SALTS

What is salt?

Salt is an ionic compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H+ from acid
is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion, NH4+

In the preparation of salts, we must identify the type of salt. This can be done by analysing
the cations and the anions that are present in salts.

Two types of salts

 Soluble salt – salts that can be dissolve in water at room temperature
 Insoluble salt – salts cannot be dissolve in water at room temperature

Type of salt Solubility in water

Sodium salts
Potassium salts All dissolves in water
Ammonium salts

Nitrate salts All dissolves in water

All dissolves in water, Except: Lead(II) chloride, PbCl2

Chloride salts Silver chloride, AgCl
Mercury chloride, HgCl
All dissolves in water Except: Lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4
Sulphate salts Barium sulfat, BaSO4
Calcium sulfat, CaSO4
All did not dissolves in water, Except: Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
Carbonate salts Potassium carbonate, K2CO3
Ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3

Special Properties of lead(II) chloride and lead(II) iodide

NOTES: Lead halide such as lead(II) chloride (PbCl2), lead(II) bromide (PbBr2), and
lead(II) iodide (PbI2) did not dissolve in cold water but dissolve in hot water.

PbCl2 are soluble in

hot water.

White precipitate of White precipitate White precipitate formed

PbCl2 dissolves in hot when the water is cooled
water down.

1
 PbI2 are also soluble
in hot water.

Yellow precipitate of Yellow precipitate Yellow crystals formed when

PbI2 dissolves in hot water the water is cooled down.

Use of salts;
Item Use Example
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
Flavor
Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride - salted fish
Food preparation Sodium benzoate - sauce
Preservatives
Sodium nitrite - processed meat, burger
Baking powder Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Agriculture Potassium nitrate
Nitrogen fertilizers
Sodium nitrate
Copper(II) sulphate
Pesticide
Iron(II) sulphate
Reduce stomach acidic Calcium carbonate
(gastric) Calcium hydrogen carbonate
Medicine Sniff salt (fainted) Ammonium carbonate
Plaster of Paris (cement Calcium sulphate
to support broken bone)

A. Preparation of Salt
The procedure of preparation salt depends to the type of salt.

a. Insoluble salt is prepared through precipitation reaction.

b. Soluble salt is prepared by one of these reactions;

i. Acid and alkali
ii. Acid and metal oxide
iii. Acid and metal carbonate
iv. Acid and reactive metal

2
a. Insoluble Salts
i. Preparing Insoluble Salts
1. Insoluble salts can be prepared through precipitation reactions or double decomposition reactions.
2. Precipitation or double decomposition reaction involves;
- two aquoues solutions/soluble salts were mix together
- one of the solutions contains the cations of the insoluble salt.
- one of the solutions contains the anions of the insoluble salt.
- the ions of the two aqueous solutions above interchange to produce two new compound
which is insoluble salt or precipitate, and aqueous solution.
- the precipitate produced is obtained by filtration. The residue left in the filter paper is the
insoluble salt. The filtrate is soluble salt.
- the residue/precipitate (insoluble salt) then rinsed with distilled water to remove any other
ions as impurities.

Ionic equation: Pb2+ + 2Cl-  PbCl2

Na+ ions and NO3- ions do not

take part in the reaction and are
Pb2+ ions combined free to move in the solution
with Cl- ions to form Na+ Na+
white precipitate
NO3- NO3-
PbCl2

3
 Glass rod
Mixture of solutions

Filter paper Residue/precipitate

(Insoluble salt)
Filter funnel
Retort stand

Filtrate
(Soluble salt)

Chemical and ionic equations

Chemical equation : MX(aq) + NY(aq) → MY(s) + NX(aq)
solution solution precipitate solution

Ionic equation : M+(aq) + Y-(aq) → MY(s)

Study this reaction carefully

In the formation of the precipitate of barium sulphate, BaSO4, the chemical equation can be written:
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4 (aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl (aq)

Ions Ba2+ + Cl- + Na+ + SO42-  BaSO4 + Na+ + Cl-

Ionic equation : Ba2+ + SO42-  BaSO4

(shows the ions that take part in the reaction to form precipitate/insoluble salts)

More examples;
Insoluble Salt Ions Ionic equation

ZnCO3 Zn2+ , CO32- Zn2+ + CO32-  ZnCO3

AgCl Ag+ , Cl- Ag+ + Cl-  AgCl

BaSO4 Ba2+ , SO42- Ba2+ + SO42  BaSO4

PbCl2 Pb2+ , Cl- Pb2+ + Cl-  PbCl2

PbSO4 Pb2+ , SO42- Pb2+ + SO42-  PbSO4

CaCO3 Ca2+ , CO32- Ca2+ + CO32-  CaCO3

4
ii. Preparation and purification of insoluble salts

Preparation of Plumbum(II) iodide

Chemical equation : Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

Ionic equation : Pb2+ (aq) + 2I- (aq) → PbI2 (s)

Step 1: Preparation

+ →

20 cm3 20 cm3
Lead(II) nitrat potassium iodide
0.1 mol dm-3 0.1 mol dm-3

1. 20 cm3 lead(II) nitrate 0.1 mol dm-3 solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml,
and poured into a beaker.
2. 20 cm3 potassium iodide 0.1 mol dm-3 solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml
and poured into a beaker contains lead(II) nitrate solution.
3. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod. A yellow precipitate is formed.

Glass rod
Mixture of solutions

Filter paper
Precipitate of lead(II) iodide
(yellow)
Filter funnel
Retort stand
Beaker
Sodium nitrate solution

4. The mixture is filtered to obtain the yellow solids of lead(II) iodide as the residue.
5
Step 2: Purification

Distilled water
Glass rod

Precipitate of lead(II)
iodide

5. The residue is rinsed with distilled water to remove other ions in it.

Precipitate of lead(II) Filter paper

iodide

6. The yellow solid is dried by pressing between two pieces of filter paper.

EASY LAH !

6
b. Soluble Salt
i. Preparaing Soluble Salt
- Sodium salts
- Potassium salts Acid + alkali  salts + water
- Ammonium salts

Soluble Salts
Acid + metal oxide  salts + water
- Others salts Acid + reactive metal  salts + hydrogen gas
Acid + metal carbonate  salt + water + carbon dioxide
Notes: Reactive metal is magnesium, aluminium, and zinc
Unreactive metal is iron, lead, silver

a. Sodium, potassium or ammonium salts prepared from neutralisation reaction.

Salt Alkali Acid Chemical equation

NaCl NaOH HCl NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O

K2SO4 KOH H2SO4 2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O

NH4NO3 NH3/NH4OH HNO3 NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3 + H2O

CH3COONa NaOH CH3COOH NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

Note: To prepare the above salts, titration technique is use.

b. Soluble salt (except sodium, potassium and ammonium salt) is prepared using these methods
- Acid and metal
- Acid and metal oxide
- Acid and metal carbonate
Write a chemical equation for each experiment below.
Acid that must be Substance that can be use to react with acid
Name of Salt
used Metal Metal oxide Metal carbonate
ZnCl2 HCl Zn ZnO ZnCO3
Mg(NO)3 HNO3 Mg MgO MgCO3
CuSO4 H2SO4 × CuO CuCO3
Pb(NO3)2 HNO3 × PbO PbCO3

7
 Remember this:
1 Metal that is less reactive from hydrogen such as copper, lead and silver/argentum did not
react with dilute acid to produce hydrogen gas. (THEY ARE NOT REACTIVE METALS!)
2 Metal, metal oxide and metal carbonate above is a solid that cannot dissolves in water, hence
during reaction that solid must be added excessively to make sure all hydrogen ions in acid
is completely reacted. Excess solid can be expelling through filtration.
3 Impure soluble salt can be purified through crystallisation process.

ii. Preparation and purification of soluble salts

A. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid and alkali.

Preparation of Soluble Sodium, Potassium and ammonium Salts

Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium can be prepared by the reaction between an
acid and alkali.

Acid (aq) + alkali (aq)  Salt (aq) + Water (l)

Procedure :
 Using pipette, 25 cm3 of alkali solution is measured and
transferred into a conical flask.
 Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the alkali solution.
 Dilute acid is place in a burette. The initial reading is recorded.
 Acid is added slowly into the alkali solution while shaking
the conical flaks, until the pink solution turn colourless.
 The final reading of the burette is recorded.
 The volume of acid added, V cm3 is calculated.
 The experiment is repeated by adding V cm3 of acid to
25 cm3 of alkali solution in a beaker without using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.
 The mixture is transferred into an evaporating dish.
 The mixture is heated until saturated and the saturated solution
is allowed to cool at room temperature.
 Salt crystals formed are filtered and rinsed with a little of cold distilled water.
 Salt crystals are dried by pressing it between filter papers (or in oven)

What is the reaction between acid and alkali known as?

Kita bukan along kita cuma nak tolong.

Example: Preparing sodium chloride

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Step 1: Preparation (Titration)

Burette

Retort
stand Hydrochloric acid

Conical flask

25 cm3 NaOH + phenolphthalein

indicator

1. 25.0 cm3 sodium hydroxide solutions is pipette into conical flask.

2. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added into conical flask. The colour of solution is
recorded.
3. A 50 cm3 burette is filled with hydrochloric acid. The initial burette reading is recorded.
4. Hydrochloric acid is added gradually from a burette into conical flask and swirling the conical
flask.
5. Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless. The final burette
reading is recorded.
6. The volume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated by adding hydrochloric acid (known volume) to 25.0 cm 3 sodium
hydroxide in a beaker without using phenolphthalein.

Step 2: Preparation (Crystallisation)

Salt solution Evaporating dish

Bunsen burner

9
 8. The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish.
9. The colourless solution is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated or to about one-third
(1/3) of the original volume.
10. The saturated solution is then cooled to allow crystallization to occur.

Step 3: Purification

Glass rod
Distilled water

Copper(II) sulphate
Filter funnel

10. The white crystals formed are then filtered, rinsed with a little distilled water and dried by
pressing between filter paper.

Note: Phenolphthalein indicator is used at the beginning of the experiment to determine the volume
of hydrochloric acid that is required to react completely with 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide.
However experiment is repeated without using phenolphthalein so that the salt prepared will
not be contaminated by the indicator.

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B. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid
i. Metal oxide. ii. Metal iii. Metal carbonate

Procedure To Prepare a Soluble Salt (not Na+, K+ or NH4+)

 50 cm3 of acid is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a beaker. The acid is
heated slowly.
 Using a spatula, metal / metal oxide / metal carbonate powder is added a little at a time while
stirring the mixture with a glass rod.
 The addition of the solid powder is stopped when some solids no longer dissolve anymore. (the
solid is excess and all the acid is completely neutralised by the solid)

 The mixture is filtered to remove the excess solid powder.

 The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.

 The filtrate is heated until saturated. (The filtrate is evaporated to about one-third (1/3) of the
original volume)
 The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature and the salt crystals are
formed.
 The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
 Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.

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Example: Preparing copper(II) sulphate (Reaction between sulphuric acid and copper(II) oxide
powder)

Step 1: Preparation

Spatula
Stir
Copper(II) oxide

Glass rod
Beaker 50 cm3 sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm-3

Wire gauze xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Bunsen
Tripod
burner

1. 50 cm3 sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm-3 is put in a beaker and is heated.
2. Using spatula copper(II) oxide powder is added a little at a time to the hot sulphuric acid while
stirring continuously with glass rod.
3. The addition of copper(II) oxide is stopped when solids powder remain undissolved.

Glass rod
Reactant mixture

Excess copper(II) oxide

Copper(II) sulphate solution

4. The mixture is filtered to remove the excess copper(II) oxide.

5. The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.

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 Evaporating dish
Copper(II) sulphate
solution ××××××××××××

Bunsen burner

6. The filtrate is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated, or to about one-third (1/3) of the
original volume.
7. The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature.

Step 3: Purification

Glass rod
Distilled water

Copper(II) sulphate

8. The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
9. Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.

REMEMBER!

Unreactive metal such as lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and silver (Ag) cannot react
with dilute acid. So to prepare salt contains lead ions (Pb2+), copper ions (Cu2+)
or silver ions (Ag+), we must use either oxide powder or carbonate powder only.

Example: CuO + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O (okay)

CuCO3 + H2SO4  CuSO4 + H2O + CO2 (okay)

Cu + H2SO4  no reaction (not okay)

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B. Physical Characteristics of Crystals.

A salt is made up of positive and negative ions. When these ions are packed closely
with a regular and repeated arrangement in an orderly manner, a solid with
definite geometry known as crystal lattice is formed.

All crystals have these physical characteristics:

a) Reqular geometry shapes, such as cubic or hexagonal.
b) Flat faces, straight edges and sharp angles.
c) Same angle between adjacent faces.
d) All crystals of the same salt have the same shape although the sizes may be different.

Start to memorise the solubility of a salt in water.

It will help you a lot to better understand this chapter.
KNOWLEDGE IS POWER.

The solubility of a salt in water depends on the types of cations and anions present.

Salt Solubility in water

Sodium, potassium and C. Qualitative
ammonium salts  All are soluble
(Na+, K+, NH4+) Analysis of
Nitrate salt (NO3-) Salts
 All are soluble
What is Qualitative
-
Chloride salt (Cl ) analysis?
 All chloride salts are soluble in water except
PbCl2, A
Qualitative gCl andisHagCl
analysis chemical
2 technique used to determine what
Sulphate salt (SO42-) substances are present in a mixture but not their quantities.
 All sulphate salts are soluble in water except
PbSO , BaSO
4 4 and CaSO 4

In the qualitative
Carbonate salt (CO32-)  All carbonate salts are insoluble except Na2CO3, analysis of salts, we
K2CO3 and (NH4)2CO3

14
need to identify the ions that are present in salts. This can be done by analysing their physical and chemical
properties.

Observations on the physical properties of salts

1. Colour and solubility in water

Certain physical properties of salts such as its colour and solubility in water are observed to help us infer certain
cations and anions that are present in salts.

The table shows the colour of salts in solid, in aqueous solution and the solubility of salts in water

Solubility in
Salt Colour in solid Colour in Aqueous solution
water

1. Ammonium chloride NH4Cl white soluble colourless

2. Ammonium nitrateNH4(NO3)3 white soluble colourless
3. Calcium carbonate CaCO3 white insoluble -
4. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 white soluble colourless
5. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 white soluble colourless
6. Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 white insoluble -
7. Zinc sulphate Zn SO4 white soluble colourless
8. Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2 white soluble colourless
9. Lead(II) chloride , PbCl2 white insoluble -
10. Lead(II) sulphate , PbSO4 white insoluble -
11. Lead(II) carbonate , PbCO3 white insoluble -
12. Copper(II) chloride , CuCl2 Blue soluble Blue
13 Copper(II) sulphate , PbSO4 Blue soluble Blue
14. Copper(II) carbonate , PbCO3 Green insoluble -
15. Iron(II) sulphate , FeSO4 Green soluble Pale green
16. Iron(III) chloride , FeCl3 Brown / Yellow soluble Brown/Yellow/ Yellowish brown
17. Sodium nitrate , NaNO3 white soluble colourless
18, Sodium carbonate , Na2CO3 white soluble colourless
19. Potassium nitrate , KNO3 white soluble colourless
20. Potassium carbonate , K2CO3 white soluble colourless
The table shows the colour of different cations in the solid form or in aqueous solution

Observation Inference

Blue solution Ion copper (Cu2+ ) present

Pale green solution Ion Iron(II) Fe2+ present

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Yellow/Yellowish-
Ion Iron (III) Fe3+ present
brown/brown solution

Green solid Hydrated Fe 2+, CuCO3

Brown solid Hydrated Fe 3+ salt

Salts of Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+

Al 3+
, Zn 2+, Pb 2+
(If the anions are
White solid
colourless

Colourless solution Na+ , K+ ,NH4+, Mg 2+, Ca 2+ , Al 3+ , Zn 2+, Pb 2+

The table shows the solubility of different types of salts in water

Compounds Solubility in water

Sodium salts
Potassium salts
All are soluble
Ammonium salts

Nitrate salts
All are soluble

Chloride salts
All are soluble except AgCl, HgCl and PbCl2 (soluble in hot water)

Sulphate salts
All are soluble except BaSO4, PbSO4 and CaSO4

Carbonate salts All are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and
ammonium carbonate

2. Tests for gases

Gases are often produced from reactions carried out during laboratory tests on salts. By identifying the gases
evolved, it is possible to infer the types of cations and anions that are present in a salt.

The table shows the test and the result of different gases

Gas Test Result

16

Oxygen gas, O2
Hydrogen gas , H2
Carbon dioxide gas , CO2
Ammonia gas, NH3
Chlorine gas, Cl2
Hydrogen chlorine gas , HCl
Sulphur dioxide gas , SO2
Nitrogen dioxide gas , NO2
3. Action of heat on salts
Effect of heat on carbonate salts
Colour
Carbonate salt
before heating
Test with a glowing wooden
Wooden splinter is rekindled /lighted
splinter
Test with a lighted wooden
Gas explodes with a pop sound
splinter
Bubble the gas produced into
Lime water turns milky
lime water
Test with moist red litmus
Moist red litmus paper turns blue
paper
Moist blue litmus paper turns red and then
Test with moist blue litmus
turns white
paper
Test with a drop of
concentrated ammonia NH3 Dense white fumes
solution
Bubble the gas produced into
purple acidified potassium Purple acidified potassium manganate
manganate (VII), KMnO4 (VII),KMnO4 solution decolourises
solution
Test with moist blue litmus
moist blue litmus paper turns red
paper
of salt Colour of residue
Effect on lime water
Hot cold
17
Copper (II) The gas liberated turns
Green powder Black powder Black powder
carbonate, CuCO3 lime water milky/chalky

Zinc carbonate , The gas liberated turns

White solid Yelow solid White solid
ZnCO3 lime water milky/chalky

Lead(II) carbonate, The gas liberated turns

White solid Brown sold Yelow solid
PbCO3 lime water milky/chalky

Sodium carbonate,
White solid White solid White solid No change
Na2CO3

Calcium carbonate, The gas liberated turns

White solid White solid White solid
CaCO3 lime water milky/chalky

Potassium
White solid White solid White solid No change
carbonate, K2CO3

Magnesium The gas liberated turns

White solid White solid White solid
carbonate, MgCO3 lime water milky/chalky

Effect of heat on nitrate salts

Colour of salt Colour of residue

Nitrate Salt Test on gases liberated
before heating Hot cold
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
Copper (II) nitrate, Black Black paper red is liberated.
Blue solid
Cu(NO3)2 powder powder The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
Zinc nitrate, Yellow paper red is liberated.
White solid White solid
Zn(NO3)2 solid The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
Lead(II) nitrate, Yellow paper red is liberated.
White solid Brown solid
Pb(NO3)2 solid The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

Sodium nitrate, A colourless gas that rekindles a

White solid White solid White solid
NaNO3 glowing splinter is liberated

A brown gas that turns blue litmus

Calcium nitrate, paper red is liberated.
White solid White solid White solid
Ca(NO3)2 The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

Potassium nitrate, A colourless gas that rekindles a

White solid White solid White solid
KNO3 glowing splinter is liberated

A brown gas that turns blue litmus

Magnesium nitrate, paper red is liberated.
White solid White solid White solid
Mg(NO3)2 The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

18
 A brown gas that turns blue litmus
Pale
Iron(II) nitrate, Pale Green Pale Green paper red is liberated.
Green
Fe(NO3)2 solid solid The gas liberated also ignites a
solid
glowing splinter
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
Reddish-
Iron(III) nitrate, Reddish- paper red is liberated.
Brown solid Brown
Fe(NO3)3 Brown solid The gas liberated also ignites a
solid
glowing splinter

The table shows the comparison of the effect of heat on carbonate and nitrate salts

Metal Effect of heat on carbonate salt Effect of heat on nitrate salt

Potassium
Are not decomposed by heat Decompose to nitrite salt and oxygen gas.
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc Decompose to metal oxide and Decompose to metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide
Iron carbon dioxide gas. gas and oxygen gas.
Tin
Lead
Copper
Mercury
Decompose to metal, carbon Decompose to metal, nitrogen dioxide gas
Silver
dioxide gas and oxygen gas. and oxygen gas.
Gold

Most sulphate salts are not decomposed by heat. Only a few sulphate such as iron(II) sulphate,zinc sulphate
and copper sulphate decompose to sulphur dioxide or sulphur trioxide gas when heated.

All chloride salts are stable when heated except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes and
decomposes to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.

The table shows the deduction of the types of ion present based on the gas produced

Type of gas produced Type of ion present(anion)

CO2 Carbonate ion (CO3 2- ) present except Na2CO3 and K2CO3

O2 Nitrate ion (NO3-) present

NO2 Nitrate ion (NO3-) present except NaNO3 and KNO3

SO2 Sulphate ion (SO4 2- ) present

NH3 Ammonim ion (NH4+) present

Tests for anions

Reagent / Condition Observation Anion Ionic Equation (if any)

2 cm3 the unknown solution + Effervescence. CO32- ion CO32- + 2H+  CO2 +
19
dilute hydrochloric acid / nitric Colourless gas H2O
acid / sulphuric acid  pour turns lime water
into a test tube  gas liberated milky.
is immediately bubbled through
lime water.

2 cm3 of nitric acid + 2 cm3 of White precipitate Cl- ion Ag+ + Cl-  AgCl
the unknown solution  pour is formed.
into a test tube  + 2 cm3
silver nitrate solution

2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric White precipitate SO42- ion Ba2+ + SO42 -  BaSO4
acid / nitric acid + 2 cm3 of the is formed.
unknown solution  pour into
a test tube  + 2 cm3 of
barium chloride / barium nitrate
solution  shake well

2 cm3 of the unknown solution Brown ring is NO3- ion -

 pour into a test tube  formed at the
2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid + boundary
2 cm3 of iron(II) sulphate between the
solution  shake well. concentrated
Then drop carefully and slowly H2SO4 (top layer)
a few drops of concentrated and aqueous
sulphuric acid along the side of solution of the
a slanting test tube into the mixture (bottom
mixture without shaking it. layer)

Tests for cations

Confirmatory Test for Fe2+, Fe3+, Pb2+, NH4+ Ions

Confirmatory Test for Fe2+

Reagent Observation Conclusion

20
Potassium Pale blue precipitate Fe2+ ion is present
hexacyanoferrate(II) solution Dark blue precipitate Fe3+ ion is present
Potassium Dark blue precipitate Fe2+ ion is present
hexacyanoferrate(III) solution Greenish-brown solution Fe3+ ion is present
Potassium thiocyanate Pale red colouration Fe2+ ion is present
solution Blood red colouration Fe3+ ion is present

Confirmatory Test for Pb2+

Method Observation Ionic Equation

 Using aqueous solution of chloride - A white precipitate is Pb2+ + 2Cl-  PbCl2

- 2 cm3 of any solution of Cl- + formed
2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+ 
dilute with 5 cm3 of distilled water  When heated – dissolve in
heat until no further change occurs  water to form colourless
allow the content to cool to room solution
temperature using running water from
the tap When cooled – white
precipitate reappear

 Using aqueous solution of iodide - A yellow precipitate is Pb2+ + 2I-  PbI2

- 2 cm3 of any solution of I- + formed
2 cm3 of any solution of Pb2+ 
dilute with 5 cm3 of distilled water  When heated – dissolve in
heat until no further change occurs  water to form colourless
allow the content to cool to room solution
temperature using running water from
the tap When cooled – yellow
precipitate reappear

Confirmatory Test for NH4+

Method Observation

 2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 of - Moist red litmus paper turns blue
NaOH / KOH / Ca(OH) 2  heat  put a
piece of moist red litmus paper at the
mouth of the test tube

Reaction with Nessler’s Reagent - A brown precipitate is formed

 2 cm3 of any solution of NH4+ + 2 cm3 of
Nessler’s Reagent  shake well

Reaction of Cations With NaOH

21
 Sodium hydroxide solution is poured
slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be
tested in a test tube, until in excess.
Easy!
Cations

+ NaOH (aq)

No precipitate Precipitate produced

White precipitate Coloured precipitate

Green Blue Brown

NH4+ K+ Na+ 2+ 2+
Fe Cu Fe2+

warm

NH3 gas produced

Dissolve in excess Insoluble in

NaOH (aq) to form excess
colourless solution NaOH (aq)

Pb2+ Zn2+ Al3+ Ca2+ Mg2+

P b Zn A l
2+ 2+ 3+
: White precipitate dissolves/larut in excess NaOH

Ca Mg
2+ 2+
: White precipitate insoluble/tidak larut in excess NaOH
Reaction of Cations With NH3

22
 Aqueous ammonia solution is poured
slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be
tested in a test tube until in excess.
Easy!
Cations

+ NH3 (aq)

No precipitate Precipitate produced

White precipitate Coloured precipitate

Green Blue Brown

NH4+ K+ Na+ Ca2+ 2+ 2+
Fe Cu Fe2+

warm
+ excess
NH3 (aq)
NH3 gas produced
Dark blue
solution

Dissolve in excess Insoluble in

NH3 (aq) to form excess NH3 (aq)
colourless solution

Zn2+ Pb2+ Al3+ Mg2+

Zn 2+
: White precipitate dissolves/larut in excess NH3

Pb Al M g
2+ 3+ 2+
: White precipitate insoluble/tidak larut in excess NH 3

23
 Based from the observation, I can conclude that

Zn2+ ion is the only cation that form white precipitate and dissolves in
both excess NaOH and NH3 solutions.

Mg2+ ion is the only cation that form white precipitate and insoluble in
both excess NaOH and NH3 solutions.
Ca2+ ion in the only cation that form white precipitate in NaOH
solutions, but no precipitate in NH3 solution.

Fe2+ , Fe3+ and Cu2+ ions is easy to spot because the ions shows
coloured precipitate.

Pb2+ ion and Al3+ ion form white precipitate and dissolves in excess
NaOH
solution, but insoluble in excess NH3 solutions.

How to differentiate between Pb2+ and Al3+?

A chemical tests can be carried out in

the laboratory to differentiate between
Pb2+ and Al3+.
(Please refer to Confirmatory Test for
Pb2+, in ealier notes).

Example: lead(II) nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution

Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a

test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.

Now let see some questions about salt.

Try to solve it by yourself first and then
compare with the answers provided.
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Example 1:

Describe chemical tests that can be carried out in the laboratory to differentiate between

(a) lead(II) nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution

Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.

(b) aluminium nitrate solution and zinc nitrate solution

Aqueous ammonia solution is poured slowly into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube
until in excess.
If a white precipitate that dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia solution is formed, than the
solution tested is zinc nitrate.
If a white precipitate that is insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia solution is formed, than the
solution tested is aluminium nitrate.

(c) ammonium chloride solution and potassium chloride solution

Nessler’s Reagent is added to 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.

If a brown precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is ammonium chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is potassium chloride

(d) iron(II) sulphate solution and iron(III) sulphate solution

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a

test tube.
If a dark blue precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.

Or

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is poured into 2 cm 3 of the solution to be tested in a

test tube.
If a greenish-brown solution is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.

Or

Potassium thiocyanate solution is poured into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a blood red colouration is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.

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 (e) sodium chloride and sodium sulphate

Silver nitrate solution is poured into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is sodium chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is sodium sulphate.

Or

Barium chloride solution is poured into 2 cm3 of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is sodium sulphate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is sodium chloride.

Example 2:

1. State three examples of

a) soluble salts b) insoluble salts

Potassium carbonate Magnesium carbonate

Lead(II) nitrate Lead(II) sulphate
Ammonium chloride Argentum chloride

2. Which of the following salts is soluble

Lead(II) chloride Sodium carbonate

Calcium sulphate Barium sulphate

3. Identify the gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue

Ammonia gas

4. Gas X has the following properties

 Colourless
 Acidic gas
 Turns lime water milky

Gas X is carbon dioxide gas

5. Salt P Heat Metal oxide X + Gas Y

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 Colour of metal oxide X is yellow when hot and white when cold. Gas Y turns lime water milky.

a) Name gas Y : carbon dioxide gas

b) Name metal oxide X : zinc oxide

c) Name salt P : zinc carbonate

d) Write an equation to represent the action of heat on salt P

ZnCO3 (s) ZnO (s) + CO 2 (g)

6. A sample of copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 was heated strongly. Write down the expected observation.

Copper(II) nitrate decompose to produce black colour of residue when hot and cold. A brown
gas that changed moist blue litmus paper to red and colourless gas that lighted up a glowing
wooden splinter are produced.

D. Numerical problem involving stoichiometric reaction in the

preparation of salt
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 A balanced chemical equation for a reaction in preparation of a salt
can be used to calculate the stoichiometric quantities of the following
Masses of reactants
Volumes and concentrations of reactants
Masses of products
Volumes of products

Example 1;
Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4 is use as a fertilizer. 29.8g of this salt is prepared by neutralizing
phosphoric acid, H3PO4 with ammonium gas, NH3. Calculate the volume of ammonium gas, NH 3
reacted at room conditions.
( Relative atomic mass; H, 1: N, 14: P, 31; O, 16; Molar volume; 24 dm3 mol-1 at room conditions)

Solutions;

= 2.88 g
[3(14) + 12(1) + 31 + 4(16)
a. Calculate the number of moles
= 0.2 mol

b. Write a balanced chemical equation H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq)  (NH4)3PO4(aq)

3 mol 1 mol
Compare the mole ratio of NH3 and
(NH4)3PO4

c. Calculate the number of moles of NH3 base on = 3 X 0.2 mol

the mole ratio
= 0.6 mol

d. Calculate the volume of NH3 = 0.6 mol X 24 dm3 mol -1

= 14.4 dm3
Volume = number of mole X volume

Example 2:
3.9 g of potassium is burnt completely in the air as shown in the following equation;
4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)
What is the mass of potassium oxide produced?

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[Relative atomic mass: K, 39; O, 16]

Solutions
Tip: Solve the question step by step

Step 1: Write Chemical Equation

4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)

4 mol of K react with 1 mol of O2 produce 2 mol K2O

Step 2: Calculate the number of mole

[Get the information from the question]
mass
No. of mol K =
Molar mass

3.9 g
=
39 gmol-1

= 0.1 mol
Step 3: Find the coefficient From Balance Chemical Equation
FBCE;
4 mol of K produce 2 mol K2O
Thus;
0.1 mol of K produce 2/4 mol K2O = 0.2 mol K2O

FBCE;
[Sebelah kiri] [Sebelah kanan]
Bil. mol yang telah dikira Bil. Mol yang hendak ditentukan

4 mol K = 2 mol K2O

0.1mol K = 2/4 x 0.1mol K2O = 0.05 mol K2O

No. of mol of K2O = 0.05 mol

Step 4: Solve the questions

Thus;
Mass of K2O = 0.05 mol × Molar mass
= 0.05 mol× 55 g mol-1
= 2.75 g

Example 3:
Acids reacts with calcium carbonate, CaCO3 in limestone to form a salt and carbon dioxide, CO2.
A piece of limestone reacted completely with 100 cm3 of 31.5 g dm-3 nitric acid, HNO3.

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 [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; Ca, 40. Molar volume: 24 dm 3 mol-1 at room
conditions]
a. Calculate the mass of salt produced.
b. What is the volume of carbon dioxide, CO2 liberated at room conditions?

Step 1: Write Chemical Equation

Chemical Equation: 2HNO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

Step 2: Calculate the number of mole

Get the information from the question;

3 Change the
Concentration of HNO3 = 31.5 g dm concentration
31.5 g dm3 given in g dm-3
= to mol dm-3 first
Molar mass of HNO3

31.5 g dm3
=
1 + 14 + 48 g mol-1

-3
= 0.5 mol dm

Molarity × Volume
No. of mole of HNO3 =
1000

0.5 mol dm-3 × 100 cm3

=
1000

= 0.05 mol

FBCE; 2HNO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

2 mol HNO3 = 1 mol Ca(NO3)2

0.05 mol HNO3 = ½ x 0.05 mol Ca(NO3)2 = 0.025 mol Ca(NO3)2

No. of mol of Ca(NO3)2 = 0.025 mol

Mass of Ca(NO3)2 = 0.025 mol × 40 + 2[14 + 3(16)] g mol-1

= 4.1 g

FBCE; 2HNO3 + CaCO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O

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 2 mol HNO3 = 1 mol CO2

0.05 mol HNO3 = ½ x 0.05 mol CO2 = 0.025 mol CO2

No. of mol of CO2 = 0.025 mol

Volume of CO2 = 0.025 mol × 12 + 2(16) dm3 mol-1

= 1.1 dm3

Example 4:
Pb(NO3)2 compound decomposes when heated as shown in the following equation.
If 6.62 g of Pb(NO3)2 compound is heated, calculate;
[Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16; Pb, 207; 1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.]
(i) mass of PbO that is produced
(ii) volume of nitrogen dioxide produced at s.t.p
(ii) volume of oxygen produced at s.t.p

Solution:

2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

mass
No of mol Pb(NO3)2 =
Molar mass

6.62 g
=
331 gmol-1

= 0.02 mol

FBCE; 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

2 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 2 mol PbO
0.02 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 0.02 mol PbO

No of mol PbO = 0.02 mol

Mass of PbO = 0.02 x 223 = 4.46 g

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FBCE; 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2
2 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 4 mol NO2
0.02 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 4/2 x 0.02 mol O2 = 0.04 mol O2

No of mol O2 = 0.04 mol

Volume of O2 = 0.04 x 22.4 dm3

= 0.896 dm3 // 896 cm3

FBCE; 2Pb(NO3)2 → 2PbO + 4NO2 + O2

2 mol Pb(NO3)2 = 1 mol O2
0.02 mol Pb(NO3)2 = ½ x 0.02 mol O2 = 0.01 mol O2

No of mol O2 = 0.01 mol

Volume of O2 = 0.01 x 22.4 dm3

= 0.224 dm3 // 224 cm3

Numerical Problems involving stoichiometric reactions in the precipitation of salts

Question 1:
A student prepare copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 by reacting copper(II) oxide, CuO with 200 cm3 of 2.0
moldm-3 nitric acid, HNO3. Calculate the mass of copper(II) oxide, CuO needed to react completely
with the acid.
[Relative atomic mass: Cu, 64 ; O, 16]

Question 2:
X cm3 of 0.5 moldm-3 sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is added to 100 cm3 of 1.0 moldm-3 lead(II) nitrate
solution to produce lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.
[Relative atomic mass: Pb, 20; O, 16; S, 32]
a. Calculate the value of X.
b. Calculate the mass of lead(II) sulphate obtained.

Start to do exercises from any book.

I will help and guide you to master this topic.

Prepared by;
Kamal Ariffin Bin Saaim
SMKDBL

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