General Chemistry

1
Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Module 001 : Introduction, Matter and its

Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Welcome to General Chemistry 1! Now, you’re joining thousands of students

currently enrolled in this course.
In order to begin, it is recommended that you take a few minutes to discover
the site, take a look at the topics that we will cover in each week and preview
the course assessments that you need to successfully complete in order to
pass this course.
This week, we will discuss the study of chemistry, matter and its properties,
and measurements.
By the end of this course, you should be able to understand and:
1. Define the meaning of chemistry
2. Explain the properties of matter and ways of classifying matter
3. Differentiate elements, compounds, and mixtures
4. Determine SI units in calculations and significant figures
5. Differentiate between precision and accuracy
6. Summarize Dalton’s atomic theory
7. Describe the atomic structure, electrical charge and relative masses of
protons, neutrons and electrons
8. Identify atomic number, mass number and isotopes
9. Explain how elements are arranged in the periodic table
10. Differentiate empirical formula and molecular formula
11. Write empirical formulas of ionic compounds, name molecular
compounds, and acids

Good luck and we hope you enjoy this course!

I. The Study of Chemistry

Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies matter and its
properties and behavior.
Anything that has mass and occupies space is referred to as matter.
Elements are the basic unit of matter, and cannot be broken down into
simpler substances. Elements can be found in the periodic table.
Infinitesimally small building blocks of matter are referred to as atoms.
Molecules are substances with 2 or more atoms joined together.

Course Module
 Figure 1. Molecular models (Source:
http://schoolbag.info/chemistry/central/central.files/image204.jpg)

Units of Measurement
Properties of matter are mostly calculated by numbers, or quantitative. Units
of a quantity must be specified when a number represents a quantity that is
measured. Metric system are the units used in scientific measurements.
SI Units
In 1960, the International System of Units (SI) was agreed as the preferred
units in scientific measurements. Figure below shows the 7 SI base units.

Figure 2. SI Base Units (Source:

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/165/169061/GIFS/table1.4.gif)
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Mass and Weight

 Mass – measure of the amount of matter in an object
 Weight – force that gravity exerts on an object. Weighing is the process of
measuring mass.

The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).

1 kg = 1000 g = 1 × 103 g

Volume
Meter (m) is defined as the SI unit of length, while the SI-derived unit for
volume is the cubic meter (m3).
1 cm3 = ( 1 X 10-2 m)3 = 1 X 10-6 m3
1 dm3 = ( 1 X 10-1 m)3 = 1 X 10-3 m3
Liter (L) is a common unit of volume. 1 liter of volume is equal to 1000 milliliters (mL) or
1000 cm3:
1 L = 1000 mL
= 1000 cm3
= 1 dm3
Density
Equation is defined as:

Kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3) is identified as the SI-derived unit for
density. However, for solids and liquids, more commonly used are grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) and grams per milliliter (g/mL).

Due to low densities of gases, these are expressed in grams per liter (g/L).
1 g/cm3 = 1g/mL = 1000kg/m3
1g/L = 0.001 g/mL

Temperature Scales
Measurement of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object is referred to
as temperature.
There are 3 temperature scales that are being used:
 degrees Celsius (°C) – defines freezing point of water as 0°C and
boiling point of water as 100°C
 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) – defines normal freezing point of water as
32°F and boiling point of water as 212°F

Course Module
  Kelvin (K) – SI base unit of temperature; absolute temperature scale.
Zero Kelvin (0 K), is the lowest temperature that can be attained
theoretically.

To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius:

To convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit:

According to experimental studies, absolute zero on the Kelvin scale is

equivalent to –273.15°C on the Celsius scale. To convert degrees Celsius to
kelvin:

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy refers to a measure of how closely individual measurements are to
the actual or true value, while precision refers as to how closely individual
measurements are to each other.

Figure 3. Dart analogy between precision and accuracy (Source:

http://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/513976/Blog_Featured_Images/accuracy-vs-precision.jpg)

Significant Figures in Calculations

Significant figures are the digits in a measured or calculated quantity. For

example, a measured value of 3.0 kg has two significant values, while a value
of 3.30 kg has three significant values.
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

In defining significant figures, read the numbers from left to right, with the
start of count from the first nonzero digit.

Zeros may or may not be significant:

 Zeros are always significant if located between nonzero digits
o Examples:
 209 g (3 significant figures)
 4.017 in (4 significant figures)
 Zeros always not significant if located at the beginning of a number
o Examples:
 0.05 g (1 significant figure)
 0.00078 in (2 significant figures)
 Zeros located at the end of a number are significant if the number has
a decimal point
o Examples:
 0.0400 g (3 significant figures)
 6.0 in (2 significant figures).

When numbers end in zeros without decimal point, zeros are usually
considered as not significant. In these cases, exponential notation is used to
identify that zeros are not significant. For example, based on method of
measurement, 20,500 g can also be written as:
 2.05 x 104 g – 3 significant figures
 2.050 x 104 g – 4 significant figures
 2.0500 x 104 g – 5 significant figures

In performing addition and subtraction, and multiplication and division,

there are additional rules in significant figures in calculations.

1. Addition and subtraction

The result should have the same number of decimal places as the value
with the least number of decimal places.
 Example: 10.15 + 3.221 + 65.3 = 78.671
78.671 rounded off to 1 decimal place (65.3) = 78.7

The final answer to be reported is 78.7 because 65.3 has only 1

decimal place.

2. Multiplication and division

The result should have the same number of significant figures as the
value with the least number of significant figures.
 Example: Area = (5.4423 cm)(3.5 cm) = 19.04805 cm2  round off
to 19 cm2

Course Module
 In rounding off numbers, consider the leftmost digit:
 Preceding number will not be changed, if the leftmost digit removed is
less than 5
o Example: 2.349  round off to 2 significant figures = 2.3
 Preceding number will increase by 1 if the leftmost digit removed is 5
or greater
o Examples: 8.635  round off to 3 significant figures = 8.64
5.773  round off to 2 significant figures = 5.8

II. Matter and Its Properties

Classifications of Matter
Matter is characterized by either:
 Physical state – solid, liquid, gas; and
 Composition – element, compound, or mixture
States of Matter
Matter comes in three states:
 Solid – has fixed shape and volume
 Liquid – has distinct volume and assumes the shape of its container
 Gas – has no definite volume or shape, and fills its container

Figure 4. Microscopic views of a solid, liquid and a gas (Source: https://www.fantasticfridges.com)

States of matter can be converted from one state to another by having

changes in temperature and/or pressure. For example, when ice (solid) is
heated, it will melt into water (liquid). Upon further heating, water will be
converted into a gas. This process is called ice melting. Condensing on the
other hand occurs when a gas is cooled, it will turn into liquid. Upon further
cooling, it will freeze into a solid state.

Properties of Matter
Matter is identified by either its physical property or chemical property.
 Physical property – can be measured and observed without changing
the identity and composition of a substance, such as color, smell,
hardness, density, melting point and boiling point.
 Chemical property – identifies the way a substance changes or reacts
to form other substances. Flammability, or the ability to burn a
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

substance in the presence of oxygen, is one example of a chemical

property.

Measurable properties of matter are further classified into the following

additional properties:
 Intensive property – does not depend on the amount of matter being
observed. Examples include temperature and density.
 Extensive property – depends on the amount of matter being
observed. Examples include mass and volume. More matter means
more mass. Values of the same extensive property can be added
together.

Ways of Classifying Matter

Pure substance, also referred to as substance, is a form of matter that has
fixed composition and properties. Examples include water, table salt (sodium
chloride), and ammonia.
Substances can be classified into elements or compounds. Substances that
cannot be broken down into simpler substances are called elements. Each
element is made up of only one kind of atom. Elements and their symbols are
listed in the periodic table.
When atoms of 2 or more elements interact, compounds are formed.
Compounds may only be separated by chemical means.
Mixture is a combination of 2 or more substances in which each substance
retains its own identity.
There 2 categories of mixture:
 Homogenous – composition of mixture appears to be the same. This
consists of a single phase, either, solid, liquid or gas. Homogenous
mixtures are also called solutions.
 Heterogenous – composition, properties and appearance of mixture
is not the same.
Figure 3 below shows how molecules of a compound differ from the
molecules of an element.

Course Module
 Figure 5. Molecular comparison of elements, compound, and mixture (Source:
http://www.mstworkbooks.co.za/natural-sciences/gr8/images/gr8mm01-gd-0052.png)

Figure below shows a summary of the classification of matter.

Figure 6. Classification of matter (Source:

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/165/169061/GIFS/AAAUASO0.JPG).

III. Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, John Dalton, an English scientist and school teacher, formulated an

accurate description of atoms.

Dalton’s atomic theory is summarized into the following hypotheses:

1. Elements are made up of extremely tiny particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are the same, but atoms of one element are
different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
4. Compounds are made up of a combination of atoms of more than one
element; a given compound always has the same relative number and
types of atoms.
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Figure 7. Dalton’s atomic theory. (Source:

http://study.com/cimages/multimages/16/serverredirectedfoldersmcarrollmy_documents
my_picturesdaltonsatomictheory.png)

Subatomic Particles (Protons, Electrons, Neutrons)

Atoms are indivisible building blocks of matter; between 1x10-10m and 5x10-
10m in diameter. Atoms are composed of the following:

 Protons (p) – reside inside the atom’s nucleus; positively

charged (+1); mass = 1.0073 amu*
 Neutrons (n) – reside inside the atom’s nucleus; it has no
charge; mass = 1.0087 amu*
 Electrons (e-)– located outside the atom’s nucleus; negatively
charged (-1); mass = 5.486 x 10-4 amu*
*amu – refers to atomic mass unit; 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g or
1/12 mass of a carbon atom

Every atom does not have net electrical charge, thus the number of electrons
and protons are equal in number.

Electrostatic force causes attraction between the negatively charged

electrons and positively charged protons. Electrons move around the atom’s
nucleus very fast. The space in which electrons are located comprises a huge
majority of the atom’s volume.

Nucleus contains majority of the mass of an atom, since it would take 1836
electrons to equal the mass of 1 proton or 1 neutron.

Course Module
 Figure 8. Molecular Structure of an Atom (Source: https://www.universetoday.com/wp
content/uploads/2010/02/c-atom_e1.gif)

The Periodic Table

Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic
number. Elements having the same properties are located in vertical
columns.
 Group – elements located in the columns
 Period – elements located in the horizontal row

Metals, which comprises majority of the elements, are located at the left side
and the middle of the table; on the other hand, non-metals can be found on
the upper right side.

A stepped line from boron (B) to astatine (At) separates metals from
nonmetals. Most of the elements that lie along this line possess metallic and
non-metallic properties, and are referred to as metalloids.
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

Figure 9. Periodic Table of Elements (Source:

https://online.science.psu.edu/sites/default/files/chem101/Figure%204.11%20Periodic%
20table)

Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes

Atomic number refers to the number of protons in an atom; subscript
located in the lower left portion of the element symbol.

Mass number refers to the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom; atomic number plus the number of neutrons; superscript located
in the upper left portion of the element symbol.

Mass number 
 Element symbol
Atomic number 

The difference between the mass number and atomic number equals the
number of neutrons in an atom.

Atomic number always remains the same for any given element. For
example, all carbon atoms have atomic number of 6. This means, that all
carbon atoms have 6 protons or electrons.

Course Module
 Meanwhile, mass number can change, thus a given element may have
different number of neutrons. For example, a 12C (carbon twelve, carbon -12)
identifies a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (i.e. 6+6 = 12), while
a 13C (carbon thirteen, carbon -13) contains 6 protons and 7 neutrons (i.e.
6+7 = 13), and 14C (carbon fourteen, carbon -14) contains 6 protons and 8
neutrons (i.e. 6+8 = 14).

Atoms of a given element with the same atomic numbers but different mass
numbers are referred to as isotopes. This means that there is same number
of protons, but different number of neutrons.

Molecules and Ions

Molecules are made up of at least 2 atoms joined together by chemical forces
/ chemical bonds. A molecule may be composed of atoms of the same
element or atoms of different elements combined in a fixed ratio. Like atoms,
molecules have no net electrical charge.

 Diatomic molecule – contains only 2 atoms. Examples include

hydrogen (H2), Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), Fluorine (F2), Chlorine
(Cl2), Bromine (Br2) and Iodine (I2), Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and
Carbon monoxide (CO).
 Polyatomic molecule – contains more than 2 atoms. Examples
include Ozone (O3), water (H2O) and ammonia (NH3).

An ion is an atom or group of atoms which contains net positive or negative

charge. During chemical reactions, the number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom does not change, but the number of electrons may change.

When 1 or more electrons are lost, an atom becomes positively charged,

referred to as cation. When atoms gain electrons, it becomes negatively
charged, referred to as anion. Generally speaking, cations are metal ions
while anions are nonmetal ions.

Ionic compound is composed of a combination of cations and anions, or a

combination of metals and nonmetals. An example of this is ordinary table
salt (NaCl).
 Monatomic ion – contains only 1 atom. Examples include Mg2+, Fe3+,
S2-, N3-, Na+ and Cl-.
 Polyatomic ion – contains 2 or more atoms. Examples include OH-
(hydroxide ion), CN- (cyanide ion) and NH4+ (ammonium ion)

Chemical Formulas
Chemical formulas are utilized by chemists to define the composition of
molecules and ionic compounds. This also includes the ratio of the number of
atoms in a given compound.

There are 2 types of formulas:

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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

1. Molecular Formula – chemical formulas that show the actual number of

atoms in a molecule.
2. Empirical Formula – chemical formulas that show only the relative ratio
of each of each atom in a molecule; subscripts are the smallest possible
whole number ratios.

For example, the molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6, while the
empirical formula is CH2O. This was obtained by dividing each subscript by 6,
which is the smallest whole-number ratio.

Formula of Ionic Compounds

The empirical formula of ionic compounds can be determined if the charges
of the ions are known. Because chemical compounds have no net electrical
charge, the total positive charge should always equal the total negative
charge.

For example, when Al3+ ions and O2- ions are combined, the ionic compound
that will be formed will be Al2O3.

Figure 10. Al2O3 formula. (Source: http://d2r5da613aq50s.cloudfront.net/wp-

content/uploads/167983.image7.jpg)

Naming Compounds
Naming Ionic Compounds

Metal cations are written with the same name as the metal. For example, Na+
is named as sodium ion; Mg2+ is named as magnesium ion; Al3+ is named as
aluminum ion.

Cations which assume different charges, are written as with the name of the
metal followed a Roman numeral indicating the positive charge. For example,
Fe2+ is named as iron (II) ion; Fe3+ is named as iron (III) ion; Mn3+ is named
as manganese (III); Mn4+ is named as manganese (IV). Transition metals
(group 3B to group 2B in the periodic table of elements) are those metals
which produce cations with different charges.

Nonmetal cations are written with names ending in –ium. For example, NH4+
is named as ammonium ion; H3O+ is named as hydronium ion.

Course Module
The table below shows some common cations, where ions on the left side are
ions that only have 1 possible charge, while ions on the right side have more
than 1 possible charge.

Figure 11. Common Cations. (Source:

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/139/143211/GIFS/table2.4.gif)

Anions are written with the element name ending with –ide. For example, Br-
is named as bromide ion; O2- is named as oxide ion; N3- is named as nitride
ion; OH- is named as hydroxide ion; CN- is named as cyanide ion.

The table below shows some common anions.

Figure 12. Common Anions. (Source:

http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/139/143211/GIFS/table2.5.gif)

Naming of ionic compounds is composed of the metal cation followed by the

nonmetallic anion. For example, NaCl is named as sodium chloride; NH4Cl is
named as ammonium chloride; Mn2O3 is named as manganese (III) oxide.
 General Chemistry
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

(NH4)+1 Cl-1

NH4Cl

Mn3+ O2-

Mn2O3

Naming of molecular compounds

Molecular compounds usually made up of nonmetallic elements. Naming of
molecular compounds is the same as that of ionic compounds.

The name of the first element in the formula is written first. If more than 1
atom is present, prefixes are used. The prefix “mono-“ is omitted with the
first element. For example, PCl3 is named as phosphorus trichloride, instead
of monophosphorus trichloride.

Prefix Meaning
Mono- 1
Di- 2
Tri- 3
Tetra- 4
Penta- 5
Hexa- 6
Hepta- 7
Octa- 8
Nona- 9
Deca- 10

Following the first element, the second element is written with name ending
in –ide, and the prefixes above are used.

Examples:
CO carbon monoxide
SO3 sulfur trioxide
N2O4 dinitrogen tetroxide
P4S10 tetraphosphorus decasulfide

Course Module
 Naming of Acids
Substances which produce hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water, are
referred to as acids.

1. Anions with names end in “–ide” are named as acids by adding the prefix
“hydro-” and changing the ending to “–ic”, followed by the word “acid”.

Examples:
Cl- (chloride) HCl hydrochloric acid
Br- (bromide) HBr hydrobromic acid

2. Anions with names ending in “–ate” or “–ite” are named as acids by

changing “–ate” to “–ic” and “–ite” to “–ous”, followed by the word “acid”.

Examples:
ClO4- (perchlorate) HClO4 perchloric acid
(PO4)3-(phosphate) H3PO4 phosphoric acid
ClO- (hypochlorite) HClO hypochlorous acid

Naming of Bases
Substances which produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water, are
referred to as bases.

Examples:
NaOH sodium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide

Glossary
accuracy: measure of how closely individual measurements are to the actual
value
anion: negatively charged ion
atoms: smallest building blocks of matter
cation: positively charged ion
chemical formula: expression used to define composition of molecules and
ionic compounds
compounds: Two or more elements combined together
electrostatic force: force which exists between particles with opposite
electrical charges
elements: basic unit of matter
ion: atom which contains net positive or negative charge
isotopes: atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers
mass: amount of matter in an object
 General Chemistry
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Introduction, Matter and its Properties, Atoms, Molecules and Ions

matter: anything that has mass and occupies space

mixture: combination of two or more substances wherein each substance
retains its own identity
molecules: two or more atoms combined together
precision: measure of how closely individual measurements are to one
another
pure substance: form of matter that has fixed composition and properties
significant figures: digits in a measured quantity
subscript: character which is written below the line
superscript: character which is written above the line
temperature: degree of hotness or coldness of an object

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.M.,
Stoltzfus, MW; 2015; Chemistry – The Central Science (13th Edition); Upper
Saddle River, NJ; Pearson Education, Inc.
Chang, R.; 2010; Chemistry (10th Edition); New York; McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

Protons are the identity of an atom;
https://s1.studylib.net/store/data/008190553_1-
0acf4c1bc90b10a1b9afb433c3bdae9b.png; 13-Apr-2017

Introduction to the Periodic Table of Elements;

http://www.ausetute.com.au/pertable.html; 20-Apr-2017

Naming compounds tutorial and worksheet;

https://www.saddleback.edu/faculty/jzoval/worksheets_tutorials/ch3work
sheets/compound_names_and_formulas_tutorial_and_worksheet.pdf; 20-
Apr-2017

Course Module
Online Instructional Videos

Importance of Chemistry in Life, Everyday Uses – Studi Chemistry;

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2Q2q20KaEk; 24-Apr-2017

Just How Small is an Atom?;

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yQP4UJhNn0I; 24-Apr-2017

Dalton’s Atomic Theory; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJ-6Qy05u_Q;

13-Apr-2017