Accuracy Standards

Geomatics Canada
Geodetic Survey Division
Accuracy Standards for Positioning

Version 1.0
September, 1996
Geodetic Survey Division

615 Booth Street
Ottawa, Ontario
K1A 0E9
Tel: (613)995-4410
Fax: (613)995-3215
E-mail: information@geod.nrcan.gc.ca
WWW: http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca
FOREWORD
The standards presented here supersede the accuracy standards for horizontal
control that were included in a document published in 1978 by the Surveys and
Mapping Branch, Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada, and titled "Specifications
and Recommendations for Control Surveys and Survey Markers".
Advances in three-dimensional satellite positioning and surveying methods have

played an important role in the development of the Canadian Spatial Reference
System and associated standards of accuracy compatible with this infrastructure for
spatial referencing in Canada.
An attempt has been made, in presenting these standards, to clarify positioning

accuracy concepts for the broad spatial referencing community.
0
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1
2. THE CANADIAN SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM............................. 3

2.1 Delivery of the CSRS Through Monumented
Control Networks ..................................................................... 4
2.2 Delivery of the CSRS Through GPS Data Products.......................... 5
2.3 Expanding User Community................................................................ 5
3. ACCURACY REPRESENTATION............................................................. 6
3.1 Definitions ............................................................................................... 6
3.2 Horizontal Coordinate Accuracy......................................................... 8
3.3 Ellipsoidal Height Accuracy.................................................................. 9
4. ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION ................................................................ 11
FURTHER READING .......................................................................................... 13
APPENDICES
A. COMPUTATION OF CSRS ACCURACIES.............................................. 15
B. SUGGESTED ADJACENCY CRITERIA FOR LOCAL ACCURACY..... 23
C. COMPARISON OF 1978 AND 1996 ACCURACY STANDARDS........ 26
Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to provide members of the geomatics

community and other users of spatial referencing techniques, with accuracy
standards for positioning within the context of the Canadian Spatial
Reference System (CSRS). These standards represent a significant change
from the previous accuracy standards published by the Geodetic Survey
Division in 1978, resulting from technological advances in surveying and
other areas of geomatics that have occurred since that time.
The development by the United States Department of Defense of the Global

Positioning System (GPS) for navigation and its adoption for high-precision
surveying, and for the rapid, low-cost and direct geographical referencing of
information, has greatly changed spatial positioning accuracy capabilities. It is
now feasible to position points on the surface of the Earth with centimetre
accuracy relative to the high-accuracy positional control provided by the
Canadian Active Control System (CACS) and the Canadian Base Network
(CBN).
Standards for the representation and classification of horizontal coordinate

and ellipsoidal height accuracies are described in this document. These
accuracy standards have been designed for use within the context of the
Canadian Spatial Reference System, and a brief overview of this system is
presented in Section 2. Section 3 defines the concepts of network and local
accuracy which form the basis for the new standards, and presents the
measures used to represent these accuracies for both horizontal coordinates
and ellipsoidal heights. Accuracy classification is discussed in Section 4,
where a table of classification standards is presented. More detailed
information related to computational methods, and a comparison of these
standards with those published in 1978 are included in the appendices.
The scope of this document is limited to standards. Specifications related to

the instrumentation and procedures needed to achieve these accuracy
standards are not included. Closely linked to positioning technology,
specifications can quickly become outdated and require changes as advances
are made in technology and methods. There is now a tendency to replace
detailed specifications with guidelines, because of the flexibility afforded by
new technologies and the rapid pace of technological developments.
Guidelines and Specifications for GPS Surveys (1992) and the GPS Positioning
Guide (1993) published by the Geodetic Survey Division provide reference
material in this area.
Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 1

Standards for orthometric heights are not being updated at this time, and
readers are referred to Specifications and Recommendations for Control
Surveys and Survey Markers (1978), available from the Geodetic Survey
Division, for accuracy standards and specifications related to the
determination of orthometric heights using differential levelling techniques.
2 Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

2. THE CANADIAN SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
The Canadian Spatial Reference System (CSRS) provides a national

framework for spatial referencing in Canada. It is characterized by accuracies
compatible with modern positioning technologies, and facilitates sharing of
spatially referenced data between users in many diverse sectors of activity.
User access to the CSRS is provided through networks of monumented

control points and Global Positioning System (GPS) data products, as
illustrated by the two faces of the pyramid shown in Figure 1. The consistency
of positioning results is ensured by the integration of the many components
of the reference system which together form a versatile, accessible and
accurate basis for spatial referencing.
International cooperation for

realization of / integration to the
Global Reference Frame
Figure 1: The Canadian Spatial Reference System

The two layers at the top of the CSRS pyramid provide the consistent
positional basis for both monumented control network and GPS data product
delivery mechanisms. The Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)
network includes five sites in Canada where observations have been made
with international cooperation. This radio astronomical technique uses
signals from extragalactic radio sources, or quasars, to determine inter-station
distances on a global scale with sub-centimetre accuracy.
The Canadian Active Control System (CACS) comprises a sparse network of

continuously operating GPS satellite tracking stations located across Canada.
The GPS data from a subset of the CACS network, along with data from the
VLBI network, contribute to international efforts to realize and maintain a
consistent global reference frame. The VLBI and CACS networks also provide
for the integration of the Canadian Spatial Reference System into the global
system.
2.1 Delivery of the CSRS Through Monumented Control Networks
The right-hand face of the pyramid in Figure 1 illustrates the hierarchy of

monumented control networks within the CSRS, representing one means of
delivering the reference system to the user. Each layer consists of a network
of points for which positions have been determined using a combination of
technologies and procedures specific to that layer.
The Canadian Base Network (CBN) is a high accuracy GPS-based network of

monuments established by the Geodetic Survey Division in cooperation with
provincial government agencies. The VLBI, CACS and CBN layers of the
pyramid comprise the national network of the Canadian Spatial Reference
System, a fundamental level maintained to provide a standard spatial
reference frame that may subsequently be densified by provincial control
survey agencies.
Provincial high precision networks comprise the next layer of monumented

control. These modern GPS-based control networks are being established in
many provincial jurisdictions to provide improved access to the reference
system. Regional control networks linked to high precision networks in the
upper levels of the CSRS also provide access to this same standard positional
framework, frequently through large numbers of monumented points in the
more populous areas of the country.

2.2 Delivery of the CSRS Through GPS Data Products
The use of GPS data products to access the reference system is illustrated by
the left-hand face of the pyramid in Figure 1. Without occupying a control
monument, users of Global Positioning System technology can access the
reference system directly through the “control network in the sky”. A direct
link to the Canadian Spatial Reference System can be obtained through
precise GPS satellite ephemerides that are related to the CSRS, or through
differential GPS corrections based on an active control point that is well-
integrated with the CSRS. These active methods of delivering positional
control to the user provide accuracies directly with respect to the reference
system.
Canadian Active Control System data products offer direct and cost-effective
access to the Canadian Spatial Reference System. Regional differential GPS
services that are integrated with the CSRS offer complementary access to the
reference system, based upon regional active control points operated by
government or private agencies.
2.3 Expanding User Community
The various components of the CSRS pyramid allow the diverse applications
of positioning and spatial referencing to access the system via a number of
delivery mechanisms. Compatibility and consistency of spatially referenced
data is ensured by accessing the Canadian Spatial Reference System either
through networks of monumented points whose positions have been
accurately determined, or through GPS data products related to the CSRS.
As the reference system user community expands to include surveying,

navigation and other spatial referencing applications, the means of describing
associated accuracies are being adapted to reflect these changes. Not only have
the accuracy standards described in this document been influenced by the
improved accuracies of the Canadian Spatial Reference System over previous
realizations of the reference system in Canada, but also by the changing
means of accessing the reference system and the broadening user base which
is served by this national framework for spatial referencing.

3. ACCURACY REPRESENTATION
3.1 Definitions
Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness of an estimated quantity, such as

a horizontal coordinate or an ellipsoidal height, to the true but unknown
value. Because the true value is not known, but only estimated through the
measurement process, by definition the accuracy of the estimated quantity is
also unknown. We can therefore only estimate the accuracy of coordinate
information. Rigorous procedures are used in the establishment of the
highest levels of the Canadian Spatial Reference System in order to ensure
the reliability of the associated accuracy estimates.
Precision is defined as the degree of closeness of repeated measurements of

the same quantity to each other. Various measures of precision are
commonly used in positioning applications, including root-mean-square,
standard deviation, error ellipse and others. Each provides an indication of
the spread or dispersion of the set of estimates about their mean or expected
value, reflecting the random error in the repeated measurements.
Precision measures are relatively simple to compute and are often used to
estimate accuracy. They provide useful estimates of accuracy only if the data
is unaffected by biases due to blunders or uncorrected systematic effects.
Without some assurances that such errors do not exist, a precision measure
provides information that is of limited use.
For instance, a horizontal position may have been determined using the most
precise GPS measurements and processing techniques, but if the positioned
point is misidentified as one that is actually ten metres away, the precise
position for the wrong point is of little use. While the precision measures
may indicate that a precision of ten centimetres has been achieved, the bias
introduced by misidentifying the point limits its accuracy to ten metres.
If appropriate steps are taken to eliminate or correct for biases in positional

data, precision measures may also be a useful means of representing accuracy.
Precision measures used to represent accuracies for points in the highest
levels of the Canadian Spatial Reference System are presented later in this
section.
These standards are based on two types of accuracy that can be estimated for
the geodetic coordinates of latitude, longitude (horizontal coordinates), and
ellipsoidal height: network accuracy and local accuracy.

1. Network Accuracy is the absolute accuracy of the coordinates for a
point at the 95% confidence level, with respect to the defined reference
system. Network accuracy can be computed for any positioning project
that is connected to the CSRS.
For general spatial referencing applications, the points in the Canadian

Active Control System and the Canadian Base Network may be
considered to approach an error-free realization of the defined
reference system. Accuracy with respect to these monumented points
in the national CSRS network may then be interpreted as an expression
of network accuracy.
For high accuracy applications connected to the reference system via

the Canadian Active Control System or the Canadian Base Network,
the published network accuracies of these points should be rigorously
propagated through the new work for purposes of computing the
network accuracies of the newly established points.
2. Local Accuracy is an average measure (e.g. mean, median, etc.) of the

relative accuracies of the coordinates for a point with respect to other
adjacent points at the 95% confidence level. For horizontal coordinate
accuracy, the local accuracy is computed using an average of the major
semi-axes of the 95% relative confidence ellipses between the point in
question and other adjacent points. For ellipsoidal height accuracy, the
local accuracy is computed using an average of the 95% relative
confidence intervals between the point in question and other adjacent
points.
The network and local accuracies for points in the national CSRS network are
separated into their horizontal and vertical components. Although the
horizontal coordinates and ellipsoidal heights for points in these networks
have been determined using the same three-dimensional GPS observations,
the consistently weaker vertical component of the GPS results tends to
dominate three-dimensional accuracy statements. Because many applications
of GPS positioning principally require horizontal coordinates, a clear
statement of horizontal accuracies is of practical importance.
The network and local accuracy values at a point provide two very different
pictures of positioning accuracy. Network accuracy indicates how accurately a
point is positioned with respect to the reference system, and is therefore
dependent upon the connection to the Canadian Spatial Reference System.
For a positioning project connected to the reference system through the use of
a monumented control point of known coordinates, network accuracies for
the new points in the project will depend upon the network accuracy at the
known point and the relative accuracies within the new work.

Local accuracy indicates how accurately a point is positioned with respect to
other adjacent points in the network. Based upon computed relative
accuracies, local accuracy provides practical information for users conducting
local surveys between control monuments of known position. Local accuracy
is dependent upon the positioning method used to establish a point. If very
precise instruments and techniques are used, the relative and local accuracies
related to the point will be very good.
While a point may have good local accuracy it may not necessarily have good
network accuracy, and vice versa. Different positioning applications will
have varying objectives that emphasize either network or local accuracy, or
have specific requirements for both types of accuracy.
3.2 Horizontal Coordinate Accuracy
The statistic used to represent the accuracy of the horizontal coordinates of a

point is the 95% confidence ellipse. If the confidence ellipse represents
network accuracy, then the accuracy of the point with respect to the defined
reference system is represented. If the confidence ellipse represents a relative
accuracy, then the accuracy of the point with respect to another adjacent point
is represented, and may be used in conjunction with other relative accuracies
at that point to compute its local accuracy.
The 95% confidence ellipse is centred on the estimated horizontal coordinates

of the point as illustrated in Figure 2. The true position is unknown and can
only be estimated through the measurements. The 95% confidence ellipse
describes the uncertainty or random error in this estimated position, resulting
from random errors in the measurements. There is a 95% probability that, in
the absence of biases or other systematic errors, the true position will fall
within the region bounded by the ellipse.
The 95% confidence ellipse for the horizontal coordinates of a point is

derived from the covariance matrix of the estimated coordinates as computed
using a least squares adjustment. It follows the actual distribution of the
random error in the estimated position, and is the preferred means of
representing accuracy when a detailed analysis of horizontal coordinate
accuracy is required. Details of the derivation of the parameters of the 95%
confidence ellipse can be found in Appendix A.

θ
a
a - length of the major semi-axis

b - length of the minor semi-axis
θ - azimuth of the major semi-axis
Figure 2: The 95% confidence ellipse
3.3 Ellipsoidal Height Accuracy
The statistic used to represent the accuracy of the ellipsoidal height of a point
is the 95% confidence interval. If the confidence interval represents network
accuracy, then the accuracy of the estimated ellipsoidal height of the point
with respect to the defined reference system is represented. If the confidence
interval represents a relative accuracy, then the accuracy of the estimated
ellipsoidal height of the point with respect to another adjacent point is
represented, and may be used in conjunction with other relative accuracies at
that point to compute its local accuracy.
The 95% confidence interval is centred on the estimated ellipsoidal height

coordinate of the point as illustrated in Figure 3. The true ellipsoidal height
is unknown and can only be estimated through the measurements. The 95%
confidence interval describes the uncertainty or random error in this
estimate, resulting from random errors in the measurements. There is a 95%
probability that, in the absence of biases or other systematic errors, the true
position will fall within this interval.

95% confidence interval
Figure 3: The 95% confidence interval
The 95% confidence interval is derived from the covariance matrix of the
estimated three-dimensional coordinates as computed using a least squares
adjustment. Details of the derivation of the 95% confidence interval can be
found in Appendix A.

4. ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION
For points included in the national network of the Canadian Spatial

Reference System, network and local accuracies are computed by the Geodetic
Survey Division using the standard accuracy representations presented in
Section 3. In addition, the network and local accuracies may be classified by
comparing the 95% confidence ellipse for horizontal coordinate accuracy, and
the 95% confidence interval for ellipsoidal height accuracy, against a set of
standards. This set of accuracy classification standards appears in Table 1
which lists the accuracy classes and their associated upper boundary. Class
boundaries increase by doubling, or approximately doubling, the upper
boundary value of the previous class.
CLASSIFICATION STANDARDS
Accuracy Class Upper Class Boundary
1 centimetre 0.010 metres

1 decimetre 0.100 metres
1 metre 1.000 metres
Table 1: Accuracy classification standards

The classification standards presented here are recommended for use during
both the survey design and evaluation phases of a positioning project. When
planning a particular survey, pre-analysis done in view of achieving a specific
accuracy level should be consistent with the standards against which the
survey results will be evaluated. Following the evaluation of the completed
positioning project results, the accuracies may be represented and classified
accordingly.
The classification process provides an opportunity to assess the reliability of

the results of a positioning project and assign accuracy classes accordingly. For
lower accuracy applications of spatial referencing, precision measures may not
be an appropriate means of estimating accuracy. For instance, the root-mean-
square or RMS value generated from a single-point GPS positioning receiver,
using a short observing period, may be overly optimistic if the position
estimates have all been affected by the same tropospheric effects and other
sources of systematic error.
A more realistic estimate of the accuracy attainable by the positioning system

may be determined through the use of a validation procedure where test
results are compared against known control coordinates. The validation
process is particularly useful for evaluating GPS positioning systems.
Statistical testing of validation results is recommended to assess their
compatibility with known coordinate values.
A knowledge of the capabilities of a positioning system is essential in

assigning realistic accuracy classes to the results of any positioning project.

FURTHER READING
Duval, R., P. Héroux and N. Beck (1996). “Canadian Active Control System –
Delivering the Canadian Spatial Reference System”. GIS'96 Conference
Proceedings (CD-ROM file C2-4). GIS World Inc., Fort Collins,
Colorado. (This paper is also available from Geodetic Survey Division,
Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa.)
Federal Geodetic Control Committee (1974). Classification, Standards of

Accuracy, and General Specifications of Geodetic Control Surveys.
National Geodetic Survey, NOAA, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910
(formerly of Rockville, Md.).
Federal Geodetic Control Committee (1988). Geometric Geodetic Accuracy

Standards and Specifications for Using GPS Relative Positioning
Techniques (Version 5.0). National Geodetic Survey, NOAA, Silver
Spring, Maryland 20910 (formerly of Rockville, Md.).
Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (1995). Standards for Geodetic

Control Networks [DRAFT]. National Geodetic Survey, NOAA, Silver
Spring, Maryland 20910.
Federal Geographic Data Committee (1996). Geospatial Positioning Accuracy

Standards [DRAFT]. Preliminary draft obtained from National
Geodetic Survey, NOAA, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910.
Geodetic Survey Division (1993). GPS Positioning Guide. Geodetic Survey

Division, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa.
Geodetic Survey Division (1992). Guidelines and Specifications for GPS

Surveys. Geodetic Survey Division, Natural Resources Canada,
Ottawa.
Koch, K.R. (1988). Parameter estimation and hypothesis testing in linear

m o d e l s . Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, Tokyo.
Krakiwsky, E.J., P. Vaníc̆ek, and D. Szabo (1993). Further Development and

Testing of Robustness Analysis. Contract Report 93-001, Geodetic
Survey Division, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa.
Leenhouts, P.P. (1985). “On the computation of bi-normal radial error”.

Navigation, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 16-28.

Mikhail, E.M. (1976). Observations and Least Squares. IEP, New York.
Mikhail, E.M., and G. Gracie (1981). Analysis and Adjustment of Survey

Measurements. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Surveys and Mapping Branch (1978). Specifications and Recommendations

for Control Surveys and Survey Markers. Natural Resources Canada
(formerly Energy, Mines and Resources), Ottawa.
Vaníc̆ek P., and E.J. Krakiwsky (1986). Geodesy: The Concepts. 2nd ed.,
North-Holland, Amsterdam.
Vaníc̆ek, P., E.J. Krakiwsky, Y. Gao, and P.S. Ong (1990). Robustness Analysis.
Contract Report 91-002, Geodetic Survey Division, Natural Resources
Canada (formerly Energy, Mines and Resources), Ottawa.

APPENDIX A
COMPUTATION OF CSRS ACCURACIES

COMPUTATION OF CSRS ACCURACIES
The network and local accuracies for points in the national network of the
Canadian Spatial Reference System (CSRS) are based upon the results of a
least squares adjustment of the survey observations used to establish their
positions, where the network accuracy values refer to the origin of the CSRS.
The network and local accuracies of the horizontal coordinates and ellipsoidal
heights of points in the CSRS can be computed from elements of a covariance
matrix, as described in the following sections. This covariance matrix of the
adjusted parameters, denoted Cx̂ must have been produced from a least
squares adjustment where the known CSRS control coordinate values have
been weighted using their one-sigma network accuracies. Matrix Cx̂ is a
symmetric matrix where the elements along the diagonal are variances of the
adjusted parameters and the off-diagonal elements are covariances between
the different adjusted parameters.
The adjusted parameters of interest to this discussion are corrections to

estimated a priori coordinate values for the observed points. These
corrections are determined in the local geodetic system at each point, and
therefore expressed in units of metres along each of the x, y and z axes
(Steeves, 1984).
Three-Dimensional Positioning Accuracy
For three-dimensional adjustments of high precision GPS position difference

observations, the evaluation of the data should include the computation of
relative and absolute 95% confidence ellipsoids. While these measures are
not included in the present standards, their computation and analysis is an
important phase in the evaluation of specialized projects carried out for
geodetic or other scientific applications. A thorough treatment of the
computation of confidence ellipsoids appears in Vaníc̆ek and Krakiwsky
(1986).
Horizontal Coordinate Accuracy Computations
Network Accuracy 95% Confidence Ellipse
The standard ellipse representing the one-sigma network accuracy of the

adjusted horizontal coordinates at point i, is defined by its major (a) and

minor (b) semi-axes. Using the elements of the covariance matrix C x̂, these
can be computed from:
a = [ (σ2 φi + σ2 λi ) /2 + q]1/2
b = [ (σ2 φi + σ2 λi ) /2 - q]1/2
where
q = [ (σ2 φi - σ2 λi) 2 /4 + σ2 φiλi ]1/2,
and where
σ2 φi is the variance of latitude (m2),

σ2 λi is the variance of longitude (m2), and
σφiλi is the covariance of latitude and longitude (m2).
The orientation of the network accuracy ellipse is given by the following

expression:
tan2θ = 2σ φiλi / ( σ2 φi - σ2 λi )
where θ is the azimuth of the major semi-axis. The quadrant for 2θ should be
chosen such that sin2θ has the same sign as σφiλi and cos2θ has the same sign
as (σ2 φi - σ2 λi).
The computed values of a and b must be multiplied by the appropriate

expansion factor to convert the standard ellipse to a 95% confidence ellipse
(Leick, 1995). For large adjustments where the degrees of freedom are quite
high, the factor 2.45 for infinite degrees of freedom is used. For adjustments
where the degrees of freedom are less than or equal to 120, the expansion
factor corresponding to the actual degrees of freedom should be used (Surveys
and Mapping Branch, 1978).
The semi-axes of the 95% confidence ellipse representing the network

accuracy at point i are generally computed as:
a95 = 2.45a
b95 = 2.45b.
Further information on the computation of confidence ellipses may be found

in reference texts, such as Mikhail and Gracie (1981) and Mikhail (1976).

Network Accuracy 95% Confidence Circle
The 95% confidence circle is another representation of horizontal coordinate

accuracy. It will be used in the United States to describe the horizontal
accuracy of points, as described in FGCS (1995). The 95% confidence circle is
introduced here to serve users who may be accustomed to using a circular
expression of positional uncertainty.
The 95% confidence circle is centred on the estimated horizontal coordinates

of the point as illustrated in Figure 4. The true position is unknown and can
only be estimated through the measurements. The 95% confidence circle
describes the uncertainty or random error in this estimate, resulting from
random errors in the measurements. There is a 95% probability that, in the
absence of biases or other systematic errors, the true value will fall within the
region bounded by the circle.
95% Confidence Circle
95% Confidence Ellipse
Figure 4: The 95% confidence circle
The 95% confidence circle is closely approximated from the major (a) and
minor (b) semi-axis parameters of the standard ellipse and a set of coefficients.
For circular error ellipses, the circle coincides with the ellipse. For elongated
error ellipses, the radius of the circle will be slightly shorter than the major
semi-axis of the ellipse. The radius r of the 95% confidence circle is
approximated by:
r = Kp a
where
Kp = 1.960790 + 0.004071 C + 0.114276 C2 + 0.371625 C3,
C = b/a.

Note that the coefficients in the above expression are specific to the 95%
confidence level, such that when the major semi-axis of the standard ellipse
is multiplied by the value of K p , the radius of the 95% confidence circle is
obtained directly, and no further conversion is required (FGCS, 1995). Details
on the circular confidence region may be found in Leenhouts (1985).
Local Accuracy 95% Confidence Ellipse
The local accuracy at a point is based upon an average of the individual local
accuracies (or relative accuracies) between that point and other adjacent
points. The standard relative ellipse, representing the one-sigma local
accuracy of the horizontal coordinates of point i with respect to another
selected point j, is defined by its major (a) and minor (b) semi-axes. The semi-
axes are given by:
a = [ (σ2 ∆φ ij + σ2 ∆λ ij ) /2 + q]1/2
b = [ (σ2 ∆φ ij + σ2 ∆λ ij ) /2 - q]1/2
where
q = [ (σ2 ∆φ ij - σ2 ∆λ ij) 2 /4 + σ2 ∆φ ij∆λ ij ]1/2,
and where
σ2 ∆φ ij is the variance of the difference in latitude between points i

and j,
σ2 ∆λ ij is the variance of the difference in longitude between points i
and j, and
σ∆φ ij∆λ ij is the covariance of the differences in latitude and longitude
between points i and j.
The variances and covariance of the position difference are obtained from the
elements of the covariance matrix Cx̂ as follows:
σ2 ∆φ ij = σ2 φi + σ2 φj - 2σφiφj
σ2 ∆λ ij = σ2 λi + σ2 λj - 2σλiλj
σ∆φ ij∆λ ij = σφiλi + σφjλj - σφiλj - σφjλi

where
σ2 φi is the variance of i-th latitude (m2),

σ2 λi is the variance of i-th longitude (m2),
σφiλi is the covariance of i-th latitude and i-th longitude (m2),
σ2 φj is the variance of j-th latitude (m2),

σ2 λj is the variance of j-th longitude (m2),
σφjλj is the covariance of j-th latitude and j-th longitude (m2),
σφiφj is the covariance of i-th latitude and j-th latitude (m2),

σφiλj is the covariance of i-th latitude and j-th longitude (m2),
σφjλi is the covariance of j-th latitude and i-th longitude (m2), and
σλiλj is the covariance of i-th longitude and j-th longitude (m2).
The orientation of this local accuracy ellipse is given by:
tan2θ = 2σ ∆φ ij∆λ ij / ( σ2 ∆φ ij - σ2 ∆λ ij ).
The computed values of a and b must be multiplied by the appropriate

expansion factor to convert the standard relative ellipse to a 95% confidence
ellipse, as described above for the network accuracy 95% confidence ellipse.
The semi-axes of the 95% confidence ellipse representing the local accuracy
between points i and j are generally computed as:
a95 = 2.45a
b95 = 2.45b.
Local Accuracy 95% Confidence Circle
The 95% confidence circle representing a local accuracy can be derived from
the major and minor semi-axes of the standard relative ellipse between two
selected points. The expressions for estimating the radius of the local accuracy
95% confidence circle are the same as for the network accuracy computation,
substituting the standard relative ellipse a and b parameters into the formulae
provided in the Network Accuracy 95% Confidence Circle section above.

Ellipsoidal Height Accuracy Computations
Network Accuracy 95% Confidence Interval
The standard deviation representing the one-sigma network accuracy of the

adjusted ellipsoidal height at a point, σh (m), is extracted from the covariance
matrix Cx̂.
The 95% confidence interval representing the network accuracy of the

ellipsoidal height is obtained by multiplying this standard deviation by the
expansion factor 1.96 for a single variate probability distribution.
Local Accuracy 95% Confidence Interval
The local accuracy at a point is based upon an average of the individual local
accuracies (or relative accuracies) between that point and other adjacent
points. The standard deviation σ∆hij representing the one-sigma local accuracy
of the ellipsoidal height difference between points i and j can be derived from
elements of the covariance matrix Cx̂ as follows:
σ∆hij = ( σ2 hi + σ2 hj - 2σhihj)1/2
where
σ2 hi is the variance of i-th ellipsoidal height (m2),

σ2 hj is the variance of j-th ellipsoidal height (m2), and
σhihj is the covariance of i-th and j-th ellipsoidal heights (m2).
Expanding this value to the 95% confidence level, the local accuracy of the
ellipsoidal height difference between points i and j is equal to 1.96σ∆hij.
References
Federal Geodetic Control Subcommittee (1995). Standards for Geodetic

Control Networks [DRAFT]. National Geodetic Survey, NOAA, Silver
Spring, Maryland 20910.
Leenhouts, P.P. (1985). “On the computation of bi-normal radial error”.

Navigation, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 16-28.

Leick, A. (1995). GPS Satellite Surveying. 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York.
Mikhail, E.M. (1976). Observations and Least Squares. IEP, New York.
Mikhail, E.M., and G. Gracie (1981). Analysis and Adjustment of Survey

Measurements. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Steeves, R.R. (1984). Mathematical Models for Use in the Readjustment of

the North American Geodetic Networks. Technical Report Number 1,
Geodetic Survey Division, Natural Resources Canada (formerly Energy,
Mines and Resources), Ottawa.
Surveys and Mapping Branch (1978). Specifications and Recommendations

for Control Surveys and Survey Markers. Natural Resources Canada
(formerly Energy, Mines and Resources), Ottawa.
Vaníc̆ek P., and E.J. Krakiwsky (1986). Geodesy: The Concepts. 2nd ed.,
North-Holland, Amsterdam.

APPENDIX B
SUGGESTED ADJACENCY CRITERIA FOR LOCAL ACCURACY

SUGGESTED ADJACENCY CRITERIA FOR LOCAL ACCURACY
For the purpose of these standards, the generalized local accuracy at a point is
based on an average of the individual local accuracies (or relative accuracies)
between the point in question and other adjacent points. Specific criteria
defining adjacency are not included in the definition of local accuracy
presented in Section 2. The present appendix discusses several criteria that
are useful for establishing adjacency.
In practice, the relative accuracy between two points must be available if they
are to be considered adjacent for purposes of computing local accuracy.
Therefore, the availability of complete covariance information between the
points must be assured. Also, if the implementation of local accuracy is being
carried out through an automated procedure in an existing database, the
design of the database itself may have an impact on the selection of adjacency
criteria. The availability of metadata elements required to evaluate adjacency
must be ascertained.
Any chosen combination of criteria to determine adjacency should always

encompass at least some pairs of points that are directly connected via survey
observations in the data. In general, relative accuracy is more reliably known
between directly connected points than between points which have only
indirect connections through the survey network. An average local accuracy
should therefore be at least partially based upon these better known relative
accuracies.
In addition to direct connections, criteria related to the distance separating

two points may be useful in determining adjacency. GPS surveying methods
often allow users to make direct observations between control points that are
not directly connected through the control survey network. By encompassing
all points within a specified radius from the point in question, the resulting
local accuracy value may provide a better indication of the relative accuracies
in the area. A m a x i m u m r a d i u s value may be chosen so as to limit the
influence of relative accuracies to outlying points unlikely to be used in
conjunction with the point in question. The selection of a m i n i m u m r a d i u s
value may be necessary to eliminate relative accuracies to reference points or
other survey markers in the immediate vicinity of the point.
The number of relative accuracies to be included in the local accuracy

computation can also be used as an adjacency criterion, by setting a m i n i m u m
or a m a x i m u m number of adjacent points.

An important criterion in the selection of adjacent points for local accuracy is
survey procedure. By restricting the computation to points that have been
established using survey procedures of similar or higher precision and
reliability than that of the station in question, the resulting local accuracy
value may better represent the level of relative accuracy at a particular point
in the network. The inclusion of relative accuracies to points established
during the course of lower accuracy surveys will downgrade local accuracy,
and the use of survey procedure as a selection criterion may help to mitigate
this effect.
Some databases may permit the use of a network hierarchy attribute to

designate stations established according to a specific class of procedures.
Hierarchy may be particularly suitable as a criterion for the higher levels of
the CSRS where procedures are well-defined. For instance, Canadian Base
Network and provincial high precision networks may benefit from this
criterion. It could be considered undesirable to publish weak local accuracies
for these points, although their network accuracies would nevertheless be
very good.
While various criteria can be used to determine adjacent points, the intent is
always to give an indication of local accuracy. Considerations related to
database environment and control network characteristics may result in some
variations in the criteria used among different jurisdictions. Any generalized
local accuracy value for a point is only an indicator of the behaviour of
relative accuracies associated with that point, and does not preclude the
provision of individual relative accuracies between specific points. Users will
generally require access to such detailed information when selecting control
points suitable for their project requirements.

APPENDIX C
COMPARISON OF 1978 AND 1996 ACCURACY STANDARDS

COMPARISON OF 1978 AND 1996 ACCURACY STANDARDS
The rapid pace of technological development since the publication of

standards and specifications in 1978 has led to unprecedented changes in the
field of geospatial positioning. The realization of a reference system that is
highly accurate at both the national and global scales, and the greatly
improved positioning accuracies attainable by the surveying community,
have led to new requirements in the area of accuracy standards. The 1996
standards have been designed to meet both these new requirements and to
reflect the broadening user community that is served by the Canadian Spatial
Reference System.
While the standards in the present document supersede the earlier

horizontal accuracy standards, the 1978 standards and specifications related to
vertical control remain unchanged. The scope of Accuracy Standards for
Positioning, Version 1.0 is limited to standards for the representation and
classification of horizontal coordinate and ellipsoidal height accuracies. The
introduction of standards for ellipsoidal heights reflects the widespread use of
GPS three-dimensional positioning technology.
The new standards are based on two types of accuracy: network accuracy and
local accuracy. While local accuracy is founded upon relative accuracies
between points, in a manner similar to the 1978 specifications, network
accuracy represents a very new aspect of the accuracy standards. The
inclusion of this expression of accuracy with respect to the reference system is
now possible given the accuracy of the Canadian Spatial Reference System,
and is consistent with trends towards increased use of active control system
positioning techniques.
Both network and local accuracy are expressed in linear units. This represents
a significant change from the 1978 document in which the accuracy standards
for horizontal control surveys were based upon a distance dependent
computation, and orders of survey were generally equated with a particular
parts per million (ppm) value.
The representation of horizontal accuracy by a 95% confidence ellipse is a

common element to the 1978 and 1996 standards. The concept of the
confidence region underlies the representation and analysis of accuracy as
described in both documents.
While the focus of the 1978 standards was on the classification of surveys,
classification is not the primary emphasis of this document. Orders of survey
are not used in the 1996 standards, and classes are now identified simply by

the value of their upper boundary in linear units. A control survey point
will no longer be referred to as a first order or second order point, but rather,
for example, as a 5 centimetre point or a 2 decimetre point. In many
instances, it may be preferable to use the specific network and local accuracy
values, instead of the generalized classifications to describe a point.
The new standards present a number of changes over the previous 1978
standards for horizontal coordinate accuracy. They have been developed in
response to the need for standards of accuracy that are both compatible with
modern positioning capabilities and consistent with the changing delivery
mechanisms of the Canadian Spatial Reference System.

Accuracy Standards

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Geomatics Canada

Geodetic Survey Division

Accuracy Standards for Positioning

Geodetic Survey Division

Advances in three-dimensional satellite positioning and surveying methods have

An attempt has been made, in presenting these standards, to clarify positioning

2. THE CANADIAN SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM............................. 3

4. ACCURACY CLASSIFICATION ................................................................ 11

FURTHER READING .......................................................................................... 13

A. COMPUTATION OF CSRS ACCURACIES.............................................. 15

B. SUGGESTED ADJACENCY CRITERIA FOR LOCAL ACCURACY..... 23

C. COMPARISON OF 1978 AND 1996 ACCURACY STANDARDS........ 26

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

The purpose of this document is to provide members of the geomatics

The development by the United States Department of Defense of the Global

Standards for the representation and classification of horizontal coordinate

The scope of this document is limited to standards. Specifications related to

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 1

2 Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

The Canadian Spatial Reference System (CSRS) provides a national

User access to the CSRS is provided through networks of monumented

International cooperation for

Figure 1: The Canadian Spatial Reference System

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 3

The Canadian Active Control System (CACS) comprises a sparse network of

2.1 Delivery of the CSRS Through Monumented Control Networks

The right-hand face of the pyramid in Figure 1 illustrates the hierarchy of

The Canadian Base Network (CBN) is a high accuracy GPS-based network of

Provincial high precision networks comprise the next layer of monumented

4 Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

2.3 Expanding User Community

As the reference system user community expands to include surveying,

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 5

Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness of an estimated quantity, such as

Precision is defined as the degree of closeness of repeated measurements of

If appropriate steps are taken to eliminate or correct for biases in positional

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 6

For general spatial referencing applications, the points in the Canadian

For high accuracy applications connected to the reference system via

2. Local Accuracy is an average measure (e.g. mean, median, etc.) of the

7 Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

3.2 Horizontal Coordinate Accuracy

The statistic used to represent the accuracy of the horizontal coordinates of a

The 95% confidence ellipse is centred on the estimated horizontal coordinates

The 95% confidence ellipse for the horizontal coordinates of a point is

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 8

a - length of the major semi-axis

Figure 2: The 95% confidence ellipse

3.3 Ellipsoidal Height Accuracy

The 95% confidence interval is centred on the estimated ellipsoidal height

9 Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

Figure 3: The 95% confidence interval

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 10

For points included in the national network of the Canadian Spatial

Accuracy Class Upper Class Boundary

1 centimetre 0.010 metres

Table 1: Accuracy classification standards

Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0 11

The classification process provides an opportunity to assess the reliability of

A more realistic estimate of the accuracy attainable by the positioning system

A knowledge of the capabilities of a positioning system is essential in

12 Accuracy Standards for Positioning, Version 1.0

Federal Geodetic Control Committee (1974). Classification, Standards of

Federal Geodetic Control Committee (1988). Geometric Geodetic Accuracy