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machining?
Manufacturing processes can be considered as the techniques which
aggregate with a series of steps and/or procedures in converting a bulk
of raw material to an anticipated product.
Machining is aggregation of techniques which use tools to remove
away those region on a raw material not specified in a set of designed
engineering drawing, or shaping a bulk of material some profiles
according to the specifications of the drawings.
MBE 3119 Manufacturing
Technology
Machining
l
Turning
Reference
Chapters 21‐ 23 in the textbook:
Kalpaljian, Serope and Schmid, Steen, “Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology”, 5th edition, Prentice Hall, Pearson, ISBN 0‐13‐107639‐7
Commonly Available Machining Operations
(a) in LHS figure shows the operations to remove layers of
material from a circular rod and to cut‐off/make‐shoulder on the
rod. The rod is mounted into holding chuck in spindle of a lathe
and turned accordingly. (b) in LHS figure shows the use of a
narrow and long cutter to remove materials from a particular
region. The complete removing of materials from that region
results in separating the rod piece into two individual pieces.
(c) in LHS figure shows layer of a piece of slab to be removed by
a cutter mounted onto the horizontal spinning shaft in a
horizontal milling machine. The profile of cutter and its
mounting, and the relative movement of mounting shaft and
workpiece mean vertically straight finishing edge to be hardly
achievable. Furthermore, surface of the finishing edge may be
stepped and not smooth.
(d) in LHS figure shows an end mill being mounted in a vertical
cutter holder, which is moved transversely and longitudinally
from the end surface of workpiece in profiling some features
from the end surface inwardly. Due to major diameter over the
effective cutter is the same, it can assist to cut slot and open the
end region with vertically straight edge and smooth surface for
each cut.
The lhs figure illustrates the schematic of
Schematic illustration of turning process. It involves with
Turning mounting/clamping a cylindrical rod rigidly
in the chuck of a spindle, which can be
rotated. A cutter, which is rigidly mounted
on a tool post (which is driven along a
threaded shaft mounted in the lathe bed
and with axis parallel to the longitudinal
direction of the rod), can be moved
transversely across to face or shorten the
rod, or longitudinally towards to chuck to
reduce the diameter of the rod by
removing surface layer from the
workpiece. Depending on the geometry of
the cutter, and its moving direction, it can
turn off layers from the rod surface,
produce stepped shaft, cut shoulder on a
shaft, parting some length from the rod,
Schematic illustration of turning setup end drill hole on the end of the rod., and
etc.
The LHS figure illustrates the setup features of a cylindrical
Turning Operation sold rod to be turned off a depth of cut from its free end.
The cutting tool is supposed to mount onto a tool post,
which is driven to give a longitudinal feed in mm/rev (or
in/rev). Due to the rotary effect is synchronizing with the
feed of cutter in longitudinal direction, the cutting path on
rod surface is usually spiral around the cutting surface,
which can be obviously magnified and seen if the depth of
cut and the feed of cut are both large, as illustrated in the
cutting end of the rod in LHS figure.
Setup features: Circular rod mounted in turning lathe,
Cutter mounting/supporting seat (blue color) moved along
a guide‐slide rod on the lathe, cutter (red color) mounted
on the tool support seat or tool post on a compound rest
on carriage which is connected to Apron, which is designed
to move transversely and/or longitudinally in relative to the
cylindrical sold workpiece.
Operational Principles: After the proper mounting of rod
piece onto spindle (with tailstock quill to center and steady
its end if necessary) and setting of the tooling, the
powering on the lathe turns the guide‐slide rod which
drives the carriage with tool‐post moving forwards to the
spindle. By suitable setting of feed (mm/rev) and depth of
Schematic illustration of turning cut (mm) with the use of adequate geometry of cutter, it
operation showing various features allows the forming of various feature profiles on the
cylindrical solid rod piece.
Feed marks and surface finishing on In the LHS figure, it shows the exaggerated surface
a turned surface profile on a turned rod surface. It illustrates the
marks left on the surface varies with the effective
cutting zone of the cutter and the feed in relation to
the cutting edge angle. As mentioned, the combined effect
of depth of cut and longitudinal feed of cut gives different
traces of spiral cut path on workpiece surface. Its resulted
turned traces affect the surface finishing. Other influential
factor determining the turned surface is the nose of the
cutter. Physically, with constant rotational speed and feed,
the variation of a cut trace is smaller with larger tool nose
radius, as lesser change within the measurable region can be
detected. Hence, those replicated marks constituting of the
surface roughness of the rod can basically be evaluated by
the following equation:
Surface roughness:
f2
Ra
8R
where
Schematic illustration of exaggerated
f feed
feed marks on a turned surface
R tool - nose radius
Turning Tools and Inserts In the top LHS figure, (a) shows the schematic illustration of
right‐hand cutting tool, its features and relevant
terminologies. Generally, the various end cutting edge
angles on these tools affect the machining quality and
features. This is because it determines the cutting nose
radius and tip, and also the displacement of chips which
may create problems of cooling and rubbing on the cutting
tool and the cut surface. Such actions are often
deterministic to the durability of tool life too. Although
these tools traditionally have been produced from solid
tool‐steel bars, individual geometries of cutting tools imply
high replacement cost involved. Approach is thus sought to
minimize such cost. Hence, making a common toolholder to
be fixed with various tool inserts which are made with
Schematic of and terminologies involved with the turning different end cutting angles and cutting nose radii, as
tools and inserts shown in (b). Such approach allows to replace the cutting
tool in (a) largely with those inserts as shown in (b), so as to
save the tooling cost. These inserts are generally made of
carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes.
In the bottom LHS figure, some typical carbide inserts with
various shapes and chip‐breaker features: Round inserts
are also available, as can be seen in the following two
figures in next slide. The holes in the inserts are
standardized for interchangeability in toolholders
Some typical carbide inserts
Mounting and strength of The top LHS figure shows the methods
of mounting inserts on toolholders. It
inserts generally involves with: (a) clamping
and (b) wing lockpins. However, in (c), it
gives examples of inserts mounted with
threadless lockpins, which are secured
with side screws
The bottom LHS figure illustrates the
relative edge strength and tendency for
chipping of inserts with various shapes.
In view that tool inserts generally
experience shearing force and they may
be shorn to fracture if weak. Design with
large cross sectional area to resist shear
or with geometry to exert smaller shear
Mounting of inserts on toolholders is supposed to be stronger. Hence,
strength is frequently referred to as the
cutting edge indicated by the included
angles. The top arrow suggests that the
inserts are getting stronger from smaller
angle to larger angle. In view that chips
tend to be entangled if smaller clearance
space between workpiece and cutter is
allowed to releasing. Such entanglement
results in increase in friction and
roughening the cutting surface. Hence,
the increasing chipping and breaking is
as shown in the bottom arrow.
Relative strength of insert shapes
Cutting Screw Threads The LHS figure shows setup features and principles of
cutting screw threads with turning machine.
Sub Fig. (a) illustrates that for cutting screw threads on a
lathe with a single‐point cutting tool. Generally, the
minimization of spinning effect which likely results in
more materials to be cut off at largest spin envelope. End
spindle is thus pushed to hold the free end of the
workpiece. Note that the shape of cutter tip is invert ”v”
and body width is narrow. The depth of valleys can be
increased gradually by a series of passes.
Sub Fig. (b) shows the sequence for cutting screw
threads with a single‐point tool in several passes,
normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in
the figures show the direction of the transverse feed into
workpiece, and the broken lines show the position of the
cutting tool as time progresses. Note that in radial
cutting, the tool is fed directly into the workpiece. In
flank cutting, the tool is fed into the piece along the right
face of the thread. In incremental cutting, the tool is first
fed directly into the piece at the center of the thread,
then at its sides, and finally into the root.
Sub Fig. (c) demonstrates a typical coated‐carbide insert
in the process of cutting screw threads on a round shaft.
Sub Fig. (d) illustrates the approach for cutting internal
screw threads with a carbide insert.
Lathe Cutting
Operations
Although all parts to be cut with lathes need to be
circular or properly known as axisymmetric.
Miscellaneous cutting operations, as illustrated in
LHS figure, that can be performed on a lathe.
However, the tools used, their shape, and the
processing parameters are different as
demonstrated in the figure at left hand side.
Noting: for straight turning the tool shape and
feed direction (a) is different with those of taper
turning (b); likewise those for profiling (c) differ
with those for turning and external grooving (d)
even‐though the tooling is the same; those for
facing (e) are obviously differing with those in
face grooving (f); forming certain profile on a
section (g) can be done with a form tool; boring
and internal grooving (h) requires a sufficiently
large hole to be drilled first (i); cutting off (j) a
section off the rod can be done with narrow cutter
to be moved transversely (j); threading on the rod
can be achieved with inverse “v” tool (k); knurling
a part of workpiece (l) requires the use of a
knurling tool against the surface of a workpiece.
Drilling
The top figure illustrates various types of drills and drilling and reaming operations. Note: Drilling with drill has sharp cutting edge
and tip bit – It is used to drill solid material initially without any through‐hole in and finishes with a taper end in a relatively deep
hole. The step drilling with relatively blunt blade edges and stepping, which is not for drilling deep hole. Core drilling,
counterboring, countersinking, and reaming usually are performed with an hole drilled by drilling first, which is either enlarged or
sunk with large end to burry or to encapsulate the bold head of a fastener. Central drill is just for drilling for locating centre for
further drilling with bigger diameter drill. The gun drilling is originally for supplying coolant water in drilling action. However, it may
deepen hole to certain extent if the pressured coolant has sufficiently high force production.
It can be seen that drilling processes like core drilling, counterboring, countersinking, and reaming usually require through holes or
blinded holes of certain depths being pre‐drilled first. This is because their relevant tools have no sharp cutting tip bit to displace
materials beneath them.
Helical Reamer and Inserted‐Blade Adjustable Reamer
In drilling, sometimes the available drill is smaller than the specified hole, and
the taper bottom of a drilled hole is needed to be removed. Hence, boring
and reaming may be undertaken. The above figure shows the construction of
the available reamers and illustrates in (a) for the terminology of a helical
reamer, and in (b) for the configuration of an inserted‐blade adjustable
reamer.
Proper Methods of Applying Cutting Fluids
During cutting, heat is generated which tends
to soften the cutting tool. This adding to the
rubbing of tool and workpiece results in tool
wear. Furthermore, the high temperature of
workpiece surface also leads to roughening
surface on the workpiece. As the integrating
consequence of this, the quality of the cutting
surface is not as good as expected.
Furthermore, the durability of cutter is
significantly shortening. Hence, proper
application to effectively carry out heat from
both surfaces is essential. The LHS figure shows
the schematic illustration of the proper
methods of applying cutting fluids (flooding) in
various machining operations: (a) turning, (b)
milling, (c) thread grinding, and (d) drilling. As
illustrated in LHS figure of (a) and the RHS
figure of (a), cutting fluid should be applied as
close to the cutting region whatever possible.
Likewise it is also the same for milling process
as shown in (b), for grinding as illustrated in (c),
and for drilling as shown in (d). Although flow
Techniques to apply cutting fluids rate of cutting fluids enhances cooling
efficiency, the setup features of any system
usually limit the admissible flow rate effectively.
Machining (2)
MBE 2106
Milling
Book to refer to
Chapter 24 in the textbook:
Kalpaljian, Serope and Schmid, Steen, “Manufacturing Engineering and
Technology”, 5th edition, Prentice Hall, Pearson, ISBN 0‐13‐107639‐7
LHS figure is the schematic illustration of
Milling machines (a) a horizontal‐spindle column‐and‐knee
type milling machine (An arbor bridges
the column and the mounting block at
the free end of overarm. Cutter is
fastened through the arbor) and (b)
vertical‐spindle column‐and‐knee type
milling machine (Cutter is mounted into
spindle in the head and spins to cut
workpiece in T‐slot on the mounting
table).
For (a), the cutter is mounted onto the
horizontal arbor with diameter of cutting
blade in vertical plane. Although the
design and mounting of (a) provide
rigidity, it constrains certain materials
removal operations.
For (b), the cutter is mounted into the
vertical chuck in head, forming a free
end cantilever system. Hence, its rigidity
is relatively poorer than that for (a)
Cutters Ref to the last slide (Slide 17), the features for
mounting cutter on arbor in parallel to its head
for the horizontal milling, which is similar to a
built‐in beam structure, make the system
becomes more rigid. It is thus possible to have
relatively higher rate of metal removal when
compared with vertical milling machine (which
has cutter mounting feature as in cantilever
system mode). However, the cutting wheel in
vertical plane means that the stopping of the
cutting wheel anywhere in the workpiece leads to
sloping edge and its surface may not be smoothly
finishing, as shown at the cutting front in (a).
Hence, it is widely used in peripheral cutting with
heavy removal rate. With two cutters mounted
with space in between, it is possible to have
straddle milling as in (a), and form milling as in
(b). The use of wide cutting breadth of a cutter
allows slotting of a heavy groove as in (c). Correct
Design features of special cutters for (a) straddle milling, (b) form milling, (c)
use of cutting breadth facilitates slitting of
slotting, and (d) slitting with a milling cutter different thicknesses of plates (d).
Milling Cutters and Milling Operations LHS figure shows some basic types of milling cutters
and milling operations. (a) Peripheral milling with
horizontal milling machine. (b) Face milling with
vertical milling machine (c) End milling with the
use of vertical milling machine. (d) Ball‐end mill
with indexable coated‐carbide inserts machining a
cavity in a die block with vertical milling machine.
(e) Milling a sculptured surface with an end mill,
using a five‐axis numerical control machine.
Among these milling operations, (a) peripheral
milling and (b) face milling are conducted with
horizontal milling machine so that they take the
advantages of high rigidity and high removal rate,
which tends to give better dimensional accuracy.
The operations in (c) end milling, (d) ball end
milling, and (e) end milling for sculpturing surface
are often undertaken with vertical milling machine.
This is mainly because vertical milling gives high
level of accessibility of removing materials, and also
furnishes with vertically right angle milled wall.
Although it is hard to remove high rate of materials,
its indexability caters possibility of automating the
milling processes with computer aided control or
with the use of computer numerical control milling
operations.
Milling operations
The above figure shows: (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and
climb milling. (b) lab‐milling operation showing depth‐of‐cut, d; feed per
tooth, f; chip depth‐of‐cut, tc; and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic
illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth‐of‐cut
Face Milling Operations
The above figure shows some face‐milling operations: (a) action of an insert mounted
in cutter in face milling; (b) climb milling with rotational blade teeth pointing in the
same direction as workpiece sliding direction; (c) conventional milling with rational
blade teeth of cutter in the opposite direction as workpiece sliding direction; (d)
dimensions in face milling. The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the
cutter radius, depending on cutter radius and the specific width of cut anticipated.
Face‐Milling Cutter with Indexable Inserts
LHS figure shows a face‐milling cutter mounted with indexable
inserts and its relevant terminology: notes that it has end cutting
edge angle, axial rake, end relief, corner angle, and radial rake for
cutting and chip relief.
T‐Slot Cutting and Shell Mill The LHS figure illustrates (a) T‐slot cutting with
a milling cutter, which involves firstly with
cutting the slot to anticipate depth and size,
followed by the second cut with a shell mill
fastening at the end of cutter for the production
of T‐slot. (b) A shell mill, which is used to cut
the T‐slot.
As T slot is difficult to be produced by horizontal
milling machine because of its constraint in
setting up features, vertical milling machine is
often used. The cutting of T slot can be
performed by two stages: (i) selecting a cutter
with diameter almost equal to the small slot
width, and milling almost to the depth of the T
slot; (ii) mounting the shell mill cutter in (b) to
the end of chuck and properly setting the top
holding sleeve, above the top surface of the
shell mill cutter, to a height of the smaller depth,
which is then moved unblocked to the far end of
the milled small slot, and subsequently
activating the movement of the workpiece table
to slide relatively to the vertical chuck to
complete the milling.
It shows some typical parts that can be made on
Parts Made on a Planer a planer.
Generally, planer can be achieved by either
horizontal or vertical milling machine. It
commonly involves with shaping a workpiece
into planes and then making some features
like slots or grooves on the planes as
illustrated in (a) and (b). The milled inclining
features along either edges in (a) are
achievable with special cutting blade or
inclining the workpiece platform to certain
angle if horizontal milling machine is used.
When vertical milling machine is used instead,
the chuck spindle can be suitably adjusted to
the required angle or tilting the workpiece
holding platform to the angle. After milling, it
can be slit off to the anticipated length
accordingly.
In milling of planer (b), both horizontal and/or
vertical milling machine can be used. It can be
firstly planed and then slot on each plane is
milled or slotted accordingly. This is then
followed by slitting the part to many parts
with anticipated length.
Broaching It shows (a) some typical parts made by
internal broaching. (b) some parts made by
surface broaching. (Note: Heavy lines indicate
broached surfaces). (c) A vertical broaching
machine for broaching those parts in (a) and in
(b) sometimes.
The internal features in the cylindrical part are
usually broached, which normally involves with
turning of the outer profile, drilled the internal
hole, then broaching tools up and down in the
internal holes and broaching the inner holes to
the designed features as shown in (a) by
different sequences and tools.
In (b), the internal features of the parts are
made by other machining processes first,
which is followed by broaching the external
surface of the parts for the achievement of
various external features.
In (c), it shows the design of an broaching
machine.
Broach Geometry and Chipbreaker Features on Broaches
LHS Figure: (a) Cutting action of a broach showing the progressively
broaching of various features. (b) Terminology generally used for a broach;
RHS Figure: Chipbreaker features on (a) a flat broach and (b) a round broach.
Part with Internal Splines LHS figure illustrates an example of a
Made by Broaching part with internal splines produced
by broaching. The external profile is
processed by other manufacturing
operations. The internal splines in
the through hole in the middle are
broached from LHS to RHS with the
use of adequate broaching
machinery.
Sawing Operations The LHS figure demonstrates some
examples of various sawing operations
for sawing off different features from
workpieces. Features on sheet metals or
metallic plates or block /rod can be
sawing off by various sawing operations.
Typically: it can cut off the workpiece
into two parts by ripping (a), sawing off
internal features somewhere on
workpiece which is termed internal cuts
(b), sawing some inclination features
from a bendpiece as angular cuts (c),
contour cutting some features from a
block materials which is termed contour
cutting (d), sawing off a stack of profiled
sheets individually into two or three
separate parts is called stack cutting (e),
and sawing a disk plate from a single
crystal ingot with sawing blade as shown
in (f).
Saw Teeth
LHS figure shows the (a)
Terminology for saw teeth. (b) RHS figure shows the saw teeth of (a)
Types of tooth sets on saw teeth High‐speed‐steel teeth welded on a
staggered to provide clearance for steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts
the saw blade to prevent binding brazed to blade teeth
during sawing
Involute Spur Gear
Nomenclature for an involute spur gear
Gear Generating
with Various Cutters
LHS Figure showsL (a)
Producing gear teeth on a
blank by form cutting. (b)
Schematic illustration of gear
generating with a pinion‐
shaped gear cutter. (c) and
(d) Gear generating on a gear
shaper using a pinion‐shaped
cutter. Note that the cutter
reciprocates vertically. (e)
Gear generating with rack‐
shaped cutter
Bevel Gears
It shows how setup for (a) Cutting a straight bevel‐gear blank
with two cutter. (b) Cutting a helical bevel gear
Finishing Gears
by Grinding
It shows various
setups and tools used
in finishing gears by
grinding: (a) form
grinding with shaped
grinding wheels; (b)
grinding by
generating with two
wheels.