Outline

CVL141 Structure of
Civil Engineering Materials
metals Defects
Chapter 13
Production of iron and
Shashank Bishnoi Properties of metals &
metals in construction steel Heat-treatment

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Metals The periodic table Microstructure of metals

www.ktf-split.hr
Metals are chemical elements Metals consist of basic blocks known
as unit cells
They are good conductors of
The unit cells are arranged in an
electricity and heat orderly fashion, leading to similar
They form cations and chemical spacing between atoms
bonds with non-metals Unit cells repeat to form crystals
A crystal is a homogeneous, polyhedral
Metals form the bulk of the solid, normally bounded by plane faces
periodic table and having a defnitely oriented and regular
internal arrangement of the molecules
Metals are polycrystalline
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Cubic unit cells Crystal structures of metals
Metals are polycrystalline – they
Some other unit cells
contain many grains or crystals
Metals with more than one crystalline
structure are known as allotropic
Iron has a BCC structure up to 910°C
Simple cubic Body-centred cubic
FCC between 910°C and 1400°C

Daniel Mayer,
Face-centred cubic Stannered 9
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Hexagonal (HCP) cell Rombohedral cell

Daniel Mayer, Stannered
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Characteristics of crystals Solidifcation of metals Defects in crystals

Point defects, e.g. vacancy, substitution
Coordination number
is the number of Line defects, e.g.
nearest atoms
e.g. 8 for BCC, 12 dislocations, disclinations
for FCC and HCP Planar defects, e.g. stacking fault
Atomic packing factor is
the fraction of volume Bulk defects, e.g. voids, precipitates
occupied by atoms
e.g. 0.68 for BCC 4r
a=
3
Aushulz
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Point defects Dislocations Edge & screw dislocations
Dislocation is a crystallographic
defect within a crystal structure
Two main types: edge and screw
Dislocations are responsible for
plasticity in metals Edge dislocation

Burgers vector represents the magnitude

and direction of the lattice distortion of a
dislocation in a crystal lattice

Knordlun, wikimedia 14 Sandycx wikimedia Screw dislocation

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Burgers vector Grains and grain boundaries Production of iron

Iron is the
largest metal to
be produced
Two main stages:
Production of
pig-iron in blast
furnace
Production of steel
or wrought iron

David Gabriel García Andrade University of Cambridge Josu P

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Process in blast furnace Process in blast furnace Blast furnace
Iron ore, e.g. red hematite, is mined C + O2 → 2 CO
and often ground before feeding into At the top between 200°C and 700°C
blast furnace 3Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe3O4 + CO2
Iron ore is reduced to pig iron using At 850°C
Fe3O4 + CO → 3FeO + CO2
coke as reducing agent and fuel
Further reduction up to 1200°C
Limestone fux is added for
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
fnal reduction to iron Limestone is decomposed and reacts
with impurities to form slag
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2; CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3

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Allotropic forms of iron Allotropic forms of iron Production of pig iron

α-iron is the stable form at Pig iron contains 4-5% carbon and
normal temperatures is brittle
It is a soft metal Remelted to produce cast iron
Can dissolve < 0.021% of carbon Usually converted to steel or
γ-iron can dissolve over 2% carbon wrought iron
Production of 1 tonne of pig
Solutions with carbon are called iron requires:
~0.9 tonnes of coke
α-ferrite, austenite and δ-ferrite
~0.6 tonnes of limestone
Earlier a non-magnetic form between
~2 tonnes of iron ore
770°C and 910°C was called β-iron
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Wrought iron Steel Steel
Iron alloy with very Steel is an iron alloy Carbon increases the hardness of iron
low carbon content It contains iron mixed with 0.2%
Contains 1-4% slag Carbon and other elements prevent
to 2.1% carbon
fbres dislocations from sliding and harden iron
Manganese, chromium, vanadium
Corrosion resistant Hardness, ductility and tensile strength
Tough, malleable, and tungsten also used
Steel has been known for thousands of steel can be controlled by varying
ductile and easily
of years, earliest known is 4,000 the amount of alloying elements
welded
Lower strength years old from Anatolia There are many types and grades
Not used very often, Wootz steel has been used in India of steel
replaced by mild steel from around 300 B.C.
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Iron-carbon phase diagram Mild steel Higher carbon steels

Steel Cast-iron Mild and low carbon steel Medium carbon steel
0.05% to 0.15% carbon 0.3-0.59% carbon content
Cheap and malleable Balances ductility and strength
Neither brittle nor ductile Used for forging, large parts and
Density ~7.85 g/cm3 automotive components
Young's modulus: 210 High carbon steel
Gpa Used in structures 0.6-0.99% carbon
Very strong, used for springs and
high-strength wires

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Other steels Heat-treatment Heat-treatment of steel
High-strength low-alloy steels Annealing Quenching and tempering
0.05-0.25% carbon Heating to high temperatures and Quenched steel is reheated
Up to 2% manganese slow cooling Restores ductility but reduces hardness
Small amounts of chromium, nickel, Leads to reduction in defects and Normalising
molybdenum, copper, nitrogen, vanadium, stresses Increases softness and ductility Heated to high temperature and kept for
niobium, titanium and zirconium 1 hour
Quenching Conversion to austenite
Stainless steel Heating to high temperature and Air-cooling at 38°C per minute
Minimum 10.5% chromium by mass up raipdly cooled in water, brine or oil
to 26% More uniform structure formed
Increases hardness and brittleness
Passivation ofered by oxidation Higher strength and ductility than
of chromium annealed steel
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Heat treatment of steel Metallurgy of steel Structure of cementite

Austenite: FCC structure at high
temperature with up to 2% carbon
Ferrite: BCC structure with little carbon
Cementite: Hard compound with up
to 6.7% carbon
Pearlite: Formed from cooling of
Cementite, contains alternate strips of
ferrite and cementite in a single grain
Fast cooling: thin plates
Martensite: On rapid cooling from
austenite, without formation of pearlite
Orci
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Structure of martensite Structural steel Stress-strain curve for mild steel
Generally mild-steel is used as
structural steel
0.2-0.23%
C 0.4-0.5%
S ~1.5% Mn
0.4-0.5% P
0-0.4% Si

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Yield strength High-yield steel Structural steel sections

The yield strength depends on the Steel is generally rolled to
composition of steel and the grain size produce uniform cross-sections
Rolling can be hot or cold
Hot rolling reduces hardening and
f =f k
internal stresses
y 0 d Cold-rolled sections can be harder but
have internal stresses

K = 38N/mm3/2 for mild steel

f0 = 5 N/mm2

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Structural steel sections Rolling for structural shapes Continuous rolling

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Steel reinforcement MS, HYSD and TMT bars High-yield steel bars
Reinforcing steel is classifed based
on its strength, production and use
Mild steel bars
Medium tensile steel
High-yield steel
TMT bars
Properties of steel can be improved
Alloying
Heat-treatment
Drawing, stretching, twisting, etc.

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High-yield steel TMT bars Thermo-mechanically treated bars
Usually cold-rolled twisted bars Hot bars are cooled with water
Outer surface cools, inner remains warm
Deformations improve bond Hot core reheats the surface and
with concrete is tempered
Higher yield-stress than mild-steel Fine-grained pearlite in the core
(415-500 MPa) Tempered martensite on surface
More brittle than mild-steel

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Testing metals - UTM Tensile strength specimen Hardness tests

Brinell test
Ball of hardened steel or carbide
pressed against material
The diameter of indentation is measured
Brinell hardness number can be
calculated (~120 for mild steel, 15 for
aluminium, 35 for copper, 1550 for glass)

2P

BHN= D D− D2−d2

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Hardness tests Hardness tests Some other metals: Aluminium
Vickers test Rockwell test Soft, durable and lightweight material
Pyramid shaped diamond indentor is used Yield strength between 7-11 MPa
Depth of penetration
Depth of penetration is small – well suited Young's modulus of 70 GPa
to study surface formations measured Deeper penetration Alloying can increase yield strength
Knoop test to up to 600 MPa
Rhomboidal pyramid indentor Diamond cones or steel spheres of
Typically alloyed with Cu, Mg, Mn,
various sizes
Suitable for thin layers Si and Zn
Density ~2.7 g/cm3
High corrosion resistance due
to passivation
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Some other metals: Copper Copper roofngs Summary

High electric and thermal conductivities Structure of
Soft, malleable and ductile metals Defects
Density ~8.94 g/cm3 Production of iron and
Mostly used in wires and steel Heat treatment
some construction Structures of steel
Pink or peach coloured in pure form, Structural steel
reddish or orangish due to tarnishing Reinforcing steel
Oxidises and carbonates in air
Other metals

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 Thank you!

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