MOBILE & CELLULAR COMMUNICATION

DEVELOPMENT
- Started with Radio in early 1900s
- Limited Internet Access through Cellphones in 1999
- Wireless videophones combining Web cam and a mobile phone with a Palm type device
with web access
- Voice Recognition – Phones gain the ability to recognize and understand human
commands even against background noise
- Virtual Retinal Displays – Tiny projectors mounted in the frames of glasses to shine
images directly onto the user’s retina, allowing access to information services while walking
around or interacting with people
- Wireless LAN standard on computers built-in, enabling point-and-play networking
- More wireless than fixed-line phones – difference in costs to disappear, more value
added services, change in concept of communications and telephony
- Conversation with a computer – Voice Recognition to make keyboards unnecessary,
powerful translation computers fluent in every language can be accessed using mobile phones
- Internet Applications – Household devices all Web enabled
- Remote Controlled Cars –Control by powerful traffic computers – safer roads
- Holophone – 3D moving images being projected by mobile phones
- Mind Reading – Thought recognition as standard form of input – machines acting as
an extension of human body

CELLPHONE GENERATIONS
1G
 Analog, voice only
 Highly variable call quality (Interference)
 Insecure (Call Tapping, Call charging to others’ account)

2G
 Speech → Digital Code
 Clear and Encryptable
 Messaging, Voice Mail, Caller Id
 Data Transmission @ 10 Kbps Eg. GSM, Palm (Data only)

2½G
 Higher Data speeds
 WAP – uses a compressed section of the Web to fit into the
mobile phone’s slow data rate and small screen

3G
 Data Transfer @ 2 Mbps
 Video Conferencing and Mobile Multimedia
 Handhelds in a network

4G
  Under development
 Data Rates of 10 Mbps (Telepresence)
 Virtual Reality – full stimulation of all senses required to provide the illusion of actually
being somewhere else – an illusion that cannot be distinguished from the real thing

Terminologies and basics

 EM Waves – Generated whenever a moving electric charge is accelerated, causing a
change in its speed or direction.
 Radio Transmitter – works by vibrating the electrons, the charged particles that
surround all atoms and are responsible for electricity. Frequency of wave depends on how
fast the electrons are vibrating; the faster they move, the higher the frequency.
 Radio Receiver – uses the same principle in reverse. The waves stir up electrons in the
antenna, creating electric currents.
 Ionisation and Ionised Radiation – Waves at even high frequencies than visible light
can strike the electrons so hard that they are knocked free of their atoms – Ionisation.
Ionised radiation is extremely dangerous to human beings. But it can be blocked entirely
by gas – Ozone layer for deadly sunrays.
 Wavebands – The radio spectrum is divided into a series of regions called Wave bands.

Wavelength
-15
10 m
Gamma Ray
-12 Emitted by nuclear reactions 1021 Hz
10 m
-9 1018 Hz
10 m Ultraviolet
Ionizes atoms
-6
Visible Light 1015 Hz
10 m
Infrared 1012 Hz
-3 Remote Control
10 m EHF
SHF Microwave 109 Hz
UHF Heating, Radar, Communications
1m VHF
HF Radio 106 Hz
3 MF Communications
10 m LF
VLF 103 Hz
6 ELF
10 m
1 Hz
9
10 m

The Radio Spectrum

 Most of the Wireless Networking services are crowded around 1 GHz.
AM FM
550- 88-
 1650 KHz 108 MHz

Paging Cellular

The radio spectrum

 The audio frequencies that we hear range from 20 Hz to 20 KHz.

 AM radio stations are in the 1 MHz range.
 FM radio and TV are in the 100 MHz range.
 Paging systems fall in the 50 to 500 MHz range.
 Mobile radio and cellular systems use the band just below 1 GHz.
 Cordless and PCS systems use the bands around 2 GHz.
 The Infrared region is huge. It has its applications in the Wireless LAN areas and
in short-range, point-to-point communications, including remote control systems.
 As we move up, the amount of bandwidth increases exponentially.
 The challenge is to build equipment that can operate at the higher frequencies
and achieve acceptable range with reasonable power.
 Silicon integrated circuits as of a few years ago could only handle frequencies up
to 1 GHz. Higher frequency systems were forced to use Gallium Arsenide, which was
more expensive at the time. Now Silicon can achieve greater speeds, and GaAs is
becoming cost effective.

 Area of Coverage –
o Signals at high frequency have a much shorter range than at lower frequencies because
shorter wavelengths suffer greater attenuation.
o As radiation frequency gets higher, more things are able to block it. That is why high
frequency light cannot pass through walls, while lower frequency radio can.
o Short range is a problem when trying to communicate across a great distance, but can
be a benefit while designing a cellular network, as it means that different cells can reuse the
same spectrum.

Wavelength Frequency Common Name Main Purposes

Above 100 km Below 3 kHz Extremely Low Frequency Submarine Communications
(ELF)
10-100 km 3-30 kHz Very Low Frequency Maritime Communications
(VLF)
1-10 km 30-300 kHz Low Frequency (LF) AM Broadcasting
or Long Wave (LW)
100-1000 m 300-3000 kHz Medium Frequency (MF) AM Broadcasting
or Medium Wave (MW)
10-100 m 3-30 MHz High Frequency (HF) or AM Broadcasting,
Short Wave (SW) Amateur Radio
1-10 m 30-300 MHz Very High Frequency FM Broadcasting, TV
(VHF)
0.1-1 m 300-3000 MHz Ultra High Frequency TV, Cellphones
(UHF)
10-100 mm 3-30 GHz Super High Frequency Fixed Wireless, Satellites
(SHF)
1-10mm 30-300 GHz Extra High Frequency Satellites, Radar
(EHF)

ANALOG Vs. DIGITAL SYSTEMS

NOISE REDUCTION
 With an analog waveform, there is no way for a receiver to distinguish between noise
and actual signal.
 A digital signal can have only two levels, so receivers or relay stations automatically
discard anything in between; noise has to be very severe to affect digital signal.

RELIABILITY
  Digital Signals can be encoded with extra bits called checksums that are results of
mathematical calculations performed on preceding bits.
 Checksum used by receiver to check if it has interpreted the signal accurately.
 Wrong checksum → Retransmission
 For greater reliability, additional error correction code can be sent with the signal,
which allows some lost bits to be reconstructed if others are intact (FEC).
 Capacity gets reduced – lesser room for real data. Greater Redundancy – Better
reliability – Lesser Capacity

SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY
 Digital system can transfer more information than analog over a given amount of
spectrum.
 Compression in digital systems reduces the amount of capacity needed to send data.

SECURITY
 Digital cellular encrypts all data, using mathematical algorithms – more reliably than
in analog systems
 Further, no extra capacity is required for encryption.

TIMING
 TDMA – each user of the channel uses it only for a part of the time; data can be held in
memory until it can be sent.
 A packet switched system uses capacity only when required, storing data in the memory
of a special computer called router, while calculating the most efficient path to send it.

Microwaves
o UHF, SHF and EHF collectively called Microwaves (small wavelengths).
o High Bandwidth and Short Range of communication.
o Easily blocked by obstacles and weakened by rain and cloud.
o Microwave Bands –
Digital Cellphones use S – Band
Satellites transmit in K – Band and receive in C – Band

MICROWAVE BANDS
 Wavelength Frequency Band Main Purposes
193-769 mm 0.4-1.5 GHz L Broadcasting and Cellular
57.7-193 mm 1.5-5.2 GHz S Cellular
48.4-76.9 mm 3.9-6.2 GHz C Satellites
27.5-57.7 mm 5.2-10.9 GHz X Fixed Wireless, Satellites
8.34-27.5 mm 10.9-36 GHz K Fixed Wireless, Satellites
6.52-8.34 mm 36-46 GHz Q Fixed Wireless
5.36-6.52 mm 46-56 GHz V Future Satellites
3.00-5.36 mm 56-100 GHz W Future Cellular

 Interference –
o If a receiver happens to pick up two or more signals at the same frequency, it has no
way to distinguish one from the other. Unwanted signals are called Interference.
o Interference can severely limit the effectiveness of a radio signal.
o Wave signals are superimposed on each other, so the effects of the two on the same
frequency depends on how their cycles are aligned.
o If both go through peaks and troughs at the same time, they add together to make a
strong signal, a situation called Constructive Interference. (LASERS)
o If one is at a peak while the other is at a trough, they will cancel out each other
completely, a process called Destructive Interference. (Transmission Jamming)

AM
 Results in waves with amplitude (Height) that varies in proportion to the information
signal
 Weather phenomenon and Industry can introduce random interference
 Uses spectrum inefficiently as compared to other systems
 Used by Broadcast Radio – LW, MW and MW Bands
 Monophonic Sound due to limited capacity
 Digital AM – Pulse Modulation – OOK –
 Used in fixed telephony (thru wire) and in Satellite systems

FM
 Amplitude constant, so the transmitter can operate at full power all the time to
maximize its range
 Total Spectral requirement of 200 kHz
 Used in - Broadcasts in VHF – Stereo Radio Stations, TV, Two way Radio Systems,
First Generation Cellphones

PM
 Instead of just compressing and expanding waves, PM moves them to a different point
in their cycle.
  This is useful for transmitting data because different points in a wave’s cycle can
represent bits.
 PSK – a special type PM interrupts the wave very suddenly (PSK)
 It requires a large bandwidth because these sudden interruptions produce interference
similar to AM sidebands
 To minimize this and reduce the necessary spectrum, QAM, D-PSK or GMSK
(Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying – passing the signal thru various filters for smoothening)
can be used.

Polarization
 Transverse waves always vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel. Real space
has three dimensions, giving the wave and entire wave in which to vibrate. If a wave is
coming straight out of this page, it could be vibrating relative to the top or the sides of the
page, or some angle in between. This angle is known as polarization.
 Two Beams polarized at right angles do not produce interference, allowing the same
frequency to be used twice. Mobile networks cannot do this because polarization depends
on the precise direction in which the transmitter and receiver are facing and requires a line
of sight between them.

Cellular Networks

Mobile systems rely on a network of cells, with a powerful transmitter at the centre of each, called
a base station.

Cells
 A cell is the coverage of a single base station, usually taken hexagonal in shape
approxly.
 As the mobile phone moves through a network, it accesses services via the base station
of whichever cell it is in.
 The precise shape of a cell depends on the geography of the region.
 Radio waves form an arc radiating out of a transceiver.
 The signal gets weaker with distance from base station.
 Cell boundary is the limit where the mobile set can no longer send and receive reliably.

Microcells
 Urban Areas have a far greater density of mobile phone users than do rural areas.
 To serve these extra users, mobile operators deploy microcells, small cells covering
small areas or regions.
 An overlay (or underlay) network has some areas covered by both large and small cells
because the cells were built at different times as demand increased.
 Portable microcells mounted on vehicles are used to cover large one-time events, like
sports.
Handoff
 In a mobile network, a user can move from one cell to another.
 The process of switching a user from one cell to another while a call is in progress is
called a handoff or handover.
 Complex procedures because base stations have to calculate exactly when a user is
crossing the cell boundary. Calls may be dropped if the user moves very fast (> 400kmph).
 Possible on Maglev and TGV, impossible and illegal on airliners.
 Roaming - using a phone on a network owned by a different operator.

Soft Handoff (make-before-break)

 Ensures that a link is set up to the base station in the new cell before the old one is
broken.
 Extremely difficult because adjacent base stations need to use different frequencies,
while phones can be tuned to only one at a time.

Hard Handoff
 Requires that a phone break its connection from one base station before connecting to
another.
 Less reliable: phone may not connect, new cell may be already full or there may not be
a new cell at all.
 Causes a noticeable and annoying break in conversation.
 Handoff based on distance may result in reconnection with the same cell.

No Handoff
 Relies on the mobile terminal actually making a new call once it has moved out of the
range of one transmitter (unacceptable delay).
 Used on systems with short set up time and fast connections to new as well as in-
progress calls.

Effect of Frequency
 Cellular Com uses UHF Microwave Band (400 – 2000 MHz)
 Frequency affects cell size. [Higher Freq. – Short Range]
 Fewer base stations – lesser costs – Microcells for a wider customer base;
 Smaller cells – More Base stations – No microcells needed - can service a greater
density of customers.

Cell Size and Achievable Throughput

 3m 100m 1Km 10 Km 1000s Km
Cell size

Relationship of networks

 The above figure is another very useful map of wireless services. This time the service
types are plotted on a matrix of achievable data rate versus cell size.
 The cell sizes vary from tens of meters to thousands of kilometers.
 A break occurs in the horizontal axis between the tens of kilometers range and the
thousands of kilometers range.
 In the upper left-hand corner we have Wireless LANs. They provide data rates in the
range of 1 Mbps.
 Their cell sizes are usually in the range of 50 meters indoors. This figure is a nominal
range that includes propagation through the walls inside a building.
 On the other extreme are satellite services. The cell sizes can be thousands of kilometers
and cover continents. The data rate that is usually provided is in the 10 Kbps range.
 On the lower extreme are simple one-way paging systems. They provide very low data
rates below I Kbps. The range of a paging base station can be quite large, tens of
kilometers. This makes implementing a paging network relatively fast compared to a
cellular network.
 The frequency allocation for a paging network is extremely small relative to the
allocation required for a cellular, PCS, satellite, or Wireless LAN service. This
bandwidth is used very efficiently to provide the service.
 Since the required bandwidth is so small, it is often allocated at a low frequency band
that is much lower than the bands used by higher data rate services. The low frequency
means that the cell sizes can be large while keeping the power relatively low.
 Advanced and two-way paging networks would move paging up and to the left,
towards packet data on the chart, because they provide higher data rates, which require
greater bandwidth. This size of allocation is not available at low frequency bands, so it is
provided at higher frequencies.
 The higher frequencies require greater power to achieve the same range as the lower
frequencies. In addition, the higher data rate in itself requires higher power to transmit.
 Packet data networks have cells that can be tens of kilometers in size. Their data rates
are on the order of 10 to 20 Kbps. This data rate is shared among the customers
contending for the use of the channel. The sharing mechanism is usually a random access
scheme typical of a Local Area Network.
 The total bandwidth allocated to a packet radio network is relatively small compared
to the bandwidth allocated to a cellular service, a PCS service, a satellite service, or a
 LAN service. It is not as small as a one-way paging service, but it is not much more than
the equivalent of one single voice channel in a cellular network. This bandwidth is then
shared by all the data users who are typically sending transaction type traffic.
 The traffic is sent through the network on a store and forward basis. Depending on the
application, extremely fast response time may not be needed. For example, for electronic
mail, a response time of a few minutes may be acceptable. For an interactive session, a
response time of less than one second would be required.
 Users of packet networks are charged a flat monthly charge plus a charge per packet.
 In the middle of the chart, we have cellular, cordless (CT-X), and PCS services. The cell
sizes for cellular can range from a few hundred meters, to tens of kilometers. The small
cell sizes are for denser downtown areas, and the larger are for more sparse densities.
The data rates are on the order of 10 Kbps.
 Cordless systems have cell sizes around 100 meters. Many of them serve indoor or very
dense urban areas.
 No services exist in the upper right-hand corner or the lower left-hand corner. In the
upper right-hand corner, the data rate is high and the cell size is large. This situation is
very difficult to realize because as the cell size increases, more and more people are likely
to be in the cell. If each of them is demanding a large data rate, the service would have to
provide a huge aggregate data rate.
 At the lower left-hand comer, the data rate is low and the cell size is low. When the data
rate is low, the cell size can easily be large, for example with paging, so we do not see
many services in this corner. This fact does not mean that some niche services may not
now exist, or some such services may not materialize in the future. One example would
be an extremely low cost, very localized service that needs very little bandwidth.

 Most of the services are grouped along a curve that implies that the higher the data
rate, the smaller the cell size must be. The reason is that the smaller the cell size, the
more frequently the bandwidth can be reused, and the smaller the cell size, the less
power must be transmitted.

DUPLEXING
Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
 Uses two separate frequency bands meaning that the mobile terminal is transmitting on
one frequency while receiving on another.
 Downlink – frequency at which base station transmits; Uplink – at which mobile
terminal transmits.
 Paired Spectrum – common licensing for up and down links, the pairs are usually equal
in size, meaning the channel is symmetric – okay if to and fro traffic to the mobile phone is
equal.

Time Division Duplex (TDD)

 Uses only one channel, but alternates between transmitting and listening.
 Bandwidth can be located dynamically between the uplink and downlink, allowing
asymmetric data links
Multiplexing
 Within a cell, mobile operators want to allow as many customers as possible to use the
network.
 They achieve this by using multiple access technology, which allows the available
spectrum to be shared between several users.
 Analog systems – separate the conversations by subdividing the spectrum into narrow
frequency bands and by using directional transceivers at the base station.
 Digital Systems – divide each frequency into time slots or encode transmissions so that
more than one can use the same air-waves at the same time.

FDMA
 FDMA – a system that gives each communication channel its own specific frequency.
 Frequency allocation can be fixed or dynamic.
 Due to interference, adjacent channels cannot use the same frequencies, so no single
cell can broadcast (or receive) on all channels.
 Most efficient pattern can use only one third of channels in each cell.
 Because the pattern repeats itself in groups of three cells, it is said to have a cluster size
of three.

Channels 1,4,7,10…..

Channels 2,5,8,11…..

Channels 3,6,9,12…..

3 – Cell Clusters

 Larger clusters are to be used because the interference is too great, and 3-cell clusters
cannot be used.
 Cluster sizes of 7 or 12 are more common.
 The spectrum actually used by a channel is less than which needs to be allocated.
 Frequency needs to be separated by a gap, which is very wasteful of spectrum.
SDMA
 Used for allocating a separate space to users in wireless networks – applied in
allocating an optimal base station to a mobile phone user. The mobile phone may receive
different base stations with different clarity.
 Uses directional transmitters that cover only a part of an arc rather than an entire
circle, as in a cell. (Sectorized Antennas)
 Used highly in satellite systems, for want of a narrowly focussed beam to prevent the
signal spreading too widely and becoming too weak.
 A single satellite can reuse the same frequency to cover many different regions on the
earth’s surface.
 In cellular networks, SDMA cannot use same frequency due to interference with
omnidirectional transceivers.
 It can be used with three directional transceivers placed on a single site at a three-way
cell boundary, thus reducing the number of base stations.
 SDMA is never used alone, but always in combination with one or more other schemes.

Spread Spectrum Technology

 Spread Spectrum techniques involve spreading the bandwidth needed to transmit data.
Main advantage of these techniques is the resistance to narrowband interference.
P P

NARROWBAND SIGNAL f CONVERTED TO f

BROADBAND

 The energy needed to transmit the signal is the same (area in the diagrams), but it is
now spread over a larger frequency range. Power level is lower than that of original
narrowband signal – can be as low as the background noise (may be hard to detect).
 During transmission, narrowband and broadband interference add to the signal. (Next
Figure)
P P P

INTERFERENCE BANDPASS
ADDED f DESPREADING AT RECEIVER f FILTERING f
  The receiver now knows how to despread the signal, converting the spread user signal
to narrowband again, while spreading the narrowband interference and leaving the
broadband interference.
 Next, receiver applies a BPF to cut-off the frequencies left and right of the narrowband
signal. It can then reconstruct the original data because the power level of the user signal is
higher enough; it is stronger than neighbouring interference.
 The principle is applicable to several narrowband channels separated by guardbands if
CDM is used instead of FDM, with each channel having its own code. The code is required
for recovery.

 FHSS [Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum] –

 Uses narrow-band FM signals, but rapidly switches between each one in a
seemingly random pattern known only to the sender and recipient.
 This doesn’t stop the enemy knowing that a communication is in progress,
but makes it very difficult to listen in or jam.
 Used mainly for short-range radio cells in unlicensed bands.
 The ability to change frequency quickly can be useful in finding one that
isn’t already in use by someone else.

 DSSS [Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum] –

 Covers a very wide range of frequencies, transmitting on all at once.
 Hence, BW requirement is very high (MHz)
 Extra BW used to send extra copies of the transmitted signal and is known
as gain. The higher the gain, more resistant the signal to interference.

CDMA
 CDMA – sends every signal at once, but encodes each one differently so that receivers
can separate them. (Airport Transit Lounge with people speaking different languages)
 It is a development of spread spectrum technology.
 CDMA cellular technology uses DSSS (BW = 1.25 MHz). Spectrum is used rather
efficiently because it can be shared by different transmissions. Every cell can use all the
spectrum available
 Cells are designed to overlap. Instead of a cell boundary, CDMA has a handoff region,
where the mobile unit is connected to two base stations simultaneously. (Soft Handoff)
 Exact location of a user can be pinpointed by triangulation – measuring the distance
between the phone and the base station.
OFDM (Orthogonal FDM) or MCM (Multi-carrier Modulation)
 Orthogonal is a mathematical term that means two quantities that result in zero when
multiplied together.
 It is designed to solve the multipath problem, destructive interference caused by waves
that reflect off different surfaces.
 A wave’s reflection tends to have the same frequency as the original, meaning they
cancel each other out or at least render the signal undecipherable.
 The problem is greater for signals with high bit rate, because modulation symbols are
shorter and can be easily swamped by the reflections.
 OFDM reduces the bit rate by splitting a high-speed data stream into several lower
speed streams and sending each one separately using an independent carrier frequency.
 Symbols are transmitted with guard spaces between single symbols or group of
symbols. To help the receiver in handling multipath propagation.
 CDMA and TDMA split a frequency between different users, while OFDM splits a user
between different frequencies.
 OFDM relies on very precisely tuned antennas and on sophisticated processing which
requires a lot of computing power. Hence costly.

TDMA
 TDMA – works by dividing a band into different time slots, each corresponding to one
communications channel.
 Receiver can stay tuned to a single frequency – simple transmitters and receivers.
 A cellphone usually transmits and receives in only one slot, remaining silent until its
turn comes round again.
 Short time slots can cause problems with keeping phones synchronised with each other.
Synchronisation has to be achieved between sender and receiver in time domain.
 This can be done using a fixed pattern – allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or
by using a dynamic allocation scheme.
 Round-trip delays can cause a lag - enough to make the phone miss its slot entirely,
though it may be unnoticeable to a human listener (So, max radius for Cell= 35km).
 TDMA provides an easy upgrade path to higher capacities: a mobile can simply
transmit or receive on more than one time slot, without having to retune to different
frequencies.

Voice Coding
 All digital systems need to encode analog waveforms of speech into a bitstream.
 The program used for this is called a codec, often embedded within a special chip called
a DSP chip. (eg. MP3 codec, CD codec, PCM)
 The aim is to produce the lowest possible bit rate while maintaining acceptable sound
quality.
  Some newer speech codecs also include DSI (Digital Speech Interpolation), which can
also vary the bit rate, depending on the complexity of speech. Almost no information is sent
during periods of silence, enabling the channel to be used for something else – usually data.
 Because channels are allocated by the base station, this works more effectively on the
downlink than the uplink.
 Precise bit rate depends on the quality of sound and available processing power.
 For a mobile phone, the limiting factor is the need to compress and decompress in real-
time, using a battery operated device.
 Codecs can reduce bandwidth requirements for voice, but not for data because they all
use lossy compression. It is impossible to recover the original info.
 MP3 algorithm employs a system called psychoacoustic coding, which tries to calculate
which bits can be safely discarded based on models of human perception.
 Converting sound files to MP3 (compression) requires a powerful computer, while
players (decompression) are simpler.
 Voice coding may be of two types – Waveform coding and Vocoding. Most codecs are
hybrid.

VOCODING
 Sounds produced in speech share many common characteristics because of common
source – human speech organs.
 Vocal chords produce a person’s characteristic voice that is filtered by the vocal tract
and given to mouth and nose that serve as resonating cavities. It is then shaped by nose,
tongue and lips to make individual sounds.
 Vocoders can approximate the human anatomy to simple mechanical devices.
 Instead of sending the actual signal, a vocoder calculates how speech was produced and
sends only the relevant pitch and tone information plus a description of the sender’s
mouth movements and vocal tract.
 A decoder then synthesizes a voice, using computer equivalents of the sender’s organs.
 Codecs also use characteristics of human ear to strip out inaudible sounds – a quiet
musical instrument in the background of a louder one.
 But, the precise characteristics of a vocal tract are very difficult to simulate, hence the
results are – the voice sounds synthesized, is of a poor quality, and the data rate is very
low.
 At very low data rates (Military and Space communications), it is hard to tell who is
actually speaking.
 Sounds other than human voice cannot be transmitted, a limitation that turns into an
advantage if the speaker is surrounded by undesirable background noise.

PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS SERVICES

Categories and Services

 Technology Voice Max. Data Base
Speed Station
Required
Digital Cellphone GSM Yes 14.4 kbps Yes

HSCSD Yes 57.6 kbps Yes

GPRS Yes 115.2 kbps Yes
D-AMPS Yes 9.6 kbps Yes
PDC Yes 14.4 kbps Yes
cdmaOne Yes 64 kbps Yes
Data Only CDPD No 19.2 kbps Yes
Mobitex No 4.8 kbps Yes
MCDN No 128 kbps Yes
Non-Cellular TETRA Multiparty 28.8 kbps No
iDEN Multiparty 64 kbps No

Spectral Efficiency Calculations

Spectrum used by each call for a single transmitter is given by

Spectrum per Call = Channel Bandwidth_

Calls per Channel

Because Cellular systems do not let every frequency in the cell, the formula becomes
Spectrum per Call = Channel Bandwidth_ X Cells per Channel
Calls per Channel

It may be more appropriate to divide the above by the capacity available if the voice calls were
replaced by data. This measures the numbers of wave cycles needed to transmit each bit.

Hertz per bit/s = Channel Bandwidth_ x Cells per Channel_

Calls per Channel x Data Rate
Spectral Efficiency for four Main Systems
System Channel Calls per Cells per kHz per kbps per Hz per
Bandwidth Channel Channel Call Call bps
GSM 200 kHz 8 About 4 100 14.4 7
D-AMPS 30 kHz 3 About 7 70 9.6 7
PDC 25 kHz 3 About 7 58 9.6 6
cdmaOne 1250 kHz About 15 1 83 16 5