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INGLÉS TÉCNICO I
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Ingeniería en Sistemas de Información

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Año 2017

Profesora Verónica de Loredo

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Manual gramática
inglesa

2
 Conceptos preliminares

La lecto-comprensión: su razón de ser

Al aprender un idioma extranjero desarrollamos cuatro habilidades, dos de producción

(verbal o escrita) y dos de comprensión (lectora y auditiva). Llegar a sentir que
manejamos estas destrezas con suficiente efectividad como para poder comunicarnos
en cualquier situación implica varios años de estudio.

¿Qué hacer entonces cuando necesitamos acceder a bibliografía escrita en inglés, no

“sabemos” el idioma y no disponemos de tiempo para aprenderlo? La respuesta está
en desarrollar solo una de las cuatro habilidades: aprender únicamente a leer. Si,
además, limitamos el material de lectura a lo específico de nuestro estudio o trabajo,
se restringe enormemente el campo de aprendizaje. Sólo necesitamos aprender a
reconocer las estructuras del idioma extranjero y familiarizarnos con el vocabulario
específico de nuestro quehacer. De esta manera, el tiempo necesario para lograr este
único objetivo se acorta enormemente.

La experiencia nos indica que en un tiempo relativamente corto quienes hacen un

curso de lecto-comprensión logran su objetivo de leer el material de su especialidad
con bastante éxito.

Por otro lado, también la experiencia ha demostrado que los adultos que hacen un
curso de lecto-comprensión tienen una excelente base de partida si deciden seguir
estudiando el idioma.

Los textos en inglés y en español: elementos en común

Los aspectos formales de un texto escrito

Al abordar un texto podemos plantearnos algunas preguntas, tales como las

siguientes:

1. ¿Cuál es el título del texto?

2. ¿De qué fuente se extrajo el texto?

3. ¿Cuántos párrafos hay?

4. ¿Cuántas oraciones tiene el primer párrafo?

5. ¿De qué se tratará el texto?

Para responder las primeras tres preguntas aplicamos estrategias de lectura que
hemos desarrollado en nuestro propio idioma. Nos guían los elementos formales del
texto (mayúsculas, signos de puntuación, tamaño de letra, etc.), que son similares en
inglés y en español. A lo largo de este año descubriremos qué se necesita para
responder la última pregunta.

3
 ESTRATEGIAS DE LECTURA

Antes de leer: ANTICIPACIÓN-PREDICCIÓN

a) Observar el texto.

b) A partir del título, foto, dibujo o gráfico, el epígrafe y del paratexto en general
predecir cuál será el tema.

PRIMERA LECTURA:

Cuatro claves para la comprensión general de un texto.

Cuando leemos un texto de manera global podemos hacer uso de las cuatro claves:

- Primera clave: Palabras que se repiten

- Segunda clave: Palabras que se parecen en ambos idiomas (palabras trasparentes)

- Tercera clave: Indicación tipográfica

 El título
 cifras en el texto: 1995, $10,000, etc. y a qué se refieren
 letras mayúsculas, nombres propios
 uso de tipo especial: negrita o cursiva
 división en párrafos

- Cuarta clave: Selectividad

Al leer un texto, es muy importante saber lo que significa el título con exactitud ya que
este nos va a dar el anclaje del mismo.

PREDICCIÓN

A) Realice una predicción (hipótesis) acerca del contenido del texto utilizando las
claves anteriores y las técnicas de skimming (lectura rápida) e intelligent guessing
(adivinanza inteligente).

“SKIMMING” (LECTURA RÁPIDA)

1) Leer las primeras oraciones o el primer párrafo cuidadosamente.

2) Si el texto es largo, lea el 2º párrafo porque a veces el 1º párrafo es meramente una

introducción y el 2º contiene más información sobre el tema.

3) Luego, dar un vistazo al comienzo de cada párrafo.

4) Seleccione algunas palabras claves.

5) Generalmente la oración tópico se encuentra al comienzo, pero a veces puede estar

al final.

4
6) Saltee las partes que no le brinden información esencial.

7) Lea el último párrafo con mayor detenimiento. El autor suele incluir la conclusión en
esta parte

“SCANNING” (BÚSQUEDA INFORMACIÓN ESPECÍFICA)

Ej. : en una biografía, buscar fecha de nacimiento, nacionalidad, estudios, según el

ejercicio a realizar.

Las mayúsculas

Al igual que en nuestro idioma, las mayúsculas se usan al empezar la oración y para
los nombres propios.

Además, en inglés también se escriben con mayúscula:

• los días de la semana

• los meses del año

• las nacionalidades o nombres de idiomas

• el pronombre de primera persona del singular: I (yo)

• todas las palabras del título de los libros, con excepción de las preposiciones,
artículos y conjunciones

El vocabulario: Palabras transparentes, neologismos, préstamos

Volvamos a las preguntas ahora y ocupémonos de la última: “De qué se tratará el

texto?” La respuesta se basa en una hipótesis que formulamos: pensamos que estas
palabras tan parecidas al español deben significar lo mismo que en nuestro idioma;
reconocemos el nombre, por ejemplo, aunque tiene alguna variante ortográfica
respecto del español y suponemos que “modern” y “medicine” significan “moderna” y
“medicina” respectivamente. Además, tenemos un conocimiento previo que avala esta
suposición: sabemos que a Hipócrates se lo considera el padre de la medicina
moderna. Es decir, tenemos un contexto que también favorece la comprensión.

Estas palabras, parecidas a palabras de nuestro idioma, provienen del latín o del
griego generalmente y se las llama “palabras transparentes”. La mayoría de las
palabras transparentes tienen el mismo significado en ambos idiomas.

Sin embargo, hay algunas excepciones que conviene tener en cuenta, para aplicar
cuando el significado que tiene una palabra en español no tiene sentido dentro del
contexto de lo que leemos en inglés. Se la llama “falsos amigos”, y a continuación hay
algunos ejemplos:

5
 INGLÉS ESPAÑOL
Sensible Sensato
Sensitive Sensible
Relieve Aliviar
Attend Asistir (a un lugar o evento)
Assist Atender (personas); brindar asistencia
Injuries Lesiones
Actual Real, verdadero

Otra categoría de palabras que ya conocemos, aunque no sepamos inglés, son las
que provienen de ese idioma y se han incorporado a nuestro vocabulario cotidiano.
Por ejemplo, Internet, chat, performance, software, hardware, etc.

El contexto

Hay otro elemento que favorece la comprensión de un texto y que va más allá de las
palabras: el contexto, nuestro conocimiento del tema. En general, la comprensión de
un texto que desarrolla temas relacionados con nuestra disciplina nos demanda menos
esfuerzo que el abordaje de un tema totalmente ajeno a nuestro quehacer.

En resumen, al acercarnos a un texto en inglés, ya contamos con unos cuantos

elementos que nos ayudarán:

1) Los aspectos formales

2) las palabras transparentes, “prestadas” y los neologismos

3) el contexto.

Sintaxis

El español y el inglés tienen una estructura, una gramática, muy diferente. Lo que le da
sentido al discurso en inglés es el orden en el que aparecen las palabras, es decir, LA
SINTAXIS. Mientras que en español podemos decir “Juan escribe libros” o “Libros
escribe Juan” sin que se altere el sentido de la información dada, en inglés sólo es
posible decir “John writes books”. “Books writes John” no es posible.

Además, un orden distinto de dos palabras, dan un sentido diferente a la frase. Por
ejemplo, “the car key” significa “la llave del auto”, mientras que “the key car” significa
“el auto clave o principal”

Las oraciones tienen un sujeto y un predicado. Lo que precede al verbo en las

oraciones afirmativas y negativas es siempre el sujeto. No existe el sujeto tácito (con
excepción de las imperativas). En español, es suficiente decir “trabajan” para saber
que nos referimos a “ellos” y al presente, en cambio, en inglés:

6
(1) trabajar = work

(2) trabajan = they work

(3) trabajamos = we work

(4) trabajo = I work

(5) trabajás = you work

(6) trabajaron = they worked

Como se puede ver en estos ejemplos, la palabra “work”, con excepción del ejemplo
(6), cambia de sentido según lo que la antecede.

Aprender a reconocer el o los verbos conjugados de la oración es fundamental para

establecer de qué o quién se habla (cuál es el sujeto) y qué se dice de él (el
predicado), además de entender si lo que dice la oración se refiere al presente, el
pasado o el futuro.

Categoría gramatical y funciones

Las diferentes categorías gramaticales (sustantivo, verbo, adjetivo, etc.) cumplen más
de una función dentro de la oración. Por eso es importante reconocer la estructura y
determinar cuál es la palabra principal y cuál o cuáles los modificadores.

Ejemplos:

1. “card reader”

2. “database”

3. “computer engineering”

4. “power system”

Dado que:

Card = tarjeta

Reader = lector

Data = datos

base = base

computer = computadora

engineering = ingeniería

power: energía

7
system: sistema

Intente traducir las frases de los ejemplos anteriores:

1. card reader = ………………………………………………………

2. database = ………………………………………………………….

3. computer engineering = …………………………………………………..

4. power system= ……………………………………………………………….

Términos gramaticales: Definición y ejemplos

Término Definición Ej. en español Ej. en inglés

Adjetivo palabra que se Importante Important
agrega al sustantivo Bueno Good
para designar una Útil Useful
cualidad o (No tienen género o
determinar su número, es decir que no
hay diferencias entre
extensión femenino/masculino
singular/plural)
Adverbio Modifica el verbo, el
Muy Very
adjetivo u otro Bien Well
adverbio. Delicadamente Delicately
Artículos Preceden a los El- la- los- las The
sustantivos Un – una A – an
Unos - unas ---
Conectores Palabras o frases Y And
que unen Pero But
Para que So that
Preposiciones Palabras o frases De Of
que unen En In
Delante de In front of
Pronombres Reemplazan al Él He
sustantivo Ellos They
Mío Mine
Le Him
Sustantivo Palabra que designa Alumno Student
un ser, objeto o Computadora Computer
lugar Lugar Place
Verbo Palabra que designa Leer Read
acciones (por Aprender Learn
extensión, palabras Ser Be
como “estar” o Estar be
“parecer” son
considerados
verbos, aunque no

8
 denotan una acción)
(verbo) infinitivo Verbo sin conjugar Caminar- leer- Walk –read - live
vivir
(verbo) participio Caminado-leído- Walked- read- lived
vivido
(verbo) gerundio Caminando- Walking- Reading- living
(en inglés leyendo- viviendo
también lo
llamaremos
forma “ing”)

Nivel contextual: Elementos verbales y no verbales que acompañan al texto.

Nivel Textual: Coherencia y cohesión

 Funciones del lenguaje: definición y ejemplificación

 Relación texto-imagen
a) Leer el siguiente texto y subrayar las palabras que tengan semejanza con el
castellano (palabras transparentes).

Computers are used nowadays for many different kinds of work, e.g. in offices, banks, factories, hospitals,
universities and schools. Their use is becoming more widespread as cheaper and smaller computers become
available. People can now buy small personal computers.

What are computers? And what can they be used for? Computers are electronic systems. They are used for
handling, or processing, facts and figures. The facts and figures processed by a computer are known as data.
Computers can process large amount of data very quickly.

The data fed, or put, into a computer is input data. Input data is processed according to a set of instructions
called a program. Both input data and programs are needed for processing. The results of processing are output
data. Very often, the output data is new and useful information. “Information” here means output data
useful for making decisions.

1. ¿Ayudan a comprender el texto las palabras subrayadas?

2. ¿Cuáles de las palabras subrayadas considera usted que son sustantivos? Haga
una lista con los sustantivos que haya identificado.

3. Haga ahora una lista solamente con las palabras que según su parecer están en
plural. Colóquelas sobre las líneas de puntos. (No repita las palabras).

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

9
…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)………………………(_________________)

…………..…………(_________________)

-Imagine cuál es el singular de cada sustantivo en plural que acaba de identificar.

Coloque las palabras en las líneas entre paréntesis.

FORMACIÓN DEL PLURAL

En base a lo realizado se deducen las reglas de la formación del plural de los

sustantivos en inglés:

1) Singular + “s”
2) Singular + “es”
3) Singular “y” = plural “ies” (Pero: “y” precedida por vocal = “s”; ejemplo “Day=
days”)
4) Singular “f” – “fe” = plural = “ves”
5) Palabras derivadas del latín o del griego

Datum Data
Thesis Theses
Criterion Criteria
Basis Bases
Matrix Matrices
Medium Media
Phenomenon Phenomena

6) Plurales irregulares: Algunas palabras sufren modificaciones tales como

cambio de vocales.
Man Men
Woman Women
Child Children
Foot Feet
Tooth Teeth

10
 FORMACIÓN DE PALABRAS

Cuando leemos, encontramos a veces palabras desconocidas cuyos

significados a menudo se pueden deducir si sabemos cómo se forman
habitualmente las palabras en el idioma inglés.
Veamos la siguiente tabla. Tratar de deducir cómo se forman los sustantivos de
acuerdo a los ejemplos dados.

BASE SIGNIFICADO SUSTANTIVO SIGNIFICADO SUFIJO

Process Procesar Processing Procesamiento -ing
Remove Sacar Removal Remoción -al
Assist Ayudar Assistant Ayudante -ant
Store Almacenar Storage Almacenamiento -age
Perform Ejecutar Performance Ejecución -ance
Program Programar Programmer Programador -er
Operate Operar Operator Operador -or
Execute Ejecutar Execution Ejecución -tion
Measure Medir Measurement Medición -ment
Thick Grueso Thickness Grosor -ness

Completar el siguiente cuadro:

BASE SIGNIFICADO SUSTANTIVO SIGNIFICADO
Arrive Llegar Arrival …………………………
Amplify Amplificar Amplifier …………………………
Library Biblioteca Librarian …………………………
Use Usar User …………………………

SUFIJOS USADOS CON MAYOR FRECUENCIA PARA LA FORMACIÓN DE

PALABRAS

-able / -ible sustantivo + able = adjetivo reason = razón;

reasonable = razonable
rely = confiar;
reliable = confiable

-ee verbo + ee = persona que employ = emplear;

recibe la acción employee = empleado

-en adjetivo/sustantivo + en = wide = ancho;

verbo widen = ensanchar

11
-er verbo + er = persona que employ = emplear;
realiza la acción employer = empleador
read = leer;
reader = lector
research = investigar;
researcher = investigador
adjetivo + er = grado long = largo;
comparativo longer = más largo
easy = fácil;
easier = más fácil
cheap = barato;
cheaper = más barato
-est adjetivo + est = grado big = grande;
superlativo biggest = el más grande
small = chico;
smallest = el más chico
-fold número + fold = multiplicado twofold = doble
por threefold = triple
-ful sustantivo + ful = adjetivo power = poder;
“que tiene” powerful = poderoso
-less sustantivo + less = adjetivo; powerless = sin fuerza / sin
“carente de” potencia
-ly adjetivo + ly = adverbio slow = lento;
terminación “-mente” slowly = lentamente
-ment verbo + ment = sustantivo develop = desarrollar
development = desarrollo
invest = invertir
investment = inversión
ship = barco
shipment = embarque
-ness adjetivo + ness = sustantivo bright = brillante; brightness
abstracto = brillantez
-ward en dirección a forward = hacia delante
backward = hacia atrás
downward = descendente

IMPORTANTE:

Los prefijos generalmente modifican el significado de la palabra.

Los sufijos modifican la categoría gramatical de una palabra.

12
 PREFIJOS (sustantivos, adjetivos, verbos, adverbios)
Negativos y EJEMPLO Tamaño EJEMPLO Ubicación EJEMPLO Tiempo EJEMPLO Número EJEMPLO

positivos y orden

UN- Unfair SEMI- Seminductor INTER- Interdisciplinary PRE- Predate MONO- Monolingual

NON- MINI- Minibus SUPER- Supernatural ANTE- Antedate BI- Bilingual

IN- Inefficient MICRO- Microchip TRANS- Transatlantic FORE- Foresee HEX- Hexameter

DIS- MEGA- Megabyte UNDER- Undersea POST- Postwar OCT- Octogenarian

(*)

RE- Rewrite EXTRA- Extracurricular MULTI- Multilingual

IR- Irresponsible MID- Midway TRI- Trilingual

COUNTER- Counterclockwise CROSS- Crosscultural

DE- Dehydrate

ILL- Illdefined Otro Ejemplo

IM- Immature SELF- Self-respect

OVER- Overprotection

UNDER- (*) Underestimate

Completar el siguiente cuadro:

Base Prefijo Significado Base Prefijo Significado

Computer Microcomputer Ground Underground
Byte Megabyte Value Undervalue
Conductor Semiconductor Service Self-service
Heat Overheat Control Self-control
Face Interface Do Redo
Angle Triangle Do Undo
Write Rewrite Dress Undress
Abundance Overabundance Legal Ilegal
Act Overact Weight Overweight
Age Underage War Postwar

13
Actividad:

1. Lea el siguiente párrafo y subraye los sustantivos.

2. Haga una lista de los que considere que son derivados y escriba el significado
correspondiente.
3. Haga una lista de las palabras en plural con sus respectivos significados en
español.
4. De acuerdo a lo que comprendió, titule el párrafo

Título:…………………………………………………………………………….

There are two kinds of program: operating system programs (sometimes called
system software), and application programs.

Operating system programs control the general operation of the computer

system. For example, they allow several users to use the computer at the same time.
These programs are usually written by a systems programmer. They are often supplied
by the manufacturer of the hardware.

Applications programs are specially written for the user of the computer. Such
programs are written by applications programmers. When programmers are writing an
applications program, they can use any of the operating system programs. That is, they
can request a service from the operating system. For example, their program can ask
the operating system to retrieve data from a disc. The programmers do not have to
write their own program for accessing data from a disc.

LA FRASE SUSTANTIVA

¿Qué es una frase sustantiva?

Son dos o más palabras de las cuales una es el núcleo (o tema del que se habla) y la
otra u otras son modificadores, es decir que modifican o restringen o califican el
sentido de la palabra núcleo.

El núcleo es el sustantivo, un nombre común o propio (por eso la frase se llama

“sustantiva”), o cualquier otra categoría de palabras que cumplan la función del
sustantivo.

Actividades:

En el siguiente párrafo verá que los sustantivos están acompañados por palabras que
determinan o modifican su significado dentro del texto. Al sustantivo se l denomina
NÚCLEO y las palabras que se anteponen son los MODIFICADORES y
DETERMINADORES.

14
Es decir que:

DETERMINADOR + MODIFICADOR + NÚCLEO = FRASE SUSTANTIVA

Lea el siguiente párrafo y preste atención a las frases subrayadas.

In computer programming, an application programming interface (API) is a set of

routines, protocols and tools for building software applications. An API expresses a
software component in terms of its operations, inputs, outputs, and underlying types.

In addition to accessing databases or computer hardware, such as hard disk drives or

video cards, an API can ease the work of programming GUI components. For example,
an API can facilitate integration of new features into existing applications.

Importante:

Es muy importante el reconocimiento del núcleo de la frase sustantiva para poder

interpretarla correctamente dado que la ubicación de los determinadores y modificadores no
es la misma que en español.

*Hay tres tipos de frases sustantivas y varían de acuerdo a sus componentes:

1) ARTÍCULO + SUSTANTIVO

THE electron

A anode

AN transistor

2) ADJETIVO + SUSTANTIVO

THIS/THAT

THESE/THOSE Switch

OPEN Valve

EACH Semiconductor

ONE Circuits

SEVERAL Components

MOST Carriers

DIFFICULT/IMPORTANT

15
 3) SUSTANTIVO + SUSTANTIVO

Control unit
Batch processing
Flow-chart
Card-reader
Computer language
Data processing unit

Confecciones una lista con algunas de las frases sustantivas subrayadas en el

texto de la página anterior e interprételas. Especifique a qué estructura
pertenecen.

Frase sustantiva Significado Estructura

Traduzca las siguientes frases sustantivas:

 Character input  Mass storage devices
 Connector terminal  Upper-case character
 Input devices  Alphabetic keys

EL “CASO POSESIVO” (genitivo)

Ejemplos:

1. the students of Mr. Black

2. the jobs of women

3. an association of engineers

Si bien los ejemplos citados son gramaticalmente correctos en inglés, la frecuencia con
la que se usan es mucho menor que las formas que aparecen a continuación:

1. Mr. Black’s students

2. Women’s jobs

3. An engineers´association

En el lenguaje científico “s” se emplea generalmente para destacar a los

autores de reglas, leyes, teoremas, etc.

16
 Newton’s rule

Faraday’s law of electrolysis

Coulomb´s law

Formación del “Caso posesivo”

Poseedor Nexo Lo poseído Ejemplo

Sustantivo singular ‘s Sustantivo Mr. Brown’s wife
a country’s economy
Sustantivo plural no ‘s Sustantivo men’s hobby
terminado en “s” children’s games

Sustantivo plural ‘ sustantivo Engineers’ associations

terminado en “s” boys’ games

Referencia contextual

Algunas palabras son utilizadas para conectar ideas para que el texto sea más fácil de leer. Los
pronombres personales, objetivos y posesivos, los adjetivos posesivos, así también como los
pronombres relativos (where, who, which, etc.) y los pronombres demostrativos (this, that, these,
those) se utilizan para unir ideas, remiten a otras palabras mencionadas anteriormente o
posteriormente en el texto. Por lo tanto, sirven como sinónimos o substitutos. Existen otras expresiones
que se utilizan para referirse a algo antes mencionado (the former, the latter, the first, the second, etc.)

Pronombres Adjetivos posesivos Pronombres Pronombres

personales objetivos posesivos
I My Me Mine
You (singular) Your You Yours
He His Him His
She Her Her Hers
It Its It Its
We Our Us Ours
You (plural) Your You Yours
They Their Them Theirs

Pronombres relativos
That
Which
Who
Whom
Whose
Where
When
Why

17
 Deleted nouns
One
Some
Another
These
The other
Those
Others
All

Pro- Clause (al comienzo de la oración)

That
It
This
Which
Sequence of two items
The former …. The latter

Ejemplos:

A. FILE ORGANIZATION AND PROCESSING

In data processing context, a file is a set of data. Theoretically,
it can be of any size, but in practice the term is reserved for
large volumes of data whose size requires the use of auxiliary
memory as the storage medium.
The protection afforded to a file which is used only as a
temporary workspace would be small compared to that
associated with a permanent master file such as an insurance
company´s file of policy holders.

Como verá, en estos ejemplos los pronombre relativos están marcados con un óvalo y
los sustantivos a los que modifican están subrayados; estos son los antecedentes.

Actividades: observe las palabras subrayadas en el siguiente texto e indique cuál es su

referente.

One measure of the complexity of modern society is the quantity of information about
past events and the accuracy of prediction about future events, which is necessary if
an organization is to operate successfully and efficiently in the present time. A
manufacturer uses facts such as sales figures, labor and material costs, or stock
levels, and forecasts of sales demands or economic trends, in deciding the type and
quantity of his products. Similarly, a public service company such as a water
authority will plan its investment program on the basis of past consumption and
meteorological data together with estimates of population growth and industrial

18
development. There is also a considerable volume of data which organizations must
make available for external use – tax returns, trade statistics, balance sheets and
the like – in addition to their own internal requirements.

As anyone who has ever attempted to make a logical arrangement of his own letters,
papers or reports will understand, the collection, organization and analysis of
information is no trivial task. On any commercial scale, it certainly requires a
carefully chosen, precise and well managed system. Such a system need not necessarily
involve elaborate mechanical or electronic equipment. Straightforward clerical
systems have been known and used for hundreds of years. We will, however, concentrate
on systems which are based on some form of electronic computing equipment.

Computers were first designed as an aid to the solution of complex mathematical

problems, some of which required so many calculations that their solution had
previously been impossible within a human timescale. It is hardly surprising that at
this time a computer – itself a significant name – was often called an electronic
calculator, and used almost entirely as a scientific tool. Of course this was, and
still is, a role which it can perform extremely well, but gradually its potential was
more widely recognized and the scope of applications extended, first to include
routine accounting, and then to representation, manipulation and analysis of a huge
variety of data drawn from commerce, the arts or the social services.

Referencia contextual. Indicar a qué hacen referencia las palabras resaltadas.

A web page is a document, typically written in plain text interspersed with formatting instructions of Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML, XHTML). It(1) may incorporate elements from other websites with suitable markup
anchors. Web pages are accessed and transported with the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which(2) may
optionally employ encryption (HTTP Secure, HTTPS) to provide security and privacy for the user of the web page
content. The user's application, often a web browser, renders the page content according to its HTML markup
instructions onto a display terminal. All publicly accessible websites collectively constitute the World Wide Web.
The pages of a website can usually be accessed from a simple Uniform Resource Locator (URL) called the homepage.
The URLs of the pages organize them(3) into a hierarchy, although hyperlinking between them conveys the reader's
perceived site structure and guides the reader's navigation of the site. Some websites require a subscription to
access some or all of their(4) content.

1)…………………………………………. 2)……………………………………………3)…………………………………………4)……………………………..

19
 Los tiempos verbales en voz activa

Todos los tiempos verbales se forman con sujeto + verbo.

Con excepción del Imperativo, no hay “sujeto tácito”, como en español.

El sujeto de una oración puede ser una frase nominal o un pronombre.

Pronombres con función de sujeto

Singular Plural
1ª persona I We
2ª persona You You
3ª persona He
She They
It

“He” se refiere exclusivamente a persona masculina

“She”, a persona femenina

“It”, a lugar, objeto, idea, concepto, etc.

En el plural se pierde esta distinción, el único pronombre de 3ª persona es “they”.

El Presente Simple del verbo “to be”

Este verbo tiene un régimen propio. Generalmente se traduce al español como “ser” o “estar”,
y en algunas instancias como “tener”.

a. Forma Afirmativa

I am We are
You are You are
He is
She is They are
It is

b. Forma negativa

Para formar el negativo se agrega “not”: Sujeto + am/is/are + not (am not/ isn´t/ aren´t)

c. Forma interrogativa

Para formar la pregunta, se invierte el orden: Am/is/are + sujeto

20
Ejemplos:

a. COMPUTER PROGRAMS
A computer program is a set of instructions for the CPU. Programs are
not hardware, as they have no electrical or mechanical components.
Programs are software.
b. KEY IDENTIFICATION CHART
Each key is capable of entering four characters. Characters are entered
by pressing a key directly, or by using the SHIFT and CODE keys.
c. CURSOR
The cursor is a short line that flashes on the screen. It indicates where
the next character you enter appears. Each time you press a key, the
cursor moves one position to the right.
d. THE COMPUTER
What kind of machines are computers? Computers are electronic
machines that process information. They are capable of communicating
with the user, of storing and manipulating numbers, letters and
characters. However, they are not capable of thinking.

La estructura “there + be”: Existencia de algo/alguien en un lugar (= “hay”)

Ejemplos:

1. There are distinct types of information within a business. If we

focus on the operating and transactions processing system,
what information flow exists?
 There is information relating to a transaction such as
customer purchase orders.
 There is information about the physical movement or use
of goods, labor and raw materials.
 There is information relating to the payment of cash.

¿Qué denotan las palabras “there is” y “there are”?

-Referencia con el tiempo

-Propósito

-Existencia en forma impersonal

-Comparación

El verbo “be”, en la frase “there + be” concuerda con lo que sigue:

21
Para formar preguntas, se invierte el orden:

2. Are there distinct types of information?

Para formar el negativo se agrega “not”

4. There aren´t clear answers to that question.

is + singular

are + plural

La palabra “there” es invariable.

El Presente Simple de los demás verbos.

Lea el siguiente texto:

The parts of a computer system

A computer systems consists of a Central Processing Unit, input devices and output devices.

The CPU is made up of a “processor” and a “main memory”, or “main store”. The processor
carries out or executes instructions in the program. The main memory stores input data and
the program needed by the processor. The main memory also holds output data, or the
results of the processing.

Output devices receive data from the CPU. The “Visual Display Unit” (VDU) and “printer”
are common output devices. The VDU is similar to a television screen. The printer produces
printed output on paper. Both the VDU and the printer present output data for immediate
use.

Actividades:

1) Responda en español las siguientes preguntas

i. ¿Cuál es el tema del texto?
ii. ¿Cuántos párrafos lo componen?
iii. ¿En qué párrafo se menciona lo que realiza la memoria principal?
iv. ¿Puede mencionar algunos dispositivos de salida comunes?

En el texto que acaba de leer hay algunas formas de un verbo que ya vimos (is / are), pero
además hay palabras subrayadas. Ellas son verbos usados en SIMPLE PRESENT, y expresan:
actividades habituales y verdades universales.

22
2) Marque el antecedente de cada verbo subrayado, es decir la o las palabras a las que
está ligada la acción.
Responda:

*¿Observa alguna característica especial al final de cada verbo? Si la respuesta es

positiva, dé una razón por la que existe esa característica.

*¿Cree que existe relación entre el sujeto y el verbo para que este tenga ciertas
características?

3) Confeccione una lista con los verbos subrayados y adicione la partícula que se le
agregó al infinitivo (no repita los verbos)

Base Verbo modificado

4) Lea el siguiente texto, preste atención a los subrayado

“Programming languages” exist to make the work of the programmer easier.

Programming languages do not use binary digits. Some programming languages
use English words. An example of a programming language is COBOL.
To write a program in COBOL, the programmer does not need to know all the
details of the computer´s design. A COBOL program written for one type of
computer is very similar to a COBOL program written for another type of
computer. So, how do people call the programming languages like COBOL? They
call them “high level languages”.

5) Actividades:
 ¿Cuál es el tema del texto?
 Trate de responder la pregunta del texto.
 ¿Qué es un lenguaje de alto nivel?
 Marque con un óvalo los antecedentes de las formas negativas do no y does
not.
 ¿Puede deducir cuándo usamos do no y cuándo does not?
 ¿Por qué cree usted que la pregunta lleva la palabra auxiliar do y no does?

23
 6) Morfología. Confeccione una lista de palabras formadas por sufijación
Sufijo “ing”
Sufijo “er”

7) Complete los espacios en blanco con las palabras que correspondan a cada significado.
…………………………………………………………..es un ejemplo de lenguaje de programación.
……………………………………………………………facilita el trabajo del programador
…………………………………………………………..lenguaje de alto nivel
8) Trate de inferir el significado de acuerdo al contexto:
Easier: fácil – más fácil
Words: trabajos – palabras
Design: designio – diseñar – diseño
Type: tipear – tipo
Like: gustar – como

a. Presente Simple, Afirmativo

Sujeto Verbo
I
You
We Infinitivo
They
He
She Infinitivo + “s”
It

b. Presente Simple, Interrogativo

Verbo Sujeto Verbo principal

auxiliar
I
Do You
We Infinitivo?
They

He
Does She
It

Al aparecer el auxiliar “does”

en la tercera persona del singular,

el verbo principal no tiene “s” o “es”

(como en la forma afirmativa).

24
 c. Presente Simple, Negativo

Sujeto Verbo Verbo

auxiliar Principal

I
You do not
We (don´t)
They Infinitivo
He
She does not
It (doesn´t)

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Presente Simple

Indicadores de frecuencia

De SIEMPRE a NUNCA Always

Usually/generally
Often
Sometimes
Rarely/occasionally/hardly ever/seldom
Never
Cada (8 horas) / todos (los años) Every 8 hours
Every day
Every week
Every month
Every year
X vez / veces por día / semana / etc. Once day
Twice week
Three times a month
Four times year
e. Usos más frecuentes del Presente Simple

• Definiciones

• Descripciones

• Leyes (de alguna ciencia)

• Actividades cotidianas

• Enunciados de verdades que se consideran indiscutibles

25
Actividad:

Complete los espacios en blanco con la forma correcta del SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE:

(1)…………………………………………..two kinds of programs: operating systems programs and

applications programs. Operating systems programs (2)…………………………………….the general
operation of the computer system. A systems programmer usually (3)…………………………….there
programs.

(1) there is / there are

(2) controls / control

(3) write / writes

How (4)……………………………………………you know which data base manager is best for you?

(4) do / does

An excellent new computer (5)……………………………………………cost a lot

(5) does not have to / does not has to

El presente Continuo: am/is/are + forma –ing

Observe con atención los siguientes avisos publicitarios:

WE´RE IMPROVING THE PRACTICE OF SOFTWARE ENEGINEERING.

Located at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, the Software

Engineering Institute provides leadership in advancing the state of the
practice of software engineering.

Motivated professionals with experience in software process, software risk

management, technology transition, program management education and
network security are essential to our mission.

To get information about our subscription program, visit our page.

HOW IS EPS “SHOOTING HOLES” IN THE COMPETITION?

Component for component, EPS has the highest performance component on the market for the money you have to spend. You´ll get top
quality, name-brand components from industry masters like Sony, Mitsubishi and Micropolis to name just a few.

26
Responda la siguiente pregunta: ¿Cómo es la estructura verbal de los siguientes titulares?

We´re Improving the Practice of Software Engineering.

How is EPS Shooting Soles in the Competition?

En el recuadro escriba sus conclusiones:

En los siguientes párrafos, subraye los casos de estructura similar que encuentre:

Párrafo A

Although minicomputers can be equipped with much larger primary memory sizes,
microcomputers are becoming more powerful and converging with minicomputer
technology.

The available range of microcomputer systems is evolving more rapidly than minicomputers.
Thousands of industrial robots are in use today, and the number is growing rapidly as this
industry improves the price and performance of its products by using the latest
microcomputers.

At the rate computer technology is growing now, we can expect more changes in this field.

Párrafo B

These are the components:

A counter, that selects the instructions, one at a time, from memory.

A register, that temporarily holds the instruction read from memory while it is being
executed.

A decoder, that takes a coded instruction and breaks it down into the individual commands
necessary to carry it out.

A clock, which produces marks at regular intervals.

Párrafo C

…Step 5. The program must be tested. To do so, the computer operator puts the deck of cards
in the card reader and presses the “read” button.

If the programmer is using a terminal instead of cards to enter the instructions, it is possible
with the aid of a few commands, to store a program in the memory of the computer and get a
printout.

27
Adjudique un título a cada párrafo.

 Steps in Problem Solving. Pfo:…………………………………….

 The Control Unit. Pfo:…………………………………………………
 Microcomputers. Pfo:…………………………………………………

Interprete el significado de los verbos que figuran en los tres párrafos:

Become: tornar Becoming:……………………………………

Converge: converger Converging:……………………………………..

Evolve: evolucionar Evolving:…………………………………………

Grow: crecer Growing: ……………………………………….

Párrafo A:

Responda las siguientes preguntas y dé los números de líneas de donde obtuvo la información:

 ¿Qué tipos de sistemas de computadora está evolucionando más rápidamente?

(líneas…………………………………)
 ¿Por qué la industria de los robots se está desarrollando tan rápidamente? (líneas
……………………………………..)

Marque correspondencias lógicas entre palabra y significado.

1. Available  Más grandes, mayores

2. Larger  Velocidad
3. Latest  Últimas
4. Rate  Disponibles
5. Improves  Mejora
Encuentre los sinónimos de las siguientes palabras;

Though:

Handy:

Work, action:

Area:

Párrafo B

28
Marque si los siguientes conceptos son falsos o verdaderos. Corrija los falsos.

 Un registro selecciona las instrucciones de la memoria.

 Un decodificador toma la instrucción codificada y la divide en comandos individuales
necesarios para ejecutarla.
 Un contador retiene temporalmente la instrucción leída de la memoria mientras se la
está ejecutando.

Complete la lista de palabras formadas por derivación:

Sufijo Palabra Significado

-er
-ing
-ed

Opte por un significado de acuerdo al contexto:

 One at a time (una en un tiempo / una a la vez)

 Temporarily (temporal / temporalmente / temporizar)
 Read (leer / leída / leyendo)
 Breaks it down (la rompe / la divide / abajo)
 Carry it out (llevarla afuera / ejecutarla / acarrearla afuera)

Identifique al referente de las siguientes palabras:

 that (línea 2) …………………………………………………….

 one (línea 2) …………………………………………………….
 that (línea 3) ……………………………………………….
 it (línea 3) …………………………………………………….
 that (línea 5) …………………………………………………….
 it (línea 5) …………………………………………………….
 it (línea 6) …………………………………………………….
 which (línea 7)…………………………………………………….

a. Presente Continuo, Forma afirmativa

I am
You are conducting
He developing
She is lecturing
It increasing
We doing
You are studying
They

b. Presente Continuo, Forma interrogativa

29
Am I conducting?
Are you developing?
he lecturing?
Is she increasing?
it doing?
Are you studying?

c. Presente Continuo, Forma negativa

I am not
You are not (aren´t) conducting
He developing
She is not (isn´t) lecturing
It increasing
We doing
You are not (aren´t) studying
They

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Presente Continuo

now – at present – these days – nowadays – currently

e. Usos más frecuentes del Presente Continuo

• Descripción de una actividad que se está llevando a cabo en el momento en que se la

nombra• Acción futura que se llevará a cabo de acuerdo con una agenda o plan.

El Presente Perfecto - have/has + participio

Lea el texto y adjudíquele el título que crea conveniente:

Título:……………………………………………………………………………………

In t late 1950s and early 1960s when electronic computers of the kind in use today were being
developed, they were very expensive to own and run. Moreover, their size and reliability were such that
a large number of support personnel were needed to keep the equipment operating.

This has all changed now that computer power has become portable, more compact and cheaper.

In only a very short period of time, computers have greatly changed the way in which many kinds of
work are performed.

30
Computers can remove many of the routine and boring tasks from our lives, thereby leaving us more
time for interesting creative work. It goes without saying that computers have created whole new
areas of work that did not exist before their development.

Actividades:

1. Título:
Disks and Disk Drives
Characteristics
Programs and Programming Languages
2. Extraiga del texto las palabras subrayadas e interprételas.
3. Responda las siguientes preguntas en español:
 When were electronic computers of the kind in use today developed?
________________________________________________________________
 What have computers changed in a short time
_______________________________________________________________
 How can computers help us in our daily life?
________________________________________________________________
 What have computers created?
________________________________________________________________

4. Referencia contextual: identifique el referente de las palabras resaltadas en gris:

They:…………………………………………………………
Their:…………………………………………………………
That:…………………………………………………………

5. Morfología: complete los espacios en blanco con las palabras adecuadas: reliably – rely
on – reliable – reliability
 Computers are ………………………………………………..machines.
 If you don´t know the meaning of a computer term, you cannot always
……………………………………….an all-purpose dictionary for the answer.
 Computers can do mathematical operations quickly and …………………………..

Ver recuadro sobre verbos regulares e irregulares

31
 a. Presente Perfecto, Forma afirmativa

Sujeto Auxiliar Verbo principal

(participio)
I
We searched
You have made
They seen
He collected
She has etc.
It

b. Presente Perfecto, Forma Interrogativa

Auxiliar Sujeto Verbo principal

(participio)
I
Have you searched?
we made?
they seen?
he collected?
Has she etc.
it

c. Presente Perfecto, Forma Negativa

Sujeto Auxiliar Verbo principal

(participio)
I
We searched
You have not (haven´t) made
They seen
He collected
She has not (hasn´t) etc.
It

d. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Presente Perfecto

already – yet – just – always – never – since – for

e. Usos más frecuentes del Presente Perfecto

i) Para indicar que una acción ocurrió antes de ahora. Lo importante no es cuándo ocurrió sino
que haya ocurrido, por sus implicancias en el presente. Generalmente se traduce al español
por un tiempo pasado.

32
Controlled trials have proved that … = Los estudios comprobaron
que…

ii) Para indicar una acción que se ha desarrollado durante un período que llega hasta el
presente.

We have been members of the Association for ten years = Hace diez
años que somos socios de la Asociación.

El Pasado Simple del verbo “to be”

Presente Pasado
Am Was
Is
Are Were

Al igual que en el presente, se agrega “not” para formar el negativo y se invierte el orden para
formar la pregunta:

sujeto + was/were + not

was/were + sujeto

El Pasado Simple de los demás verbos

Los verbos se dividen en regulares o irregulares, de acuerdo a la manera en que forman el

pasado (afirmativo) y el participio.

Los verbos regulares agregan “ed” o solamente “d” al infinitivo. En algunos infinitivos
terminados en “y”, la “y” cambia por “i”.

Los verbos irregulares, como su nombre lo indica, no siguen ninguna regla para formar el
pasado o el participio.

El verbo “have” (tener), en pasado, es “had”

33
 a. Pasado Simple, Afirmativo

Sujeto Verbo
I
You went…
He saw…
She skied…
It wrote…
We had…
You Etc…
They

b. Pasado Simple Interrogativo

Verbo auxiliar Sujeto Verbo principal

Did I
You
He go….?
She see…?
It ski….?
We write…?
They have…?
etc…?

c. Pasado Simple, Negativo

Sujeto Verbo auxiliar Verbo principal

I
You go
He did not (didn´t) see
She ski
It write
We have
They etc…

Actividades:

A. Lea el siguiente texto y ordene los párrafos de acuerdo a secuencias lógicas. (N° 1 está
especificado)
B. Fundamente ese orden
C. Elija el título adecuado al texto. (Preste atención a las palabras subrayadas).

Título:………………………………………………………………………………………

34
The reason for this extra speed was the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Second
generation computers were smaller, faster and more dependable than first-generation
computers.

This was due to “microminiaturization”, which meant that the circuits were much smaller than
before; as many as 1000 tiny circuits fit into a single chip.

The third-generation computers appeared on the market in 1965. These computers could do a
million calculations a second, which is 1000 times as many as first-generation computers.
Unlike second-generation computers, these were controlled by tiny integrated circuits and
were consequently smaller and more dependable.

Fourt-generation computer arrived and the integrated circuits were greatly reduced in size.

The first generation of computers, which used vacuum tubes came out in 1950. UNIVAC I is an
example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. In
1960 there was a development which revolutionized the computer field: the second
generation of computers; these could perform work ten times faster than their predecessors.

Títulos:

 Cards and Card Readers

 Types of Memory
 History of Computers
 The Central Processing Unit

En el texto que usted acaba de ordenar predomina el tiempo:

Presente: ………….. Pasado:………………Futuro:…………………

Las palabras subrayadas son:

Verbos:……………Sustantivos:……………..Artículos:………………..

Podemos ordenar los verbos subrayados en grupos. Remítase al texto y escriba el significado
de ellos de acuerdo al contexto.

 was  was  came out

 meant  were  could perform
 were  were  there was
 fit  arrived  revolutionized
 appeared  were  could perform
 could  used

35
Tengamos en cuenta que las palabras subrayadas son verbos que están en SIMPLE PAST TENSE
y corresponden a las formas del pasado en español: Pretérito imperfecto y Pretérito indefinido.

Los tiempos futuros

Futuro simple - will + infinitivo

Ejemplos

 We´ll put the latest personal computers right in the palm of your
hand
 Look no further! We´ll get you low prices and fast service!
 How will this new technology affect our lives?
 You won´t

a. Adverbios (modificadores de verbos) que suelen acompañar al Futuro

tomorrow – next week – next month – next year

INFLEXIÓN “ING”

Adjudique un título al siguiente párrafo:

…………………………………………………………………….

With word processing, you expect to become more efficient. But instead
of producing letters and reports effortlessly, your word processing
program frustrates you with its complicated manuals and ponderous
operating procedures.

Actividades

1. Después de haber reconocido las palabras terminadas en “ing”, haga una lista
con ellas e interprételas de acuerdo al contexto.
2. ¿Cree que la palabra “of” que antecede a “producing” le atribuye algún
significado diferente del que normalmente tiene el sufijo “ing”.

36
Por lo tanto vemos que las palabras terminadas en ING se pueden interpretar de modo
diferente de acuerdo a cada texto.

Tiempos Después de Como Como By + ing para indicar Como oración

continuos preposición sustantivo adjetivo (pre- método o técnica abreviada
(..ando / (..ar / ..er / modificador)
…endo) ..ir)
They were This is for Processing The By processing the data, …with
processing processing the data is processing you can get the results computers
the data. the data. hard work. period is long. needed. processing data
The company They are Manufacturing The By manufacturing new The companies
is interested in this depends manufacturing products, we can make manufacturing
manufacturing manufacturing on the process more money. new products…
new products. new products. conditions
set.

Actividades:

Analizar las siguientes oraciones que contienen una o más palabras con la inflexión
“ing”. Identificar el uso de cada una de ellas de acuerdo al cuadro anterior.

 The virus arrives as an .EXE file with varying filenames.

 This makes it difficult to warn the victim that their machine is infecting others as

the message will be returned to sender.

 Most machines today have enough processing power and memory to…..

 You can find information on the Internet by using a search engine.

 You don´t need to learn how to program in HTML before designing webpages.

 You can read it by simple double-clicking on it.

 Spam fills up your storage space and is time consuming.

 What purpose does the Internet address have apart from identifying a node?

 For example, to find information about Russian landings on the moon, type

“moon landings Russian”.

 GPS has many uses apart from military uses. GPS can be used for orienting

hikers. GPS can be used for aiding the navigation of ships. GPS can be used

for tracking trucks and buses. GPS can be used for locating stolen cars.

 The monitor display screen is flickering.

37
 VERBOS MODALES

CARACTERÍSTICAS:

 Acompañan a un verbo (infinitivo)

 No se conjugan en todos los tiempos
 Son irregulares porque no aceptan todas las inflexiones
 Expresan: capacidad / posibilidad / permiso / obligación / consej

Ellos son:

Verbo modal Idea que expresa

Can Posibilidad
Be able to Habilidad
Could Capacidad
May Past tense
Might

Must Obligación
Should Consejo
Ought to
Have to

En la oración:

Afirmativo S + modal + inf. He can work

Negativo S + modal + not + inf. He can´t work / he cannot
work
Interrogativo Modal + S + inf. Can he work?

Lea los siguientes párrafos y subraye los verbos modales

A. THE COMPUTER
A computer can solve a series of problems; it can find the solution to a
problem in a fraction of the time it takes a human being to do the job.
A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it has no
originality; it works according to the instructions given to it and cannot
exercise any value judgment. A computer cannot do anything unless a
person tells it what to do and gives it the appropriate information. A
computer can carry out vast number of arithmetic-logical operations
almost instantaneously.
A computer has no intuition. A person may find the answer to a problem
without working out many of the details, but a computer can only proceed
as it has been programmed to.

38
 B. HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The first generation of computers came out in 1950. They could perform
thousands of calculations per second. In 1960 the second generation of
computers could perform work ten times faster thatn their predecessors.
The third generation computers appeared in 1965; they could do a million
calculations a second, which is 1000 times as many as first-generation
computers. Then came 4th, 5th generation computers, and so on.
At the rate computer technology is growing, today´s computers might be
obsolete by 2020.
C. CAREERS
The computer operator should be a reliable person because the job
involves responsibility for very expensive machines; he should be
mentally alert to cope with a multiprogramming environment and be able
to cope with emergency situations, if and when they arise. They should
have interest in programming, and should know enough about it to be
able to interpret the programmer´s instructions.

VOZ PASIVA

Comparación: Voz activa y Voz pasiva

Voz pasiva Voz activa

Programming are used by engineers… Engineers use Programming
languages languages.
Many cars are built by computers. Computers build many cars.

La voz pasiva en los demás tiempos

Tiempo “to be” Participio pasado

Present continuous Is being done
Are being seen
Present perfect Have been produced
Has been known
Past simple Was found
Were written
Past continuous Was being read
Were being elaborated
Past perfect Had been made
Future Will be investigated

39
 Voz pasiva con verbos modales

Verbo modal “to be” Pasado participio

Must done
Should be seen
May produced
Might known
Could found
Ought to etc

En verbos en voz activa: el ejecutor es más importante

En verbos en voz pasiva: la acción es más importante o no se conoce el ejecutor

La voz pasiva le da un carácter objetivo e impersonal al texto, por la que es usada con
mucha frecuencia en textos técnicos y científicos.

Las formas pasivas son fácilmente reconocidas pues llevan alguna forma del verbo
“be” seguido por un participio pasado.

Los participios pasados pueden ser regulares (terminados en “ed) o irregulares

(cambios en el verbo base).

Debemos tener en cuenta que no siempre es conveniente interpretar a la voz pasiva

con el equivalente en español a la terminación “ado”, “ido”.

Por ejemplo:

To use: usar

Used: usado

Are used: se usan

Los participios irregulares se reconocen gradualmente con el uso.

40
Ejemplos de voz pasiva

En presente simple:

Printer basics

INTRODUCTION

Printers have come a long way from the noisy daisy-wheel and dot-
matrix printers of the 1980s. Today you can print any document with
crisp, realistic colors and sharp text in essentially any font you can
imagine. Whether you want to print photos, family projects or
documents on the go, there is a specially designed printer for the job.
Here is a brief introduction to the different types of printers available.

INKJET

The most common type of printer found in homes is the inkjet printer.
This printer works by spraying ionized ink onto the paper with
magnetized plates directing the ink to the desired shape. Inkjet
printers are capable of producing high quality text and images in
black and white or color. Approaching the quality that is produced by
more costly later printers.

LASER

Laser printers provide the highest quality text and images for personal
computers today. They operate by using a laser beam to produce any
electrically charged image on a drum, which is then rolled through a
reservoir of toner. The toner is picked up by the electrically charged
portions of the drum, and transferred to the paper through a
combination of heat and pressure.

PORTABLE AND WIRELESS

A portable printer is the perfect companion for your notebook. It´s a

compact mobile inkjet printer that provides flexibility and
dependability anywhere you go. Portable printers are compact
enough to fit in a briefcase. They weigh very little and run on battery
power.

Infrared-compatible (wireless) printers allow you to print from your

handheld device, laptop computer or digital camera. The wireless
short-range radio technology that allows this to happen is called
Bluetooth.

ALL-IN-ONE

The last type of printer to be mentioned here is the multifunction or all-

in-one printer. Many homes prefer the space-saving convenience of an
all-in-one device which combines the functions of printer, scanner
and copier into one machine.

41
Con verbos modales:

Lea el siguiente párrafo y subraye los casos de voz pasiva.

Computer Capabilities and Limitations

Even the most sophisticate computer must be told what to

do. Until the capabilities and limitations of a computer
are recognized, its usefulness cannot be understood.

In the first place, it should be recognized that computers

are capable of doing repetitive operations.

Secondly, computers can process information at extremely

rapid rates.

Thirdly, computers may be programmed to calculate answers

to whatever level of accuracy is specified by the
programmer.

In the fourth place, “general purpose computers” can be

programmed to solve various types of problems because of
their flexibility.

Actividades

1. Confeccione una lista de los casos de voz pasiva con “modales” e interprete
cada caso.
2. Interprete las siguientes frases sustantivas.
 even the most sophisticated computer:…………………………………
 its usefulness: …………………………………………………………….
 extremely rapid rates:…………………………………………………….
 level of accuracy:………………………………………………………….
 general purpose computer:……………………………………………….
 because of their flexibility:…………………………………………………
3. Identifique el referente de las siguientes palabras.
 Its:……………………………………
 Their:……………………………………..

42
En pasado simple:

Lea el siguiente texto y subraye los casos de voz pasiva. Interprételos. Adjudique un
título al texto.

The computer that appeared in 1946 was known as

ENIAC. It was designed by Eckert and Mauchly at the
University of Pennsylvania. ENIAC was huge,
unreliable and slow. However, it was many times
faster than any other calculator available at that
time. Work that used to take weeks could now be done
in a single day – as long as the computer did not go
wrong.

En presente perfecto y pasado simple:

…………………………………………

The memory of the first computers was made up of a kind of

grid of fine vertical and horizontal wires. At each
intersection where the wires crossed, there was a small
ferrite ring called a core (hence the name “core memory”)
which was capable of being either magnetized or
demagnetized. Every intersection had its unique address;
consequently, when an electrical current was passed through
the wires, the magnetized as well as the unmagnetized cores
were identified by their respective addresses. Each core
represented a binary digit of either 0 or 2, depending on
its state. Early computers had a capacity of around 80,000
bits; whereas now, it is not surprising to hear a about
computers with a memory capacity of millions of bits. This
has been made possible by the advent of transistors and by
the advances in the manufacture of miniaturized circuitry.
As a result, mainframes have been reduced in both size and
cost.

43
Actividades:

a) Extraiga las frases verbales subrayadas e interprételas.

b) Adjudique un título al párrafo.
c) Haga preguntas en español de acuerdo a las siguientes respuestas:

 …………………………………………………………………….
The memory of hte first computers was made up of a kind of grid of fine
vertical and horizontal wires.
 ……………………………………………………………………
Yes, every intersection had its unique address.
 ……………………………………………………………………
Nowadays computers have a memory capacity of millions of bits.

d) Subraye el significado adecuado de las siguientes frases y palabras:

Made up: hecha arriba – conformada
Core: corazón – núcleo
As well as: tan bueno como – como así también – tan bien como
Its state: el estado – sus estados – su estado
Up to the mid 1970s: pasando la mitad de la década del 70 – hasta mediados
de la década del 70

La Comparación

El adjetivo:

Las palabras que describen a las personas o cosas se denominan adjetivos. Estos nos
brindan información sobre:

 cualidad
 tamaño
 edad
 temperatura
 forma
 color
 origen
 cantidad
 medición (volumen, longitud,
peso)

44
 ¡IMPORTANTE! USO DEL DICCIONARIO: Los adjetivos modificados (poorer / higher) no
figuran como tales en el diccionario. Por lo tanto debe buscarse la palabra base (positiva
o absoluta: “poor” / “high”)

Comparación de dos elementos: (más / menos … que)

-er (than)

more … (than)

less … (than)

Comparación de un elemento con todos los demás de su clase: (el más…)

the –est

the most …

the least …

Adjetivo / Adverbio Comparación entre dos Comparación de un

old – young – tall
short –large – big
small – fast –
hard - soft – etc
easy – early – heavy
elementos
older – younger – taller
shorter – larger – bigger
smaller – faster –
harder - softer
easier – earlier – heavier
elemento con el resto
oldest – youngest – tallest
shortest – largest – biggest
smallest – fastest – hardest -
softest
easiest – earliest – heaviest

difficult more difficult most difficult

expensive – etc. more expensive most expensive

Adjetivos y adverbios irregulares

Bad-badly Worse Worst

Far Farther - Further Farthest -furthest
Good - Well Better Best
Little Less Least
Much - Many More Most

45
Algunos ejemplos de comparativos y superlativos

 User Friendly Controls. 20% faster. 9% lower cost.

 Perhaps the highest quality printer.
 Can you name the world´s third largest supplier of personal computers?
 Our new version is graphically better.

46
 RELACIÓN DE IDEAS

Conectores

Los conectores son nexos o enlaces gramaticales cuya función es explicitar las
relaciones semánticas que existen entre dos o más enunciados o bien entre elementos
que componen un mismo enunciado. Es necesario destacar que el conector no
establece la relación (la que existiría a pesar de que el conector no estuviera), sino que
la explicita.

Ejemplo:

Observa atentamente los enunciados A y B:

• A: Carla salió de su casa con tiempo de sobra para llegar a
clases a la hora.
• B: Llovía a cántaros y llegó atrasada.

A pesar de que los enunciados A y B se nos presentan por separado y sin conectores
entre ellos, somos capaces de inferir que la relación entre ambos es de oposición, pues
lo esperable cuando una persona sale con tiempo suficiente para trasladarse, es que
llegue a tiempo a su destino, por lo tanto, el que Carla haya llegado atrasada implica
algo opuesto a lo esperado.

Ahora bien si tomamos los enunciado A y B e insertamos entre ellos un conector que
dé cuenta de lo que acabamos de decir, lo que estaremos haciendo es explicitar esta
relación de
oposición semántica ya existente.

Observa atentamente:

Carla salió de su casa con tiempo de sobra para llegar a clases a la hora pero, como
llovía a cántaros, llegó atrasada.

¿Qué otros conectores pudieron aparecer en el lugar de pero?

Se pudieron emplear conectores como sin embargo y no obstante, entre otros; esto se
debe a que cumplen la misma función: explicitar una relación de oposición entre el
sentido de los enunciados.

Tipos de relaciones semánticas más importantes

Los conectores pueden explicitar diversos tipos de relaciones entre los enunciados o
entre partes de un enunciado. Las más frecuentes e importantes son los siguientes:

47
Relación de oposición (ejemplo anterior)

Relación causal
Relación de causa y consecuencia en la que el conector introduce la causa. Cumplen la
función de conectores causales: porque, ya que, puesto que, debido a, a causa de que,
como, pues, entre otros.

Ejemplo:
“Llevaré paraguas porque está lloviendo”

Relación consecutiva
Relación de causa y consecuencia en la que el conector introduce la consecuencia.
Puede expresarse por medio de conectores como: por lo tanto, por ende, por ello, en
consecuencia, por eso, por lo que, por consiguiente, con que, entre otros.
Ejemplo:
"Estudio muchas horas al día por eso obtengo buenas notas"

Relación adversativa excluyente

Establece que uno de los enunciados excluye al otro. Funcionan como nexos
adversativos excluyentes las conjunciones sino, sino que y los adverbios sólo (solo),
menos y los participios salvo y excepto, entre otros.

Ejemplo:
“No es mi notebook sino la de mi compañero de cuarto”

Relación concesiva
En ella uno de los enunciados obstaculiza el alcance o desarrollo del otro, sin llegar a
impedirlo. Pueden explicitar este tipo de relación conectores como: no obstante, a
pesar de que, si bien, aunque, entre otros.

Ejemplo:
“Mañana lloverá mucho, a pesar de ello, iré a la facultad”

Relación condicional
En ella el enunciado introducido por el conector es la condición que debe cumplirse
para que lo expresado en el otro enunciado se realice. Funcionan como conectores
condicionales: si, siempre que, a no ser que, con tal que, salvo que, entre otros.

Ejemplos:
“Si quieres que te acompañe, pídemelo ahora”

Relación de finalidad

48
En este tipo de relación el enunciado introducido por el conector es el objetivo,
finalidad o motivación de lo expresado en el otro enunciado. Pueden explicitarse con
conectores como: para, a fin de que, con el objeto de, con el propósito de, entre otros.

Ejemplo:
“Estoy tomando clases para aprender aprobar el examen final”

Relación comparativa
Entre los enunciados se establece una comparación y el conector explicita el carácter
de la misma.
Igualdad: tan(to) como, tal cual, igual que, entre otros.
Inferioridad: Menor que, peor que, menos que, entre otros.
Superioridad: Mayor que, mejor que, más que, entre otros.

Ejemplos:
Igualdad: Jaime es tan estudioso como Patricio.
Inferioridad: Jaime es menos estudioso que Patricio.
Superioridad: Jaime es más estudioso que Patricio.

Relación copulativa
En ella los enunciados se adicionan positiva o negativamente unos a otros. Pueden
funcionar como conectores copulativos: y, ni, que, también, tampoco, además, entre
otros.

Ejemplo:
“Aprobé Inglés y Álgebra” (adicionadas
positivamente)
“No aprobé Inglés ni Álgebra” (adicionadas
negativamente)

Relación disyuntiva
En ella el conector explicita que los enunciados constituyen opciones o alternativas:
- Que puede implicar que se deba optar por una de ellas.
Ejemplo:
“¿Querés venir vos a casa o que vaya yo a la tuya?”
- Que existe más de una manera para referirse a una misma realidad:
Ejemplo:
“El lenguaje cotidiano o de uso diario es rico en modismos
y expresiones abreviadas”.

Relación continuativa
Puede subdividirse en:
a) Continuativas: Confirman o intensifican ideas, emplean conectores como: en
efecto, efectivamente, realmente, indudablemente, justamente, entre otros.

49
Ejemplo:
“Dijo que vendría temprano y en efecto lo hizo”

b) Explicativas: Indican que se explicará o reformulará lo ya dicho. Emplean

conectores como: es decir, esto es, vale decir, a saber, entre otros.

Ejemplo:
“Estas palabras son sinónimas, es decir, significan lo mismo”

c) Ejemplificativas: Indican que se dará ejemplos específicos de lo mencionado.

Cumplen esta función conectores como: por ejemplo, tales como, entre otros.

Ejemplo:
“Existen novelas que por su alcance y trascendencia se consideran clásicos de la
literatura universal, como por ejemplo: Don Quijote de la Mancha y Romeo y Julieta.”

Relación temporal
Señala el orden en que ocurren hechos o acciones dentro de una secuencia temporal.
Está explicitada principalmente por adverbios de tiempo y puede implicar que los
sucesos ocurren antes, después o simultáneamente.

Antes: Primero, En primer lugar, etc.

Simultáneamente: Mientras, cuando, paralelamente, etc.
Después: Luego, posteriormente, etc.

Ejemplo:
“Saldré antes de que anochezca”

Relación temporal After

Aftewards
Before
Then
While
Meanwhile
In the meantime
At the same time
When
At this point
At
At last
Earliest
Later

50
Relación copulativa And
(adición positiva y As well as
negativa) Both…and….
Also
Apart from this
In addition
Besides
Moreover
Furthermore
Even
Neither…nor
Relación disyuntiva Or
(alt ernativa) Either…or.
Whether… or…
Instead (of)
Relación comparativa As compared to
In comparison with
Like
In contrast
In the same way

Relación de oposición Whereas

(contraste) But
However
While
Nevertheless
Relación continuativa For example
(ejemplificación) E.g.
i.e.
namely
such as
Relación causal Since
/consecutiva For
So
For this reason
Therefore
Thus
Consequently
Because
Because of
As
As a result
Relación continuativa In other words
(explicativa/ That is to say
repetición) i.e.
Relación de finalidad So that
(propósito) So as to
To + infinitivo

51
 In order to
Relación concesiva After all
Anyway
Despite
In spite of
Relación condicional If
Unless

Actividad:

Indicar el tipo de relación que establecen los siguientes conectores y las dos ideas que conectan.

Managing complexity

The need for systems engineering arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects, in turn exponentially
increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore(1) the unreliability of the design. When speaking in this
context, complexity incorporates not only(2) engineering systems, but also the logical human organization of data. At
the same time, a system can become more complex due to(3) an increase in size as well as(4)with an increase in the
amount of data, variables, or the number of fields that are involved in the design. The International Space Station is an
example of such a system.

The development of smarter control algorithms, microprocessor design, and analysis of environmental systems also
come within the purview of systems engineering. Systems engineering encourages the use of tools and methods to(5)
better comprehend and manage complexity in systems.

Taking an interdisciplinary approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since(6) the behavior of and
interaction among system components is not always immediately well defined or understood.

Conector Tipo de relación Ideas conectadas

Idea 1:_____________________________________________________
Therefore
Idea 2:_____________________________________________________

Idea 1:_____________________________________________________
Not only…but also
Idea 2:_____________________________________________________

Idea 1:_____________________________________________________
Due to
Idea 2:_____________________________________________________

Idea 1:_____________________________________________________
As well as
Idea 2:_____________________________________________________

52
 Idea 1:_____________________________________________________
To
Idea 2:_____________________________________________________

Idea 1:_____________________________________________________
Since
Idea 2:_____________________________________________________

Analice el título. ¿Qué cree que significa?

Operating Systems: Hidden Software

Ahora lea el texto para controlar su respuesta y para encontrar las respuestas a las
siguientes preguntas:
1. What difference is there between applications software and operating systems?
2. Why is the supervisor program the most important operating system program?
3. What is the difference between resident and non-resident programs?
4. What are the main functions of an operating system?

When a brand new computer comes off the factory assembly line,
it can do nothing. The hardware needs software to make it work.
Are we talking about applications software such as word-
processing or spreadsheet software? Partly. But an applications
software package does not communicate directly with the
hardware. Between the applications software and the hardware is
a software interface – an operating system. An operating system is
a set of programs that lies between applications software and the
computer hardware.

The most important program in the operating system, the program

that manages the operating system, is the supervisor program,
most of which remains in memory and is thus referred to as
resident. The supervisor controls the entire operating system and
loads into memory other operating system programs (called non-
resident) from disk storage only as needed.

An operating system has three main functions: (1) manage the

computer´s resources, such as the central processing unit,
memory, disk drives, and printers, (2) establish a user interface,

53
and (3) execute and provide services for applications software.
Keep in mind, however, that much of the work of an operating
system is hidden from the user. In particular, the first listed
function, managing the computer´s resources, is taken care of
without the user being aware of the details.

Furthermore, all input and output operations, although invoked by

an applications program, are actually carried out by the operating
system.

Complete los espacios en blanco en este resumen del texto con los siguientes
conectores:

although in addition because such as but

therefore

The user is aware of the effects of different applications

programs………………………………operating systems are invisible to most users.
They lie between applications programs, word-processing, and the hardware.
The supervisor program is the most important. It remains in memory,
…………………… it is referred to as resident. Others are called non-
resident………………………………………….they are loaded into memory only when
needed. Operating systems manage the computer’s resources,
……………………………..the central processing unit. ……………………………………..,
they establish a user interface, and execute and provide services for
applications software. ………………………………..input and output operations are
invoked by applications programs, they are carried out by the operating
system.

54
Lista de verbos
irregulares

55
 INFINITIVO PASADO SIMPLE PARTICIPIO PASADO TRADUCCIÓN
Be/ am, are, is Was / Were Been Ser / Estar
Beat Beat Beaten Golpear
Become Became Become Llegar a Ser
Begin Began Begun Empezar
Bend Bent Bent Doblar
Bet Bet Bet Apostar
Bite Bit Bitten Morder
Bleed Bled Bled Sangrar
Blow Blew Blown Soplar
Break Broke Broken Romper
Bring Brought Brought Traer Llevar
Build Built Built Edificar
Burn Burnt /Burned Burnt / Burned Quemar
Burst Burst Burst Reventar
Buy Bought Bought Comprar
Catch Caught Caught Atrapar
Come Came Come Venir
Cost Cost Cost Costar
Cut Cut Cut Cortar
Choose Chose Chosen Elegir

56
Deal Dealt Dealt Tratar
Do (Does) Did Done Hacer
Draw Drew Drawn Dibujar
Dream Dreamt / Dreamed Dreamt / Dreamed Soñar
Drink Drank Drunk Beber
Drive Drove Driven Conducir
Eat Ate Eaten Comer
Fall Fell Fallen Caer
Feed Fed Fed Alimentar
Feel Felt Felt Sentir
Fight Fought Fought Luchar
Find Found Found Encontrar
Fly Flew Flown Volar
Forbid Forbade Forbidden Prohibir
Forget Forgot Forgotten Olvidar
Forgive Forgave Forgiven Perdonar
Freeze Froze Frozen Helar
Get Got Got / Gotten Obtener
Give Gave Given Dar
Go (Goes) Went Gone Ir
Grow Grew Grown Crecer
Hang Hung Hung Colgar
Have Had Had Haber o Tener
Hear Heard Heard Oir
Hide Hid Hidden Ocultar
Hit Hit Hit Golpear
Hold Held Held Agarrar Celebrar
Hurt Hurt Hurt Herir
Keep Kept Kept Conservar
Know Knew Known Saber Conocer
Lay Laid Laid Poner
Lead Led Led Conducir
Leap Leapt Leapt Brincar
Learn Learnt / Learned Learnt / Learned Aprender

57
Leave Left Left Dejar
Lend Lent Lent Prestar
Let Let Let Permitir
Light Lit Lit Encender
Lose Lost Lost Perder
Make Made Made Hacer
Mean Meant Meant Significar
Meet Met Met Encontrar
Pay Paid Paid Pagar
Put Put Put Poner
Read Read Read Leer
Ring Rang Rung Llamar
Rise Rose Risen Levantarse
Run Ran Run Correr
Say Said Said Decir
See Saw Seen Ver
Seek Sought Sought Buscar
Sell Sold Sold Vender
Send Sent Sent Enviar
Set Set Set Poner(se)
Shoot Shot Shot Disparar
Show Showed Shown Mostrar
Shut Shut Shut Cerrar
Sing Sang Sung Cantar
Sink Sank Sunk Hundir
Sit Sat Sat Sentarse
Sleep Slept Slept Dormir
Smell Smelt Smelt Oler
Sow Sowed Sowed / Sown Sembrar
Speak Spoke Spoken Hablar
Speed Sped Sped Acelerar
Spell Spelt Spelt Deletrear
Spend Spent Spent Gastar
Spill Spilt / Spilled Spilt / Spilled Derramar

58
Split Split Split Partir /
Spoil Spoilt / Spoiled Spoilt / Spoiled Estropear
Spread Spread Spread Extender
Stand Stood Stood Estar en pie
Steal Stole Stolen Robar
Stick Stuck Stuck Pegar
Sting Stung Stung Picar
Swell Swelled Swollen Hinchar
Swim Swam Swum Nadar
Take Took Taken Tomar
Teach Taught Taught Enseñar
Tell Told Told Decir
Think Thought Thought Pensar
Throw Threw Thrown Arrojar Tirar
Understand Understood Understood Entender
Undergo Underwent Undergone Sufrir
Wake Woke Woken Despertarse
Wear Wore Worn Llevar puesto
Win Won Won Ganar
Write Wrote Written Escribir

59
Ejercicios lectura
comprensiva

60
 ANDROID

Android is a mobile operating system (OS) based on the Linux kernel and currently developed
by Google. With a user interface based on direct manipulation, Android is designed primarily
for touchscreen mobile devices such as smartphones and tablet computers, with specialized
user interfaces for televisions (Android TV), cars (Android Auto), and wrist watches (Android
Wear). The OS uses touch inputs that loosely correspond to real-world actions, like swiping,
tapping, pinching, and reverse pinching to manipulate on-screen objects, and a virtual
keyboard. Despite being primarily designed for touchscreen input, it has also been used in
game consoles, digital cameras, regular PCs, and other electronics. As of 2015, Android has the
largest installed base of all operating systems.

As of July 2013, the Google Play store has had over one million Android applications ("apps")
published, and over 50 billion applications downloaded. An April–May 2013 survey of mobile
application developers found that 71% of them create applications for Android; another 2015
survey, found that 40% of full-time professional developers see Android as the "priority" target
platform, which is more than iOS (37%) or other platforms. At Google I/O 2014, the company
revealed that there were over one billion active monthly Android users, up from 538 million in
June 2013.

Android's source code is released by Google under open source licenses, although most
Android devices ultimately ship with a combination of open source and proprietary software,
including proprietary software developed and licensed by Google. Initially developed by
Android, Inc., which Google bought in 2005, Android was unveiled in 2007, along with the
founding of the Open Handset Alliance – a consortium of hardware, software, and
telecommunication companies devoted to advancing open standards for mobile devices.

Android is popular with technology companies which require a ready-made, low-cost and
customizable operating system for high-tech devices. Android's open nature has encouraged a
large community of developers and enthusiasts to use the open-source code as a foundation for
community-driven projects, which add new features for advanced users or bring Android to
devices which were officially released running other operating systems. The operating system's
success has made it a target for patent litigation as part of the so-called "smartphone wars"
between technology companies.

61
Responder las siguientes preguntas

a) ¿Cuáles son los principales usos de Android?

b) ¿Qué se descubrió con la encuesta llevada a cabo en 2013?

c) ¿Qué requisitos cumple Android que hace que lo elijan las empresas de tecnología?

¿A qué remiten los siguientes términos?

1. It
2. Them
3. Which
4. Which

Conectores. Completar el siguiente cuadro

Conector traducción Tipo de relación Idea 1 Idea 2

Such as

Like

Despite

Although

Traducir los siguientes fragmentos.

 Touchscreen mobile devices

 Android´s source code
 Community-driven projects

62
A signal as referred to in communication systems, signal processing, and electrical engineering "is a function that conveys
information about the behavior or attributes of some phenomenon". In the physical world, any quantity exhibiting variation in time or
variation in space (such as an image) is potentially a signal that might provide information on the status of a physical system, or
convey a message between observers, among other possibilities. The IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing states that the term
"signal" includes audio, video, speech, image, communication, geophysical, sonar, radar, medical and musical signals.

Other examples of signals are the output of a thermocouple, which conveys temperature information, and the output of a pH meter
which conveys acidity information. Typically, signals are often provided by a sensor, and often the original form of a signal is
converted to another form of energy using a transducer. For example, a microphone converts an acoustic signal to a voltage
waveform, and a speaker does the reverse.

The formal study of the information content of signals is the field of information theory. The information in a signal is usually
accompanied by noise. The term noise usually means an undesirable random disturbance, but is often extended to include unwanted
signals conflicting with the desired signal (such as crosstalk). The prevention of noise is covered in part under the heading of signal
integrity. The separation of desired signals from a background is the field of signal recovery, one branch of which is estimation
theory, a probabilistic approach to suppressing random disturbances.

Engineering disciplines such as electrical engineering have led the way in the design, study, and implementation of systems involving
transmission, storage, and manipulation of information. In the latter half of the 20th century, electrical engineering itself separated
into several disciplines, specialising in the design and analysis of systems that manipulate physical signals; electronic engineering
and computer engineering as examples; while design engineering developed to deal with functional design of man–machine
interfaces.

Two main types of signals encountered in practice are analog and digital.

Digital signals often arise via sampling of analog signals, for example, a continually fluctuating voltage on a line that can be digitized
by an analog-to-digital converter circuit, wherein the circuit will read the voltage level on the line, say, every 50 microseconds and
employing a fixed number of bits. The resulting stream of numbers is stored as digital data on a discrete-time and quantized-
amplitude signal. Computers and other digital devices are restricted to discrete time.

Responder las siguientes preguntas

a) ¿A qué se dedica el campo de teoría de la información?

b) ¿Cómo se define “ruido”?

63
Completar el siguiente cuadro

Conector traducción Tipo de relación Idea 1 Idea 2

Such as

For example

But

¿A qué remiten los siguientes términos?

 That
 Which
 which

Traducir los siguientes fragmentos.

a) Any quantity exhibiting variation in time or variation in space

b) Unwanted signals conflicting with the desired signal

c) In the latter half of the 20th century

d) Man-machine interfaces

e) Digital signals often arise via sampling of analog signals

64
An HTTP cookie (also called web cookie, Internet cookie, browser cookie or simply cookie,
the latter which is not to be confused with the literal definition), is a small piece of data
sent from a website and stored in a user's web browser while the user is browsing that
website. Every time the user loads the website, the browser sends the cookie back to the
server to notify the website of the user's previous activity. Cookies were designed to be a
reliable mechanism for websites to remember stateful information (such as items in a
shopping cart) or to record the user's browsing activity.

Although when everything is working correctly, cookies cannot carry viruses, and cannot
install malware on the host computer, tracking cookies and especially third-party
tracking cookies are commonly used as ways to compile long-term records of individuals'
browsing histories—a potential privacy concern that prompted European and U.S. law
makers to take action in 2011. Cookies can also store passwords and form content a user
has previously entered, such as a credit card number or an address.

Other kinds of cookies perform essential functions in the modern web. Perhaps most
importantly, authentication cookies are the most common method used by web servers to
know whether users are logged in or not, and which account they are logged in with.
Without such a mechanism, the site would not know whether to send a page containing
sensitive information, or require users to authenticate themselves by logging in. The
security of an authentication cookie generally depends on the security of the issuing
website and the user's web browser, and on whether the cookie data is encrypted. Security
vulnerabilities may allow a cookie's data to be read by a hacker, used to gain access to
user data, or used to gain access (with the user's credentials) to the website to which the
cookie belongs (see cross-site scripting and cross-site request forgery for examples).

Session cookie: A session cookie exists only in temporary memory while the user navigates
the website. Web browsers normally delete session cookies when the user closes the
browser.

Persistent cookie: Instead of expiring when the web browser is closed as session cookies do,
persistent cookies expire at a specific date or after a specific length of time. This means
that, for the cookie's entire lifespan (which can be as long or as short as its creators want),
its information will be transmitted to the server every time the user visits the website that
it belongs to, or every time the user views a resource belonging to that website from
another website.

65
RESPONDER LAS SIGUIENTES PREGUNTAS EN ESPAÑOL

¿Qué ocurre cada vez que el usuario carga el sitio web?

¿Cuál era la preocupación de los legisladores en Europa y Estados Unidos?

¿Para qué se utilizan las cookies de autenticación?

REFERENCIA CONTEXTUAL. ¿A QUÉ REMITEN LOS SIGUIENTES TÉRMINOS?

 The latter
 They
 Themselves
 Which
 Its

CONECTORES. COMPLETAR EL SIGUIENTE CUADRO

Conector Traducción Tipo de relación Idea 1 Idea 2

que establece
While

Such as

Such as

Instead of

TRADUCIR LOS SIGUIENTES FRAGMENTOS

 the user´s browsing activity

 The most common method used by web servers…
 Its information will be transmitted

66
 THE ANATOMY OF A VIRUS

A biological virus is a very small, simple organism that infects living cells, known as the
host, by attaching itself to them and using them to reproduce itself. This often causes
harms to the host cells.

Similarly, a computer virus is a very small program, routine that infects a computer system
and uses its resources to reproduce itself. It often does this by patching the operating
system to enable it to detect program files, such as COM or EXE files. It then copies itself
into those files. This sometimes causes harm to the host computer system.

When the user runs an infected program, it is loaded into memory carrying the virus. The
virus uses a common programming technique to stay resident in memory. It can then use a
reproduction routine to infect other programs. This process continues until the computer is
switched off.

This virus may also contain a payload that remains dormant until a trigger event activates
it, such as the user pressing a particular key. The payload can have a variety of forms. It
might do something relatively harmless such as displaying a message on the monitor
screen, or it might do something more destructive such as deleting files on the hard disk.

When it infects a file, the virus replaces the first instruction in the host program with a
command that changes the normal execution sequence. This type of command is known as
a JUMP command and causes the virus instructions to be executed before the host
program. The virus then returns control to the host program which then continues with its
normal sequence of instructions and is executed in the normal way.

To be a virus, a program only needs to have a reproduction routine that enables it to infect
other programs. Viruses can, however, have four main parts. A misdirection routine that
enables it to hide itself; a reproduction routine that allows it to copy itself to other
programs; a trigger that causes the payload to be activated at a particular time or when a
particular event takes place; and a payload that may be a fairly harmless joke or may be
very destructive. A program that has a payload but does not have a reproduction routine is
known as a Trojan.

Ejercicios

1. Leer el texto y encontrar las respuestas a las siguientes preguntas. Las respuestas deben ser
en español, no en inglés

1) How are computer viruses like biological viruses?

2) What is the effect of a virus patching the operating system?
3) Why are some viruses designed to be loaded into memory?
4) What examples of payload does the writer of the text provide?
5) What kind of programs do viruses often attach to?
6) How does a Trojan differ from a virus?

67
2. Unir cada rutina de virus con su función:

Routine:

I. Misdirection
II. Reproduction
III. Trigger
IV. Payload

Function:

a) Does the damage

b) Attaches a copy of itself to another program
c) Hides the presence of the code
d) Decides when and how to activate the payload

3. Conectores. Completar el siguiente cuadro en español.

Conector Traducción Tipo de Idea 1 Idea 2

relación que
establece
Such as

Also

To

But

68
4. Referencia contextual. Encontrar los referentes a las siguientes palabras.

 Itself…………………………………………….
 Them…………………………………………….
 Its …………………………………………….
 It…………………………………………….
 Which …………………………………………….

5. ¿Qué función comunicativa predomina en las línea 1 a 3?

6. ¿Qué función comunicativa predomina en las últimas 7 líneas?

7. Traducir las siguientes frases:

-host computer system

-common programming techniques

-normal sequence of instructions

-harmless joke

-deleting files on the hard disk

69
 INTERNET

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that(1) use the standard Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of
electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information
resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web
(WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing and telephony.
The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States government in the 1960s to
build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks. This work, combined with efforts in the United
Kingdom and France, led to the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, in the United States. The
interconnection of regional academic networks in the 1980s marks the beginning of the transition to the modern
Internet. From the early 1990s, the network experienced sustained exponential growth as generations of
institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to it(2).

The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private
funding for other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking
technologies, and the merger of many networks. Though the Internet has been widely used by academia since the
1980s, the commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its(3)
popularization and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of December 2014, 37.9
percent of the world's human population have used the services of the Internet within the past year; over 100
times more people than were using it in 1995. Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s to
early 2000s and from the late 1990s to present in the developing world. In 1994 only 3% of American
classrooms had access to the Internet, while by 2002 that figure(4) was 92%.
Most traditional communications media, including telephony and television, are being reshaped or redefined by the
Internet, giving birth to new services such as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol television
(IPTV). Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into
blogging and web feeds. The entertainment industry, including music, film, and gaming, was initially the fastest
growing online segment. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant
messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for major
retailers and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply
chains across entire industries.

Ejercicios

70
1. Verdadero o Falso. Corregir las falsas.

The internet has completely dethroned traditional media.

a. True b. False

The internet has had an impact on commerce.

a. True b. False

The internet was first introduced in the 1990s.

a. True b. False

More than a quarter of the Earth'spopulation are internet users

a. True b. False

2. ¿Qué función comunicativa predomina en las primeras 6 líneas?

3. Referencia contextual. ¿A qué remiten las siguientes palabras?

1. That…………………………………………….
2. It…………………………………………….
3. Its…………………………………………….
4. That figure…………………………………………….

4. Responder las siguientes preguntas

-¿Qué tipos de redes involucra Internet?

-¿Qué fomentó el crecimiento de la red a principios de la década del 90?

-¿Qué uso de Internet se incrementó de forma significativa entre 1994 y 2002?

5. Conectores. Completar el siguiente cuadro en español.

71
 Conector Traducción Tipo de Idea 1 Idea 2
relación que
establece
Such as

As well as

Though

Such as

Both ….and

72
Machine code is a set of instructions executed directly by a computer's central processing
unit (CPU). Each instruction performs a very specific task, such as a load, a jump, or an ALU
operation on a unit of data in a CPU register or memory. Every program directly executed
by a CPU is made up of a series of such instructions.

Numerical machine code (i.e., not assembly code) may be regarded as the lowest-level
representation of a compiled or assembled computer program or as a primitive and
hardware-dependent programming language. While it is possible to write programs
directly in numerical machine code, it is tedious and error prone to manage individual bits
and calculate numerical addresses and constants manually.

Almost all practical programs today are written in higher-level languages or assembly
language and translated to executable machine code by utilities such as compilers,
assemblers and linkers. Programs in interpreted languages are not translated into machine
code although their interpreter (which may be seen as an executor or processor) typically
consists of directly executable machine code (generated from assembly or high level
language source code).

Every processor has its own machine code instruction set. Instructions are patterns of bits
that by physical design correspond to different commands to the machine. Thus, the
instruction set is specific to a class of processors using (much) the same architecture.
Successor or derivative processor designs often include all the instructions of a predecessor
and may add additional instructions. Occasionally, a successor design will discontinue or
alter the meaning of some instruction code (typically because it is needed for new
purposes), affecting code compatibility to some extent; even nearly completely
compatible processors may show slightly different behavior for some instructions, but this is
rarely a problem. Systems may also differ in other details, such as memory arrangement,
operating systems, or peripheral devices. Because a program normally relies on such
factors, different systems will typically not run the same machine code, even when the
same type of processor is used.

A machine code instruction set may have all instructions of the same length, or it may have
variable-length instructions. How the patterns are organized varies strongly with the
particular architecture and often also with the type of instruction. Most instructions have
one or more opcode fields which specifies the basic instruction type (such as arithmetic,
logical, jump, etc.) and the actual operation (such as add or compare) and other fields
that may give the type of the operand(s), the addressing mode(s), the addressing offset(s)
or index, or the actual value itself.

73
Responder a las siguientes preguntas en español.

1. ¿Cuál es el problema de gestionar bits individuales?

2. ¿Cómo se define instrucciones en el texto?

Completar el siguiente cuadro en español.

Conector Traducción Tipo de relación Idea 1 Idea 2

que establece

i.e.

Such as

Because

¿A qué remiten los siguientes términos?

 Which (línea 10): ______________________________________

 Its (línea 13): _____________________________________

 It (línea 22) : ________________________________________

Traducir los siguientes fragmentos.

 the lowest-level representation

 Almost all practical programs today are written in higher-level
 high level language source code

74
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the
instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and
input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The term has been used in the computer
industry at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term "CPU" refers to a processor, more
specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a
computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.

The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their
fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that
supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that fetches
instructions from memory and "executes" them by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU,
registers and other components.

Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit
(IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other
components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on
a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or
more CPUs called "cores"; in that context, single chips are sometimes referred to as "sockets". Array
processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit
considered central.

Responder a las siguientes preguntas en español.

A. ¿Qué significa que sean microprocesadores?

B. ¿Qué hace la unidad de control?
C. En la línea 6 se encuentra el conector “such as”. ¿Qué tipo de relación establece este
conector? ¿qué dos ideas está relacionando?
D. En la línea 7 hay un conector que indica un “contraste”, ¿cuál es ese conector?
E. ¿Qué dos ideas está relacionando el conector “also” que se encuentra en la línea 14?

¿A qué remiten los siguientes términos?

 Its (línea 5): ______________________________________

 Their (línea 7): _____________________________________

 Them (línea 11) : ________________________________________

75
 More Engineers Needed: Argentina confronts the challenge
At the end of March 2012, the Argentine Minister of Education announced the upcoming release of a
Strategic Plan to improve the training of engineers. Its(1) main goal is to graduate an average of 10,000 engineers
per year, instead of the current 6,000. Argentina produces an undergraduate engineer every 6,700 inhabitants. This
figure is low compared with countries like China (one in 2,000), Germany and France (one in 2,300) or Mexico and
Chile (one in 4,500). Of course, it is not merely a question of Argentina’s international ranking of engineering
graduates, but of two other issues that have to do with this low number. The first issue, directly related to
Argentina’s high economic growth since 2004, is the presence of an unmet labor demand for engineers. Executives
in the country’s leading technology companies underscore the lack of engineers, particularly in some specialties
such as electrical, electronics, civil, chemical, petroleum and mining engineering and the computer
sciences. Employers say that it can take up to three months to fill a position and that a strong competition exists to
attract the best graduates. Moreover, as a consequence of the lack of professionals in fields such as computing,
employers hire advanced students. One negative side-effect of this practice is an increased dropout rate during the
last two years of the undergraduate degree courses. The second(2) is connected to the correlation between a
trained science and engineering workforce and the economic growth of the country. This is particularly relevant in
the context of the knowledge society that strongly depends on technological innovations.
Given the importance in graduating more engineers in Argentina, it is key to define policies that can most
suitably achieve this objective. For that purpose, we must first clarify why only 9% of the total university graduates
in 2009 studied engineering and computer sciences despite the high demand for these professionals. This
percentage contrasts sharply with 61% of the college graduates in the social sciences and the human sciences.
One factor was highlighted by the poor math and science performance in the 2009 Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA). Out of a total of 65 countries, Argentina ranked 56 on the science test and
55 on the math test, falling below other Latin American countries like Chile, Uruguay and Mexico. Thus, high school
students have little chance to acquire the essential math and science skills to succeed in college. A second factor
that could influence the low graduation rate is the high opportunity costs for advanced engineering students. In
2009 the government launched a scholarship program to improve the number of students in priority courses. The
amount students receive, depending on the year of his or her(3) course of studies, totals approximately US$1,100
to US$ 2,800 per year. These amounts clearly do not cover the opportunity costs of not entering today’s highly
demanding job market. It would be relevant, then, to increase the amount of money devoted to each student.
A third factor is the scarcity of information about wages and employment opportunities in the different
professions. Argentina lacks labor observatories such as those established in other Latin American countries.

76
Answer the following questions. Your answers must be in Spanish
1. What was the objective of the Strategic Plan?

2. What is the consequence of the lack of professionals in certain fields?

3. What does PISA stand for?

Contextual reference. Find the referents for the following words.

 Its:………………………………………………………………
 The second:………………………………………………….
 His or her:…………………………………………………..

Connectors. Complete the chart.

Conector Traducción Tipo de relación Ideas que relaciona
1)

Like
2)

1)

But
2)

1)

Such as
2)

77
Traducir los siguientes fragmentos.

 …by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations…

 the arithmetic logic unit

 arithmetic and logic operations

Terminal intelligence

1 On the basis of whether or not a display terminal can perform certain functions on its
2 own, it is classified as “intelligent” or “dumb”. An intelligent terminal, or smart terminal
3 can do some processing on its own, such as perform some preliminary editing and
4 formatting of data being entered, without the help of the computer it is hooked up to.
5 Such terminals have a small microprocessor and a built-in- memory and can be
6 programmed. The degree of “intelligence” varies from a simple terminal with a few keys
7 that can be programmed to do certain jobs, to a complex terminal with its own operating
8 system and a great internal storage.
9 A word is in order about the difference between a microcomputer and a display terminal.
10 Like any other computer a microcomputer consists of a central processing unit, one or
11 more input devices, one or more output devices, and the cables necessary to hook all the
12 parts together. The fact that most microcomputers have a keyboard for input and a
13 display screen for output does not make microcomputers terminals, even if the keyboard
14 and display screen are built right into the same unit as the CPU. Only when a
15 microcomputer is linked in a telecommunication network to a microcomputer or
16 mainframe, does it function as an intelligent terminal.
17 There is no ambiguity about the definition of dumb terminals. These have no information-
18 processing capabilities, but they serve positively to channel data to a computer. Any
19 editing and formatting of data which must be done cannot be handled by the terminal, but
20 must be performed by the computer receiving the data, although the editing operations
21 appear on the display screen.

A) Leer y responder las siguientes preguntas. Dar número de línea.

1.- ¿Cuántos tipos de terminales se nombran ?

2.- ¿Qué parámetro se tiene en cuenta para la clasificación?

78
3.- ¿Cómo puede variar el grado de “inteligencia” en las computadoras?

4.- ¿Qué elementos tiene una terminal inteligente?

5.- ¿En qué líneas se describe a las microcomputadoras? Interpretar.

6.- ¿Cuándo podemos decir que una microcomputadora funciona como una terminal inteligente?

7.- ¿Para qué se usan “dumb terminals”?

B) En la línea 13 se encuentra el nexo “even if “. Indicar qué nos indica este nexo. Interpretar las ideas
que está uniendo.

C) Subrayar en el texto un nexo que nos indica “ejemplificación”. Interpretar los conceptos que une.

D) Interpretar en castellano desde la línea 17 hasta el final del párrafo.

79
 SHAREWARE

Shareware is a type of proprietary software which is provided (initially) free of charge to users, who are allowed and encouraged to
make and share copies of the program, which helps to distribute it. Shareware is often offered as a download from an Internet website
or as a compact disc included with a magazine.

There are many types of shareware, and while they may not require an initial payment, all are intended to generate revenue in one way
or another. Some limit use to personal non-commercial purposes only, with purchase of a license required for use in a business
enterprise. The software itself may be limited in functionality or be time-limited. Or it may remind the user that payment would be
appreciated.

The term shareware is used in contrast to open-source software, in which the source code is available for anyone to inspect and alter,
and freeware, which is software distributed at no cost to the user but without source code being made available. Note that two types
of shareware, donationware and freemiums, are also types of freeware.

Types of shareware

Adware: Adware, short for "advertising-supported software", is any software package which automatically renders advertisements in
order to generate revenue for its author. The advertisements may be in the user interface of the software or on a screen presented to
the user during the installation process. The functions may be designed to analyze which Internet sites the user visits and to present
advertising pertinent to the types of goods or services featured there. The term is sometimes used to refer to software that displays
unwanted advertisements.

On Microsoft Windows, shareware is often packaged with adware. During the install of the intended software, the user is presented
with a requirement to agree to the terms of click through licensing or similar licensing which governs the installation of the software.

Demoware: Demoware is a demonstration version of software. There are generally two types demoware: that which is crippled, and
that which has a trial period.

Crippleware: In software, crippleware means that "vital features of the program such as printing or the ability to save files are disabled
until the user purchases a registration key". This allows users to take a close look at the features of a program without being able to use
it to generate output. The distinction between freemium and crippleware is essentially that an unlicensed freemium program has useful
functionality, while crippleware demonstrates its potential but is not in itself useful.

Trialware: Trialware is software with a built-in time limit. The user can try out the fully featured program until the trial period is up, and
then most trialware reverts to a reduced-functionality (freemium, nagware, or crippleware) or non-functional mode, unless the user
pays the license fee and receives a registration code to unlock the program. Trialware has become the norm for online Software as a
Service (SaaS).

The rationale behind trialware is to give potential users the opportunity to try out the program to judge its usefulness before
purchasing a license. According to industry research firm Softletter, 66% of online companies surveyed had free-trial-to-paying-
customer conversion rates of 25% or less. SaaS providers employ a wide range of strategies to nurture leads, and convert them into
paid customers.

Donationware: Donationware is a licensing model that supplies fully operational unrestricted software to the user and requests an
optional donation be paid to the programmer or a third-party beneficiary (usually a non-profit). The amount of the donation may also
be stipulated by the author, or it may be left to the discretion of the user, based on individual perceptions of the software's value. Since
donationware comes fully operational (i.e. not crippleware) with payment optional, it is a type of freeware.

Nagware: Nagware is a type of shareware that persistently reminds (nags) the user to purchase a licence. It usually does this by popping
up a message when the user starts the program, or intermittently while the user is using the application. These messages can appear as
windows obscuring part of the screen, or as message boxes that can quickly be closed. Some nagware keeps the message up for a
certain time period, forcing the user to wait to continue to use the program. Unlicensed programs that support printing may
superimpose a watermark on the printed output, typically stating that the output was produced by an unlicensed copy.

80
 Glosario
Analog
Application
Application Service Provider
(ASP)
Attachment
Backup
Bandwidth
Batch processing
Bugs
Computer-aided design (CAD)
Cookie
Copy and paste
Copyright
Data
Database
Debugging
Desktop
Display
Domain
Double click
Download
Encryption
Engine
FAQ (Frequently Asked
Questions)
File sharing
Firewall
Flowchart
Freeware
Gateway
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Handheld
Homepage
Icon

81
 Inbox
Link
Mainframe
Network
Password
Po inter
Port
Printable
Printout
Processing
Protocol
RAM (Random Access memory)
Reboot
ROM (Read-only memory)
Search engine
Self-replicating
Server
Shareware
Source code
Spam
Tag
Tool
Troubleshooting
Universal Resource Locator
(URL)
Upload
Username
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