the leaching cycle continues.

5 In-situ leaching

In-situ leaching (ISL), also called in-situ recovery (ISR) or solution mining, is a mining process used
to recover minerals such as copper and uranium through boreholes drilled into a deposit, in situ. In situ
leach works by artificially dissolving minerals occurring naturally in a solid state. For recovery of

material occurring naturally in solution. The process initially involves the drilling of holes into the ore
deposit. Explosive or hydraulic fracturing may be used to create open pathways in the deposit for solution
to penetrate. Leaching solution is pumped into the deposit where it makes contact with the ore.
 The solution bearing the dissolved ore content is then pumped to the surface and processed.

This process allows the extraction of metals and salts from an ore body without the need for
conventional mining involving drill-and-blast, open-cut or underground mining.
There are two operating regimes for ISL, determined by the geology and groundwater. If there is
significant calcium in the orebody (as limestone or gypsum, more than 2%), alkaline (carbonate) leaching
must be used. Otherwise, acid (sulfate) leaching is generally better. In this case the leach solution is at a
pH of 1.5-2.0, about the same as vinegar. Acid leaching gives higher uranium recovery – 70-90% –
compared with 6070% for alkaline leach, and operating costs are about half those of alkaline leach.
Techniques for ISL have evolved to the point where it is a controllable, safe, and environmentally benign
method of mining which operates under strict operational and regulatory controls. Due to the low capital
costs relative to conventional mining, it can often be a more effective method of mining low-grade
uranium deposits.

5.1 PAKISTAN’S NUCLEAR MINING POLICY:

5.1.1 Atoms for Peace
Pakistan in an agreement with USA in 1955 in accordance with Atoms for Peace program was provided
approximately six kg of U235 at 20% per cent enrichment.
5.1.2 Start of political sanctions (Indian Nuclear weapon tests 1974)
With Pakistan opting out of the NPT the Indian tests led to large scale sanctions on Pakistan. Due to the
NPT Pakistan cannot participate within the global market for nuclear procurement but Uranium mineral
can be brought in from China as the pact with them was signed before the NPT. This international nuclear
policy led Pakistan to utilize its own Uranium mineral deposits.
5.1.3 Export Control ACT (Pakistan Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection and
Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority)
Under this act passed in 1984 there is prohibition on the export of fissionable material in Pakistan. This
prohibition is also enforced by Strategic Export Control Division (SECDIV).

6 Health risks of uranium mining

6.1 The basis of radiation protection standards
In practice, radiation protection is based on the understanding that small increases over natural levels of
exposure are not likely to be harmful but should be kept to a minimum. To put this into practice, the
International Commission for Radiological Protection (ICRP) has established recommended standards of
protection (both for members of the public and radiation workers) based on three basic principles:
 1) Justification.
2) Optimization.
3) Limitation.

Based on these conservative principles, the ICRP recommends that the additional dose above natural
background and excluding medical exposure should be limited to prescribed levels. These are: 1 mSv/yr
for members of the public, and 20 mSv/yr averaged over five years for radiation workers .

6.2 Achieving effective radiation safety in Mining

Early uranium mining, for example in Soviet-occupied East Germany between 1946 and 1953, had a poor
safety record. Lack of appropriate protection exposed German miners to a variety of health hazards
including high levels of radiation, toxic chemicals, crystalline silica and dust. Occupational exposure is
thought to be attributable to thousands of cases of lung cancer and other health impairments.
The modern uranium mining industry is regulated and has a good safety record. The maximum dose
received is normally about half of the 20 mSv/yr limit and the average is considerably less. Radon gas
emanates from the rock (or tailings) as radium decays. It then decays itself to (solid) radon daughters,
which are energetic alpha-emitters.
The reason why radon is so deadly is that it deposits polonium in the lungs of its victims. Indeed, the only
source of polonium is radon; and the only source of radon is radium; and the only source of radium is
uranium. So, when you dig up uranium you are digging up all the uranium decay products
A number of precautions are taken at a uranium mine to protect the health of workers:

1) Dust is controlled, so as to minimize inhalation of gamma- or alpha-emitting minerals.

2) Radiation exposure of workers in the mine, plant and tailings areas is limited. In practice
radiation levels from the ore and tailings are usually very low
3) Radon daughter exposure is kept low. It is minimal in an open cut mine because there is sufficient
natural ventilation to remove the radon gas. In an underground mine a good forced-ventilation
system is required to achieve the same result. Canadian doses (in mines with high-grade ore)
average about 3 mSv/yr.
4) Strict hygiene standards are imposed on workers handling the uranium oxide concentrate. If it is
ingested it has a chemical toxicity similar to that of lead oxide.

While uranium oxide product from a mine is certainly radioactive, the long half-lives involved mean that
it is practically impossible to receive a harmful radiation dose from it. Cameco points out that for a person
standing one meter from a 200-litre drum of product they would need to be there about 1000 hours to
register a dose of 1 mSv. Uranium ore and mine tailings are more radioactive, depending on the grade of
the orebody, but usually not to such a degree that access needs to be restricted.

7 World Uranium Mining Production

Over two-thirds of the world's production of uranium from mines is from Kazakhstan, Canada and
Australia.An increasing amount of uranium, now 50%, is produced by in situ leaching. Kazakhstan
produces the largest share of uranium from mines (39% of world supply from mines in 2017), followed
by Canada (22%) and Australia (10%). The uranium for the nuclear bombs which were used to bomb
Japan at the end of the Second World War came from Democratic Republic of the Congo.
 Production summary for different countries for last 11 years (tonnes U)

The largest Uranium producing mines in 2017

Mining methods around the world

Top 10 companies by production

8 Uranium mining in Pakistan
8.1 First ever uranium mine discovery in Pakistan
Uranium was discovered in May 1959 by the geological survey of Pakistan at Baghulchor near DG khan
the southern part of Punjab. The Baghalchor mine was reported to be exhausted nearly by 1998. Second
uranium mine was opened at Gabul khel in 1992 and mining of deposits at Nangana and Taunsa located
near DG khan started in 1996 and 2002 respecctively all using in situ leaching technology.
8.2 Geological surveys and further prospection by PAEC
Beginning in 1972 the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission began geological surveys to find mineable
deposits of uranium. The Atomic Energy Minerals Centre (AEMC) in Lahore was responsible for the
exploration and mining operations. The Siwalik Hills, west of Dera Ghazi Khan, was identified as the
most promising location. Even this uranium ore is of relatively low grade, containing only a few kg of
uranium per ton [compared to tens of kilograms in high-grade Canadian or Australian ore.In 1996
Pakistan launched a five-year effort to locate new uranium resources.
8.3 Uranium favorable rock mines in Pakistan
It said that uranium favorable rocks constituted 12 per cent
of the total areas of Pakistan. The officials said the PAEC
had finalized a plan to establish more than 6,000 tons of
reasonably assured reserves of uranium by 2011 to fulfil the
one-third requirement of fuel for producing 8,800mw of
nuclear power.

8.4 Future targets and requirement of pakistan

It is estimated that 350 tons of yellow cake (U3O8) will be
required annually to achieve the target of 8,800mw of
nuclear power.
References:
1- Lacy L. H. “Uranium for Nuclear Power-Resources, Mining and Transformation to Fuel”,
Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy: Number 93, 2016 Elsevier Ltd. UK.
2- Crossland L. “Nuclear fuel cycle science and engineering” Woodhead Publishing Limited, UK.
3- Plummer, C. et al, “Physical Geology” McGraw-Hill Education; 14 edition, UK.
4- Pohl, W. “ Economic Geology: Principles and Practice”, John Wiley & Sons, USA.

5- http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/China,-Pakistan-agree-to-uranium-cooperation

6- https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275585125_URANIUM_DEPOSITS_AND_RESOUR
CES_POTENTIAL_IN_PAKISTAN_A_REVIEW
7- http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/radiation-and-
health/occupational-safety-in-uranium-mining.aspx" http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-
library/safety-and-security/radiation-and-health/occupational-safety-in-uranium-mining.aspx
8- http://www.ccnr.org/Narsaq_Edwards_2016.pdf
9- http://www.world-nuclear.org
10- https://www.mining-technology.com
11- http://www.u3o8.biz