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Popular social media and Web 2.0 technology are currently used to simply provide an easy way to share information
and communicate with each other, for free. However, social media is, for the most part, an untapped gold mine.
Social media needs to be organized such that it meets the objectives and goals for an agency. More beneficial,
however, is when groups work together outlining common goals. This produces a synergistic effect that has the
potential to further support the way emergency organizations work and learn. If these groups work as virtual com
munities together, then massive amounts of training materials could be aggregated and used by everyone. For
example, if one fire department concentrated on making a few good training videos and then offered those to others
on YouTube (or some other video sharing application), and then other departments around the country or world also
did the same, then imagine how quickly a library of training videos could be developed. If for every time an
emergency official creates some digital media they offered it to others, imagine how quickly video tutorials and
other shared documentation could be leveraged for others to use. This would lessen the burden of the costs of
educational materials, but also provide sets of Best Practices in education used by others. These materials could
be ranked. Nothing would be mandated, but groups would be free to view the materials available, then pick and
choose the ones that best fit the needs of the organization. Organizations could build a huge repository of
information dedicated to helping one another and, basically, create online libraries full of a variety of types of
information to use, share, and implement as needed.
Social media can do so much that it may be difficult to try to implement a manageable set of solution sites that can
be built upon as needed as the needs of the organization are met and the site matures to meet more goals. It is
important to plan a social media strategy carefully and to keep the design flexible. New smartphone applications and
other technologies are being developed at the speed of light. Some sites, such as Facebook, change features and
functions throughout the year to keep up with the demands of the users.
LEVEL OF GOVERNMENT
Before you begin creating a site, it is important to identify who the target user and population are. This should be
laid out in the goals of the design. Your user population should be in the list of objectives. You may need more than
one Facebook or Twitter site given that you may have more than one target population with whom you are
communicating, e.g., public versus professional groups. It may do some good to do a bit of research on the local
community and group of professionals for whom you will be creating these sites/using these applications. For local-
level emergency management agencies, it may consist of looking at the demographics of the community. This will
help identify the ages, languages, and educational levels of the user population. A rule of thumb is that the younger
populations are more likely to use social media and embrace it. If there is a rich culture in the area, multilingual
considerations will need to be taken into account and implemented. Social media, to a great degree, is a reflection of
the social groups around you. However, you have the ability to connect to people with whom you may have a
common interest. This ability to both use Web technology on the local level for emergency management needs and,
on the global level, extending the reach of expertise is just one example of the synergy that is a byproduct of social
media.
Preexisting relationships and partnerships should be created and maintained where these groups create a virtual
community. This doesn’t replace the existing relationships, but provides other ways to stay connected and
communicate during times where groups or individuals don’t interact. The virtual community should consist of the
normal players in the emergency domain: the local police, emergency medical services (EMSs), firefighters, Red
Cross chapters, churches, neighboring emergency management agencies, state level agencies, community
emergency response teams (CERTs), and the many other players who will interact at some time over the course of
the year in some capacity related to an emergency or disaster. It is by keeping connected through these times of
separation that information is still shared and communications are still ongoing. This element of consistency helps
maintain these relationships, making times of reengagement more beneficial. Time is not spent catching up on
things, people remember names better and, unlike with most e-mail, a name is given a face or at least some sort of
picture. This simply makes it such that interactions will be more productive as everyone is more likely to be on the
same track from the prior information exchanges and interactions.
This also helps people manage information as information can be disseminated over time, in many different formats,
and anytime, so people aren’t bombarded with information when they do get together for a meet ing or to respond to
an event.
TINGKAT PEMERINTAH
Sebelum Anda mulai membuat situs, penting untuk mengidentifikasi siapa target pengguna dan populasi.
Ini harus ditata dalam tujuan desain. Populasi pengguna Anda harus berada dalam daftar tujuan. Anda
mungkin memerlukan lebih dari satu situs Facebook atau Twitter karena Anda mungkin memiliki lebih
dari satu populasi target dengan siapa Anda berkomunikasi, misalnya, kelompok publik versus
profesional. Mungkin ada baiknya melakukan sedikit penelitian tentang komunitas lokal dan kelompok
profesional yang akan Anda buat situs-situs ini / menggunakan aplikasi ini. Untuk agen manajemen
darurat tingkat lokal, mungkin terdiri dari melihat demografi komunitas. Ini akan membantu
mengidentifikasi usia, bahasa, dan tingkat pendidikan populasi pengguna. Aturan praktisnya adalah yang
lebih muda
populasi lebih cenderung menggunakan media sosial dan menerimanya. Jika ada budaya yang kaya di
daerah tersebut, pertimbangan multibahasa perlu diperhitungkan dan diimplementasikan. Media sosial,
sampai tingkat tinggi, adalah refleksi dari kelompok sosial di sekitar Anda. Namun, Anda memiliki
kemampuan untuk terhubung dengan orang-orang yang mungkin memiliki minat yang sama dengan
Anda. Kemampuan ini untuk menggunakan teknologi Web pada tingkat lokal untuk kebutuhan
manajemen darurat dan, pada tingkat global, memperluas jangkauan keahlian hanyalah salah satu contoh
sinergi yang merupakan produk sampingan dari media sosial.
Hubungan dan kemitraan yang sudah ada sebelumnya harus dibuat dan dipelihara di mana kelompok-
kelompok ini membentuk komunitas virtual. Ini tidak menggantikan hubungan yang ada, tetapi
menyediakan cara lain untuk tetap terhubung dan berkomunikasi pada saat-saat ketika kelompok atau
individu tidak berinteraksi. Komunitas virtual harus terdiri dari pemain normal di domain darurat: polisi
setempat, layanan medis darurat (EMS), petugas pemadam kebakaran, cabang Palang Merah, gereja,
lembaga manajemen darurat tetangga, lembaga tingkat negara, tim tanggap darurat masyarakat (CERT),
dan banyak pemain lain yang akan berinteraksi pada suatu waktu sepanjang tahun dalam beberapa
kapasitas yang terkait dengan keadaan darurat atau bencana. Dengan tetap terhubung melalui waktu-
waktu pemisahan ini informasi masih terbagi dan komunikasi masih berlangsung. Unsur konsistensi ini
membantu menjaga hubungan ini, membuat waktu re-manajemen lebih menguntungkan. Waktu tidak
dihabiskan untuk mengejar hal-hal, orang-orang mengingat nama dengan lebih baik dan, tidak seperti
kebanyakan e-mail, nama diberikan wajah atau setidaknya semacam gambar. Ini hanya membuatnya
sedemikian rupa sehingga interaksi akan lebih produktif karena setiap orang lebih mungkin berada pada
jalur yang sama dari pertukaran informasi dan interaksi sebelumnya.
Ini juga membantu orang mengelola informasi karena informasi dapat disebarluaskan dari waktu ke
waktu, dalam berbagai format, dan kapan saja, sehingga orang-orang tidak dibombardir dengan informasi
ketika mereka berkumpul untuk bertemu atau menanggapi acara.
IDENTIFY GOALS
It is important that the group or organization creates a list of goals that they desire from social media and Web 2.0
technologies. The design is driven by the tasks that need to be performed in order to meet the goals of the group.
Educate yourself on what can be accomplished by using a variety of applications and social media. When a
technology works for something outside of emergency management, consider using it to help accomplish some task
inside the emergency domain. Always be on the lookout for new ideas and keep updated with emergency
management technology news-driven information. These ideas should always be updated and evolving. A few ideas
include:
• Damage assessment and disaster intelligence.
• Collaborative problem solving.
• Consultation for real-time decision making.
• Planning or exchanges of planning materials.
• Training or exchange of training materials.
• Collaborative exercise design and development.
• Citizen engagement or citizen input.
• Peer exchanges among and with CERT members.
• Best practice exchange.
• Border security video surveillance.
• Fast and cheap mass distribution of communications that can be used for announcements, emergency notifications,
and to share best practices and lessons learned.
• Enhance networking with others.
• Educational tools for public and practitioners.
• Solicit community volunteers to monitor online activity.
• Have competitions between first responders to create the best vid
eos for education.
• Help coordinate and manage response and recovery efforts.
• Match employment opportunities with candidates.
• Locate experts for real-time consulting and to mentor new emergency managers.
The information that will be exchanged and its security level should be evaluated. This will drive the user
permissions and group types that will need to be created to match the security needs of the group. For many
situations, organizations may want to consider two different sets of requirements, one for the public that is more
open and another for emergency personnel and administrators that will need to be more secure. It is only once the
goals have been identified that matching solutions can be networked to fulfill these needs.
IDENTIFIKASI TUJUAN
Penting bahwa kelompok atau organisasi membuat daftar tujuan yang mereka inginkan dari media sosial
dan teknologi Web 2.0. Desain didorong oleh tugas-tugas yang perlu dilakukan untuk memenuhi tujuan
kelompok.
Edukasi diri Anda tentang apa yang bisa dicapai dengan menggunakan berbagai aplikasi dan media sosial.
Ketika teknologi bekerja untuk sesuatu di luar manajemen darurat, pertimbangkan untuk
menggunakannya untuk membantu menyelesaikan beberapa tugas di dalam domain darurat. Selalu
waspada terhadap ide-ide baru dan terus diperbarui dengan teknologi informasi yang dikendalikan oleh
berita manajemen darurat. Ide-ide ini harus selalu diperbarui dan berkembang. Beberapa ide termasuk:
• Penilaian kerusakan dan intelijen bencana.
• Pemecahan masalah kolaboratif.
• Konsultasi untuk pengambilan keputusan real-time.
• Perencanaan atau pertukaran materi perencanaan.
• Pelatihan atau pertukaran materi pelatihan.
• Desain dan pengembangan latihan kolaboratif.
• Keterlibatan warga atau masukan warga.
• Pertukaran rekan di antara dan dengan anggota CERT.
• Pertukaran praktik terbaik.
• Pemantauan video keamanan perbatasan.
• Distribusi komunikasi massa yang cepat dan murah yang dapat digunakan untuk pengumuman,
pemberitahuan darurat, dan untuk berbagi praktik terbaik dan pembelajaran.
• Tingkatkan jejaring dengan orang lain.
• Alat pendidikan untuk umum dan praktisi.
• Mengajak sukarelawan masyarakat untuk memonitor aktivitas online.
• Memiliki kompetisi antara responden pertama untuk menciptakan vid terbaik
eos untuk pendidikan.
• Membantu mengoordinasikan dan mengelola upaya respons dan pemulihan.
• Sesuaikan peluang kerja dengan kandidat.
• Cari ahli untuk konsultasi real-time dan untuk mentor manajer darurat baru.
Informasi yang akan dipertukarkan dan tingkat keamanannya harus dievaluasi. Ini akan mendorong izin
pengguna dan jenis grup yang perlu dibuat agar sesuai dengan kebutuhan keamanan grup. Untuk banyak
situasi, organisasi mungkin ingin mempertimbangkan dua perangkat persyaratan yang berbeda, satu untuk
publik yang lebih terbuka dan yang lain untuk personel darurat dan administrator yang perlu lebih aman.
Hanya sekali tujuan telah diidentifikasi bahwa solusi yang sesuai dapat dibuat jaringan untuk memenuhi
kebutuhan ini.
Roles can be changed anytime. For example, someone can be allowed to Accept New Users to a group for a certain
length of time. The role of that person can then be changed to any other available role, an officer, administrator, or
participant. This is the same in Google Documents, any document can be Shared with another person. That person
can be given the ability to edit the work or just view it depending on the role they are given.
There are a variety of roles. Some of the more common roles and a list of their privileges are explained below.
Administrators
Administrators are normally the people who initially create the account. This role holds the greatest amount of power
and accountability. Once a site has been created, things can be modified, such as if the group is open or closed
(covered next) and users can be added automatically or requests to join the group approved by the administrator. For
some groups, users can request to join the group if the group is not open for anyone to join. This is a security
measure and the security check can be minimal to ensure that a hacker isn’t getting access or it could be to ensure
the credentials of a user for greater information assurance. The general rule of thumb is that “the more open a group
is, the easier it is to be a member, and the more closed a group is, the more difficult it is to obtain membership and
access.”
Guests
Guests can normally view information, but cannot contribute in any way. Also, guests will be able to view only the
information allowed to be viewed, so other information can be cut off from their view. Guest will not be able to post
information on a Wall or in a Discussion Forum nor will they be able to participate in other activities.
Participants
Participants of social media have control over some of the information accessibility, etc. as a member. Participants
can contribute, post on Walls, interact in Discussion Forums, vote and interact in a variety of other activities,
and have access to other priority information. The roles can be unique to the application and defined differently
dependent on the system being used.
Offcers
Officers is a new role and can be seen on Facebook. Many organizations and councils consist of organizations that
have the normal structures that reflect an organization (secretary, treasurer, president, etc.). Roles are created to fit
the needs of the group type, so a variety of “roles” can be available and different, depending on the group type. This
was not part of the original roles supported by Facebook, but was added later. Facebook and other systems are
constantly changing to ft the needs of the user, conform to emerging rules, and to set restrictions so that functionality
will not be compromised. For example, you can post a link to a YouTube video, but uploading a huge picture may
not be allowed because it will take up too much space. Posts are limited, as well, in some forums. This is to help
manage the huge amount of information being contributed.
Roles are simply a set of permissions used to define a person’s abilities on a system. Any word can be used and a
combination of permissions can be used to uniquely define participants in an organization. Many more roles are sure
to be created as social media matures.
Offcers
Petugas adalah peran baru dan dapat dilihat di Facebook. Banyak organisasi dan dewan terdiri dari
organisasi yang memiliki struktur normal yang mencerminkan organisasi (sekretaris, bendahara, presiden,
dll.). Peran dibuat agar sesuai dengan kebutuhan jenis grup, sehingga berbagai "peran" dapat tersedia dan
berbeda, tergantung pada jenis grup. Ini bukan bagian dari peran asli yang didukung oleh Facebook, tetapi
ditambahkan kemudian. Facebook dan sistem lain terus berubah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan pengguna,
sesuai dengan aturan yang muncul, dan untuk mengatur pembatasan agar berfungsi
tidak akan dikompromikan. Misalnya, Anda dapat mengeposkan tautan ke video YouTube, tetapi
mengunggah gambar besar mungkin tidak diizinkan karena akan memakan terlalu banyak ruang. Posting
juga terbatas, di beberapa forum. Ini untuk membantu mengelola sejumlah besar informasi yang
disumbangkan.
Peran hanyalah sekumpulan izin yang digunakan untuk menentukan kemampuan seseorang pada suatu
sistem. Kata apa pun dapat digunakan dan kombinasi izin dapat digunakan untuk mendefinisikan peserta
secara unik dalam suatu organisasi. Banyak lagi peran yang pasti akan dibuat sebagai media sosial yang
matang.
GROUPS
Some social media support collaboration between members of groups. Depending on the needs of the group, along
with target populations and the security level of information, groups need to have the ability to accommodate to the
needs based on the tasks that will be performed by the group. This is illustrated in Table 2.1.
Groups will vary given the needs of the groups using the system. Social systems evolve and are modified to meet the
demands of the groups now and in the future. First responders and emergency management officials wear two hats:
one for the public and another that is private and is associated with the professional where interactions and the
information exchanged should remain secure, i.e., not for the public. Therefore, it seems logical for organizations to
create two primary categories of social media, one for the pubic and interaction between the citizens, and a second
one that is closed and/or secret including only those groups that are officially affiliated with emergency management
including nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), government, private, humanitarian, volunteer organizations, etc.
All systems should remain flexible so that modifications can be made if new or emergent groups need to be added.
GRUP
Beberapa media sosial mendukung kolaborasi antara anggota kelompok. Tergantung pada kebutuhan
kelompok, bersama dengan populasi sasaran dan tingkat keamanan informasi, kelompok harus memiliki
kemampuan untuk mengakomodasi kebutuhan berdasarkan tugas yang akan dilakukan oleh kelompok. Ini
diilustrasikan pada Tabel 2.1.
Grup akan bervariasi mengingat kebutuhan kelompok menggunakan sistem. Sistem sosial berevolusi dan
dimodifikasi untuk memenuhi tuntutan kelompok sekarang dan di masa depan. Penanggap pertama dan
petugas manajemen darurat memakai dua topi:
satu untuk publik dan lainnya yang bersifat pribadi dan dikaitkan dengan profesional di mana interaksi
dan pertukaran informasi harus tetap aman, yaitu bukan untuk publik. Oleh karena itu, tampaknya logis
bagi organisasi untuk membuat dua kategori utama media sosial, satu untuk pubik dan interaksi antara
warga negara, dan yang kedua yang tertutup dan / atau rahasia termasuk hanya kelompok-kelompok yang
secara resmi berafiliasi dengan manajemen darurat termasuk nonpemerintah organisasi (LSM),
pemerintah, swasta, kemanusiaan, organisasi sukarelawan, dll. Semua sistem harus tetap fleksibel
sehingga modifikasi dapat dilakukan jika kelompok baru atau yang muncul perlu ditambahkan.
In a YouTube Video, there is a form requesting information that is used to provide the user a description of the
video. These descriptions, along with keywords and hashtags are used to search for and direct information
throughout multiple applications on the Internet. Twitter includes keywords and hashtags as part of the tweet where
each counts toward the 140 character limit (microblog). Figure 2.3 demonstrates a common template used for some
sites. These forms are also user friendly, which is good when people are learning new skills under time-critical
situations.
If I were going to tweet something about this book, I would include both keywords as presented earlier and I would
also use hashtags to direct it to groups like #SMEM (Social Media for Emergency Management) and #sm4r (Social
Media for 1st Responders) so that anyone filtering those two hashtags (to keep up on the subject) would have my
tweet appear (be retrieved). For example, some hashtags I could use would be
#fema
#social
#media
#socialmedia
#SMEM
#CERT SMEM
#dhs
#sahana
#crisismappers
The hashtag used would depend on the tweet information being disseminated. When using a hashtag, make sure that
it’s used only when the information pertains to that hashtag. For example, sometimes during an event, hashtags are
created in an ad hoc manner. This is quickly picked up by anyone following the event. For example, from the recent
fires in Boulder, Colorado, of 2010, #boulderfre emerged (#BoulderFire—not case sensitive). If you go to Twitter
now and type in #boulderfire, you will retrieve a list of information. The information tweeted will be a reflection of
the ongoing event in most cases.
Keywords and hashtags may be changed or modifed anytime during the use of the social media. However, for some
cases, during response efforts, using a hashtag in a tweet, for example, may be time-critical and used for a quick
viral dissemination for a fast response due to some urgent need. On the other hand, a keyword or hashtag may be
used to describe a training exercise video on YouTube. If the owner of the account finds that other terms better
describe the keywords, then these modifications can be made and are encouraged. The better the description
accurately reflects the contents of the media, the easier it can be retrieved and used by others. This also pertains to
hashtags, these can be changed so that they are directed to a new area or an additional area. Hashtags and keywords
can be changed normally with no major consequences. It is important for organizations to create hashtags ahead of
time.
They need to be short and make sense. A few hashtags can be created, but too many may cause confusion. It is good
to create conformity where common groups may interact. For example, the hashtag used by the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to tweet severe weather is #wxreport where each state is identified by
#wx[state abbreviation]. Therefore, for Georgia, one would tweet #wxGA. Each state can create its own way to
direct information, #wxGAcherokee for Cherokee County. This is only an example, but, even in this example, take
into consideration how difficult the hashtag may be for someone to enter. Human error can erode the entire
microblog.
Mitigation:
• Risk assessment
• Documentation management
• Collaborative generation of policy/procedure
• Collaborative decision analysis tools
• Exercise creation
Preparedness:
• Prepare to take in donations.
• Conduct exercises testing the system and determining if the stakeholders are reaching the goals identified in the
exercises.
• Videos can be created for training.
• Risk analysis.
Response:
• Quick information, more people required to monitor/filter/disseminate. It may be difficult to get information out
due to a suppressed situation.
• Capability to take photographs, video events, and disseminate over a variety of methods (e-mail, Facebook,
Twitter, Blog) by using a hand-held smart device, such as a Droid or iPhone.
• Mapping information by the victims onto a site with bubbles providing GeoData.
Recovery:
• Resource allocation, mapping visualizations
• Donations: texting phone and FB links, tweets
• Damage assessment through pics, videos, geodata geo locations
• Geomapping routes open
Istilah ‘media sosial’ mencakup blog, blog mikro, penanda buku sosial, jejaring sosial, forum, pembuatan
dokumen secara kolaboratif (melalui wikis1) dan pembagian file audio, fotografi, dan video (Balana
2012). Hal ini ditandai dengan komunikasi interaktif, di mana konten pesan dipertukarkan antara individu,
khalayak, organisasi dan sektor masyarakat umum.
Penggunaan media sosial, sampai batas tertentu, berkorelasi negatif dengan usia dan positif dengan
pencapaian pendidikan. Misalnya, orang yang berusia di atas 55 cenderung lebih menyukai sumber berita
konvensional. Tingkat adopsi media sosial bervariasi dari satu negara ke negara tetapi umumnya dinamis
di sebagian besar lingkungan dan karenanya setiap statistik ringkasan dapat menjadi usang dengan cepat.
Upaya untuk menghubungkan media sosial dengan faktor kepribadian menunjukkan bahwa mereka paling
menarik bagi orang, dari kedua jenis kelamin, yang relatif ekstrovert (Correa et al. 2010), tetapi tidak ada
indikasi sejauh mana setiap upaya untuk mengembangkan profil dari pengguna mungkin dikondisikan
secara budaya. Informasi tentang diferensiasi gender, paling baik, terpecah-pecah (Armstrong dan
McAdams 2009).
Balana, C. D. (2012). Social media: Major tool in disaster response. Inquirer Technology, 15 June 2012, 5 pp. diakses 24 November 2018
Correa, T., Hinsley, A. W., & Gil de Zu´n˜iga, H. (2010). Who interacts on the Web? The intersection of users’ personality and social media use.
Comupters in Human Behaviour, 26(2), 247–253.
Armstrong, C. L., & McAdams, M. J. (2009). Blogs of information: How gender cues and individual motivations influence perceptions of
credibility. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14, 435–456
The research literature on social networking and social media in disasters and crises is still quite limited. Moreover,
it focuses on the short-term aspects of emergency response and rapid recovery. It is understandable that there are as
yet no studies of the longer term, both because social media are a relatively new phenomenon and because the
research is also new. Although ‘new media’, such as the Internet, have received attention from academics for a
decade or more, very little of the research on social networking predates 2007. However, there is a trend towards a
rapid increase in the number of papers that have been published. In this context, the literature on ‘social media’
needs to be differentiated from that on the social aspects of mass media, which is a much wider field that embraces
more conventional and long-standing forms of dissemination of information, such as radio and television
(Quarantelli 1989).
Studies of social media in disasters have been conducted as part of a general tendency to examine the functioning of
social interaction by means of the Internet and mobile devices (Krimsky 2007). Both sets of literature concentrate
mainly on specific themes, which are:
• how social networks function and how they are used
• how to build and utilise algorithms either to enhance social networking or to monitor it
• the extent to which people use social networks, how they perceive them and what their communication preferences
are
• the penetration of devices such as ‘smart’ mobile telephones and the extent to which these provide people with
access to social media.
In addition, students of risk, crisis and disaster have studied:
• how social media are used in crises
• the views and opinions of emergency managers and journalists regarding social media and the extent to which the
new media are integrated with more traditional means of communication
• how social media interact with the traditional sources of information.
There is a broad distinction between studies of the technical and social aspects of new media. The creation of new
platforms and algorithms characterizes the former (Cheong and Lee 2010; White and Plotnik 2010), while studies of
the kinds of usage and messages sent relate to the latter (Hughes and Palen 2009; Lindsay 2011). The technical side
includes by studies of the rate and modality of diffusion of messages (Song and Yan 2012)..
Literatur penelitian tentang jejaring sosial dan media sosial dalam bencana dan krisis masih sangat
terbatas. Selain itu, fokus pada aspek jangka pendek dari tanggap darurat dan pemulihan yang cepat.
Dapat dimengerti bahwa belum ada penelitian jangka panjang, baik karena media sosial adalah fenomena
yang relatif baru dan karena penelitian ini juga baru. Meskipun 'media baru', seperti internet, telah
menerima perhatian dari akademisi selama satu dekade atau lebih, sangat sedikit penelitian tentang
jejaring sosial yang ada sebelum 2007. Namun, ada kecenderungan peningkatan pesat dalam jumlah
makalah yang memiliki telah diterbitkan. Dalam konteks ini, literatur tentang 'media sosial' perlu
dibedakan dari aspek sosial media massa, yang merupakan bidang yang lebih luas yang mencakup bentuk
penyebarluasan informasi yang lebih konvensional dan lama, seperti radio dan televisi (Quarantelli 1989).
Studi media sosial dalam bencana telah dilakukan sebagai bagian dari kecenderungan umum untuk
memeriksa fungsi interaksi sosial melalui Internet dan perangkat seluler (Krimsky 2007). Kedua set
literatur berkonsentrasi terutama pada tema tertentu, yaitu:
• bagaimana jaringan sosial berfungsi dan bagaimana mereka digunakan
• bagaimana membangun dan memanfaatkan algoritme untuk meningkatkan jejaring sosial atau untuk
memonitornya
• sejauh mana orang menggunakan jejaring sosial, bagaimana mereka mengartikannya dan apa preferensi
komunikasinya
• penetrasi perangkat seperti telepon seluler 'pintar' dan sejauh mana ini memberikan orang-orang akses
ke media sosial.
Selain itu, siswa risiko, krisis dan bencana telah mempelajari:
• bagaimana media sosial digunakan dalam krisis
• pandangan dan pendapat manajer darurat dan jurnalis mengenai media sosial dan sejauh mana media
baru diintegrasikan dengan cara komunikasi yang lebih tradisional
• bagaimana media sosial berinteraksi dengan sumber informasi tradisional.
Ada perbedaan yang luas antara studi tentang aspek teknis dan sosial dari media baru. Penciptaan
platform dan algoritma baru mencirikan yang pertama (Cheong dan Lee 2010; White dan Plotnik 2010),
sementara studi tentang jenis penggunaan dan pesan yang dikirim berhubungan dengan yang terakhir
(Hughes dan Palen 2009; Lindsay 2011). Sisi teknis termasuk oleh studi tentang tingkat dan modalitas
difusi pesan (Song dan Yan 2012) .
Quarantelli, E. L. (1989). The social science study of disasters and mass communication. In L. Walters, L. Wilkins, & T. Walters (Eds.), Bad
tidings: Communication and catastrophe (pp. 1–19). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Krimsky, S. (2007). Risk communication in the internet age: The rise of disorganized skepticism. Environmental Hazards, 7(2), 157–164
Cheong, M., & Lee, V. C. S. (2010). Twitmographics: Learning the emergent properties of the Twitter community. In N. Memon & R. Alhajj
(Eds.), From sociology to computing in social networks: Theory, foundations and applications (pp. 323–342). Berlin: Springer.
White, C., & Plotnik, L. (2010). A framework to identify best practices: Social media and Web 2.0 technologies in the emergency domain.
International Journal of Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management, 2(1), 37–48
Hughes, A. L., & Palen, L. (2009). Twitter adoption and use in mass convergence and emergency events. International Journal of Emergency
Management, 6(3–4), 248–260
Lindsay, B. R. (2011). Social media and disasters: Current uses, future options, and policy considerations. CRS Report for Congress. Washington,
DC: Congressional Research Service
Song, X., & Yan, X. (2012). Influencing factors of emergency information spreading in online social networks: A simulation approach. Journal of
Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 9(1), Article 30
Literature Review
Social Media in Strategic Communication
Social media are digital tools and applications that facilitate interactive communication and content
exchange among and between audiences and organizations (Wright & Hinson, 2009). While social media
such as Facebook and Twitter receive more attention, social media include a range of types relevant to the
study of applied communication, such as blogs, micro-blogs, forums, photo and video sharing, Wikis,
social bookmarking, and social networking.
In 2009, for the first time, American adults reported the Internet was their preferred source for
information and the most reliable source for news (Zogby Interactive, 2009). Online sources can be ideal
for generating timely communication (Taylor & Perry, 2005) and interactive, two-way conversations with
audiences (Seltzer & Mitrook, 2007). Through virtual communities, consumers extend their social
networks to people they have never met in person and seek out these people regularly for their opinions
about products and services (Cheong & Morrison, 2008). During crises, social media can provide a new
platform for online word-of-mouth communication, working as an informal communication channel
through which personal, product/service, or organization information is conveyed, shared, and processed.
The majority of applied communication research on computer-mediated communication has focused on
websites (e.g., Perry, Taylor, & Doerfel, 2003; Taylor & Kent, 2007) and blogs (Bates & Callison, 2008;
Sweetser & Metzgar, 2007). However, research on social media usage in applied communication settings
is beginning to grow (e.g., Palen et al., 2007; Wright & Hinson, 2009).
Palen, L., Vieweg, S., Sutton, J., Liu, S., & Hughes, A. (2007). Crisis informatics: Studying crisis in a networked world.
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on E-Social Science. Ann Arbor, MI.
Perry, D. C., Taylor, M., & Doerfel, M. L. (2003). Internet-based communication in crisis management. Management
Communication Quarterly, 17(2), 206232.
Seeger, M. W. (2006). Best practices in crisis communication: An expert panel process. Journal of Applied Communication
Research, 34(3), 232244.
Seltzer, T., & Mitrook, M. (2007). The dialogic potential of weblogs in relationship building. Public Relations Review, 33(2),
227229.
Sweetser, K. D., & Metzgar, E. (2007). Communicating during crisis: Use of blogs as a relationship management tool. Public
Relations Review, 33(3), 340342.
Taylor, M., & Kent, M. L. (2007). Taxonomy of mediated crisis responses. Public Relations Review, 33(2), 140146.
Taylor, M., & Perry, D. (2005). Diffusion of traditional and new media tactics in crisis communication. Public Relations Review,
31(2), 209217.
Wright, D. K., & Hinson, M. D. (2009). An updated look at the impact of social media on public relations practice. Public
Relations Journal, 3(2). Retrieved from http://www.prsa.org/Intelligence/PRJournal/Spring_09
Zogby Interactive. (2009). Poll: Online news sources top all others. Retrieved from http://pww.org/
article/view/16025
Palen, L. (2008b). Online social media in crisis events. Education Quarterly, 3, 7678
The focus of this study is the public information officer (PIO)—an emergency management position that
handles the public relations function of emergency response—and their use of social media. Social media have
introduced new means by which PIOs can disseminate, gather, and monitor public information in times of crisis.
In the past, PIOs relied more heavily upon traditional media such as newspaper, television, and radio to
distribute information during an emergency event. However, with members of the public increasingly turning to
online sources for information and news, PIOs have found that social media can serve as an effective
communication mechanism because they can distribute information quickly and directly to the public (Hughes
and Palen, 2012). Additionally, members of the public are generating and sharing information across social
media streams in a wide variety of contexts (Palen and Liu, 2007; Qu, Wu and Wang, 2009; Zook, Graham,
Shelton and Gorman, 2010; Hjorth and Kim, 2011; Mark, Bagdouri, Palen, Martin, Al-Ani and Anderson,
2012). PIOs seek ways to monitor and gather this publically-generated information not only for its potential to
aid in response efforts but also so false rumor and misinformation can be identified and corrected (Latonero and
Shklovski, 2011; Hughes and Palen, 2012).
As social media use becomes more pervasive, PIOs face increasing expectations to provide emergency public
information over social media (American Red Cross, 2011) as well as mounting pressure to consider the
public’s online activities and incorporate the useful and relevant information back into emergency response
efforts (Palen and Liu, 2007; Palen, Vieweg, Liu and Hughes, 2009). But incorporating social media into PIO
work practice is not without challenges. PIOs work under conditions of great uncertainty where social media
may or may not be useful or even functional (Sutton, 2012). Keeping pace with rapid advances in social media
can also be challenging; new forms of social media appear daily and even existing social media continue to
evolve along with users’ expectations and uses of the technology. Consequently, PIOs must be aware of their
community’s social media use so they can develop strategies to best communicate with stakeholders (Hughes
and Palen, 2012; Denef, Bayerl and Kaptein, 2013; Sutton, Spiro, Butts, Fitzhugh, Johnson and Greczek, 2013).
Further, organizational acceptance of social media can be slow; leaders must be convinced that benefits
outweigh drawbacks or legal ramifications before social media use can be sanctioned and incorporated into
formal processes and procedures (Crowe, 2010; Hughes and Palen, 2012).
Perhaps the biggest challenge PIOs face when attempting to use social media is the quantity of data that can be
generated during a crisis event. For example, the public generated over 26 million messages during Hurricane
Sandy (Hughes, Peterson and Palen, In Press)—far too many for a PIO to monitor without aid. Consequently, many
efforts are developing tools that help to filter and parse this data in meaningful ways (Meier and Brodock,
2008; Caragea, McNeese, Jaisw, Traylor, Kim, Mitra, Wu, Tapia, Giles, Jansen and Yen, 2011a; Starbird, Palen,
Liu, Vieweg, Hughes, Schram, Anderson, Bagdouri, White, McTaggart and Schenk, 2012; Cameron, Power,
Robinson and Yin, 2012a). However, these efforts often tend to focus on the development of new data
extraction and filtering methods and less on the needs of emergency responders.
Fokus dari penelitian ini adalah petugas informasi publik (PIO) - posisi manajemen darurat yang
menangani fungsi hubungan masyarakat tanggap darurat - dan penggunaan media sosial mereka. Media
sosial telah memperkenalkan cara baru dimana PIO dapat menyebarluaskan, mengumpulkan, dan
memantau informasi publik di saat krisis.
Di masa lalu, PIO lebih mengandalkan media tradisional seperti surat kabar, televisi, dan radio untuk
mendistribusikan informasi selama peristiwa darurat. Namun, dengan anggota masyarakat semakin
beralih ke sumber online untuk informasi dan berita, PIO telah menemukan bahwa media sosial dapat
berfungsi sebagai mekanisme komunikasi yang efektif karena mereka dapat mendistribusikan informasi
dengan cepat dan langsung kepada publik (Hughes dan Palen, 2012). Selain itu, anggota masyarakat
menghasilkan dan berbagi informasi di seluruh aliran media sosial dalam berbagai konteks (Palen dan
Liu, 2007; Qu, Wu dan Wang, 2009; Zook, Graham, Shelton dan Gorman, 2010; Hjorth dan Kim, 2011;
Mark, Bagdouri, Palen, Martin, Al-Ani, dan Anderson, 2012). PIO mencari cara untuk memantau dan
mengumpulkan informasi yang dihasilkan secara publik ini tidak hanya karena potensinya untuk
membantu dalam upaya respons, tetapi juga desas-desus palsu dan kesalahan informasi dapat
diidentifikasi dan diperbaiki (Latonero dan Shklovski, 2011; Hughes dan Palen, 2012).
Karena penggunaan media sosial menjadi lebih luas, PIO menghadapi ekspektasi yang meningkat untuk
memberikan informasi publik darurat melalui media sosial (Palang Merah Amerika, 2011) serta tekanan
yang meningkat untuk mempertimbangkan aktivitas online publik dan menggabungkan informasi yang
berguna dan relevan kembali ke upaya tanggap darurat (Palen dan Liu, 2007; Palen, Vieweg, Liu dan
Hughes, 2009). Tetapi memasukkan media sosial ke dalam praktik kerja PIO bukan tanpa tantangan. PIO
bekerja dalam kondisi ketidakpastian yang besar di mana media sosial mungkin atau mungkin tidak
berguna atau bahkan fungsional (Sutton, 2012). Sejalan dengan kemajuan pesat di media sosial juga
dapat menjadi tantangan; bentuk-bentuk baru media sosial muncul setiap hari dan bahkan media sosial
yang ada terus berlanjut
berkembang seiring dengan harapan pengguna dan penggunaan teknologi. Akibatnya, PIO harus
menyadari penggunaan media sosial komunitas mereka sehingga mereka dapat mengembangkan
strategi untuk berkomunikasi dengan para pemangku kepentingan (Hughes dan Palen, 2012; Denef,
Bayerl dan Kaptein, 2013; Sutton, Spiro, Butts, Fitzhugh, Johnson dan Greczek, 2013 ).
Lebih lanjut, penerimaan organisasi media sosial bisa lambat; pemimpin harus yakin bahwa manfaat
lebih besar daripada kerugian atau konsekuensi hukum sebelum penggunaan media sosial dapat
dikenakan sanksi dan dimasukkan ke dalam proses dan prosedur formal (Crowe, 2010; Hughes dan
Palen, 2012).
Mungkin tantangan terbesar yang dihadapi PIO ketika mencoba menggunakan media sosial adalah
jumlah data yang dapat dihasilkan selama peristiwa krisis. Misalnya, publik menghasilkan lebih dari 26
juta pesan selama Badai Sandy (Hughes, Peterson, dan Palen, In Press) —jadi terlalu banyak bagi PIO
untuk dipantau tanpa bantuan. Akibatnya, banyak upaya mengembangkan alat yang membantu
menyaring dan mengurai data ini dengan cara yang berarti (Meier dan Brodock, 2008; Caragea,
McNeese, Jaisw, Traylor, Kim, Mitra, Wu, Tapia, Giles, Jansen dan Yen, 2011a; Starbird , Palen, Liu,
Vieweg, Hughes, Schram, Anderson, Bagdouri, Putih, McTaggart dan Schenk, 2012; Cameron, Power,
Robinson dan Yin, 2012a). Namun, upaya ini sering cenderung fokus pada pengembangan ekstraksi data
baru dan metode penyaringan dan kurang pada kebutuhan responden darurat.
Fokus dari penelitian ini adalah petugas humas pemerintah yang menangani fungsi hubungan
masyarakat tanggap darurat dan penggunaan media sosial dalam menjalankan tugas mereka.
Media sosial telah memperkenalkan cara baru dimana humas pemerintah dapat
menyebarluaskan, mengumpulkan, dan memantau informasi publik di saat krisis. Hal ini
didukung dengan makin banyaknya masyarakat yang beralih ke sumber online untuk informasi
dan berita, Media sosial dapat berfungsi sebagai mekanisme komunikasi yang efektif karena
petugas humas dapat mendistribusikan informasi dengan cepat dan langsung kepada publik
(Hughes dan Palen, 2012). Selain itu, masyarakat menghasilkan dan berbagi informasi di
seluruh aliran media sosial dalam berbagai konteks (Palen dan Liu, 2007; Qu, Wu dan Wang,
2009; Zook, dkk, 2010; Hjorth dan Kim, 2011; Mark, dkk, 2012). Petugas humas mencari cara
untuk memantau dan mengumpulkan informasi yang dihasilkan secara publik ini tidak hanya
karena potensinya untuk membantu dalam upaya respons, tetapi juga desas-desus palsu dan
kesalahan informasi dapat diidentifikasi dan diperbaiki (Latonero dan Shklovski, 2011; Hughes
dan Palen, 2012).
Karena penggunaan media sosial menjadi lebih luas, petugas humas menghadapi ekspektasi
yang meningkat untuk memberikan informasi publik darurat melalui media sosial (American Red
Cross, 2011) serta tekanan yang meningkat untuk mempertimbangkan aktivitas online publik
dan menggabungkan informasi yang berguna dan relevan kembali ke upaya tanggap darurat
(Palen dan Liu, 2007; Palen, dkk, 2009). Dalam situasi krisis petugas humas pemerintah
bekerja dalam kondisi ketidakpastian yang besar di mana media sosial mungkin berguna atau
mungkin tidak berguna atau bahkan fungsional (Sutton, 2012). Sejalan dengan kemajuan pesat
di media sosial juga dapat menjadi tantangan; bentuk-bentuk baru media sosial muncul setiap
hari dan bahkan media sosial yang ada terus berlanjut dan berkembang seiring dengan
harapan para pengguna dan penggunaan teknologi. Karena itu, petugas humas pemerintah
harus menyadari penggunaan media sosial dari masyarakatnya sehingga mereka dapat
mengembangkan strategi untuk berkomunikasi dengan para pemangku kepentingan (Hughes
dan Palen, 2012; Denef, Bayerl dan Kaptein, 2013; Sutton, dkk, 2013). Mungkin tantangan
terbesar yang dihadapi petugas humas pemerintah ketika mencoba menggunakan media sosial
adalah jumlah data yang dapat dihasilkan selama peristiwa krisis.
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