Lecture 1: Introduction to

polymer science and Technology

(2 hours)

PST 105
Basic Chemical Engineering and
Polymer Industry
Semester 2
 Polymer
• In polymers repeating units are bonded by
covalent bonds
– Monomer
– Oligomer
• Dimer
• Trimer
• Tetramer
 Classification of Polymers
• Basic classifications
– Natural /Synthetic
– Polymer structure
• Liner, branched cross linked, ladder Vs functionality
– Amorphous or crystalline
– Homopolymers and copolymers
– Polymerization mechanism
– Thermal behavior
 Properties of Polymers
• Mechanical Properties
• Solution Properties
• Electrical and Electronic Properties
• Weatherability
• Magnetic Properties
• Optical Properties
• Thermal Properties
• Biocompatibility
• Chemical Properties
Types of Polymer Processing Industries
• Dry Rubber Manufacturing
• Liquid Rubber Manufacturing
• Plastic Manufacturing
Polymer Applications
 Tyers
• Natural rubber (cis -1,4 polyisoprene)
• Styrene-butadiene co-polymer (SBR) is a synthetic rubber
which is often substituted in part for natural rubber
based on the comparative low materials cost
• Polybutadiene is used in combination with other rubbers
because of its low heat-buildup properties
• Polyisobutadiene (Low gas permeability) Use for tyer iner
tubes
• shock-absorbing polyurethane spokes
 Clothing
• Nylons
• Polyester
• Cotton (cellulose)
• PET (Polyehyleneterepthalate)
 Furniture
• Polypropylene
• Polypropylene copolymers
• Polyurethane
Dinner wear
Melamine formaldehyde
 Shoes/toys/chewing gum
• Polyurethanes
• Natural Rubber
• Styrene butadiene co-polymers
 Shampoos/Toothpaste
• Siloxane polymers
– Dimethicone, also known as polydimethylsiloxane
(PDMS), is a silicone oil
 Non stick Kitchen wear
• Polytetrafloroethlene
 Grocery bags
• Polyethylene
• Polypropylene
 Disposable cups
• Polystyrene (Expanded)
Polycarbonate

– High impact strength

– High transparency
– Non toxic
 Artificial body implants
• Intraocular lenses
• Artificial lenses
• Heart Valves
• Artificial bones
• Cosmetic surgeries
• Breast implants
• Polymeric drugs
 Intraocular Lenses (IOLs)

• Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)
• Silicone and Acrylic -soft foldable inert
materials
• Collamer
Contact lenses
• Rigid -Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA or
Perspex/Plexiglas)
• Soft- Silicon hydrogel (Polymethyle Siloxane)
• Hybrid- rigid center and a soft "skirt”
 Polymeric Heart Valves
• Polymers have been widely studied as an
alternative the biological valves that might be
bio-compatible while still durable
• PU, PTFE, Silicon rubber, PE
 Artificial Bones
• Natural bones (Biominaralisation): Collegen (A Protein)
+ Hydroxipeptite (Ceramic)
• Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethyene (UHMWPE) -
odorless, tasteless, and nontoxic
• UHMWPE 250,000 monomer units per molecule each
compared to HDPE's 700 to 1,800 monomers.
 Polymeric Drugs
• Polymers have played an integral role in the advancement of drug
delivery technology by providing controlled release of therapeutic
agents in constant doses over long periods
• chitosan, gelatin, polycaprolactone and poly-alkyl-cyanoacrylates
Structural Applications
• Air planes, vehicles, ships, boats
• Fiberglass-Glass fiber reinforced unsaturated
polyester (polymer composite)
– Glass fiber reinforcing agent
– Composite: materials made from two or more constituent
materials with significantly different physical or chemical
properties, that when combined, produce a material with
characteristics different from the individual components.
– Polymer resins: Unsaturated polyesters, Epoxy resins, vinyl
esters
 Electronic/Electrical Applications
• Most of the polymers are electrical insulators
• Some are semiconductors (LED)
• Molecular wire: electrical conducting
polymers – Polyaniline(PANI)
 Optical Polymers – PMMA
and polyperfluorobutenylvinylether
 Polymer Degradation
• Biodegradation
• Reaction with chlorine, ozone, oxygen in the
environment
• Heat
• UV radiation
 Home work assignment
• Write 5 sentences on “Smart Polymers”.
03 credits
Hours per week: Lectures 02
Lab/Tutorials/Assignments 03

Subject Coordinator: Dr. (Mrs) Shantha Egodage

What is Chemical and Process Engineering?
The branch of Engineering which is
concerned with processes in which
materials undergo a required
change in composition, energy
content or physical state at a
reasonable cost and in the safest
possible manner.
 History of Chemical Engineering
 For all intents and purposes the chemical engineering
profession began in 1888. While, the term "chemical
engineer" had been floating around technical circles
throughout the 1880's, there was no formal education for
such a person.
 The "chemical engineer" of these years was either a
mechanical engineer who had gained some knowledge of
chemical process equipment, a chemical plant foreman
with a lifetime of experience but little education, or
an applied chemist with knowledge of large scale
industrial chemical reactions.
Chemical Engineer

a) An Engineer who manufactures chemicals,

b) A Chemist who works in a factory, or
c) A glorified Plumber?

This is actually a tricky question as the correct answer

is "None of the above."
Chemical Engineer

 More typically, chemical engineers concern themselves

with the chemical processes that turn raw materials into
valuable products.
 The necessary skills encompass all aspects of design,
testing, scale-up, operation, control, and optimization,
and require a detailed understanding of the various "unit
operations", such as distillation, mixing, and biological
processes, which make these conversions possible.
 Chemical engineering science utilizes mass,
momentum, and energy transfer along with
thermodynamics and chemical kinetics to analyze and
improve on these "unit operations."
Chemical and Process Engineering: a
generalized process
Raw materials
Operational
Energy Utilities Characteristics

•Economic
•Efficient
PROCESS
•Controllable
(INDUSTRY) •Safe
•Flexible
•Environmental
issues
By-products Effluents

PRODUCTS
 Some products whose manufacture
involves the application of Chemical
Engineering
Product grouping or
production process
Household products in daily use
including direct consumer
products
Healthcare products
Automotive fuels/Petroleum
refining
Other chemicals in daily use
Horticulture products
Metals
Some of the more familiar
examples
Soaps, detergents, polishes,
disinfectants, cosmetics
Pharmaceuticals, toiletries,
antiseptics, anaesthetics
Gasoline, diesel, kerosene,
lubricants, aviation fuels
Paints and surface coatings,
adhesives, anti-freeze agents,
refrigerants, insulation materials
Fertilisers, fungicides, insecticides
Steel, zinc
 Cont.

Polymers Polyethylene, polypropylene, synthetic rubbers,

vehicle accessories, kitchenware, furniture, tyres,
foams, casted products, dipped products
Electronics Silicon, dopants (gallium arsenide),
Fats and oils Salad and cooling oils, margarine,
Fermentation Beer, certain antibiotics such as penicillin, yoghurts

Dairy products Milk, butter, cheese, baby food

Gas treatment and Gas for heating and cooking
transmission
Industrial chemicals Sulfuric acid, ammonia, caustic soda, chlorine,
phosphoric acids, nitrogen
Food Sugar, flour, rice, cereals
Construction materials Cement, bitumen
Additives Calcium carbonate, carbon black, antioxidants,
fragrances, cleaning agents, water management
chemicals
 What is a process ?
A process is a series of steps (sequence of events) known
as “unit operations” in which material is chemically,
physically biologically or in any combination of these
transformed or changed

Eg. Distillation: Petroleum refining

Drying Food processing ( milk, cereal)

Evaporation Salt production

Crystallization Sugar and pharmaceutical

Extraction Oil from seeds

 Unit Operations
 The "unit operations" concept had been latent in the chemical
engineering profession ever since George Davis had
organized his original 12 lectures around the topic.
 It was Arthur Little who first recognized the potential of using
"unit operations" to separate chemical engineering from other
professions.
 While mechanical engineers focused on machinery, and
industrial chemists concerned themselves with products,
and applied chemists studied individual reactions, no one,
before chemical engineers, had concentrated upon the
underlying processes common to all chemical products,
reactions, and machinery.
 The chemical engineer, utilizing the conceptual tool that was
unit operations, could now claim to industrial territory by
showing his or her uniqueness and worth to the chemical
manufacturer.
 Chemical and Process Industry
Sulfuric Acid Production

To create sulfuric acid the long used (since 1749), and

little understood, Lead-Chamber Method required air,
water, sulfur dioxide, a nitrate, and a large lead container.
Of these ingredients the nitrate was frequently the most
expensive. This was because during the final stage of the
process, nitrate (in the form of nitric oxide) was lost to
the atmosphere thereby necessitating a make-up
stream of fresh nitrate.
 Sulphuric acid is the world's largest volume bulk chemical. At
one time, the production of sulphuric acid was used as a
measure of the economic strength of a country, sulphuric acid
being involved in many industrial processes.
Synthetic Ammonia Production

Shortly before the outbreak of World War I, two patriotic

Germans developed a method for producing synthetic
ammonia. The first plants using this "Haber-Bosch
Process" were constructed shortly after the outbreak of
the war. They had discovered that ammonia could be
made by placing nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas in a
high pressure chamber. With the addition of a suitable
catalyst, and a little heat to speed things up, vast
quantities of fixed nitrogen could be produced.
Alkali & The Le Blanc Process
Another very competitive (and ancient) chemical
industry involved the manufacture of soda ash
(Na2CO3) and potash (K2CO3). These Alkali
compounds found use in a wide range of
products including glass, soap, and textiles and
were there for in tremendous demand.
 Anatomy of a process

Introduction
Process converts raw materials in to finished products. A
typical process is usually a group of small sub systems that
work together to produce the products that leave the main
process. A system is a collection of equipments that works
together to complete a process. The basic sub systems of a
typical process can be shown by blocks, which represent the
each stage of overall process.
 By products
Recycle or Unreacted
material
wastes

Raw material Feed Product

Reaction
storage preparation separation

wastes

Product
purification

Sales Product storage

Anatomy of a generalized process

 Reactor system and reactors in process
industry

Feed Reactor Products + byproducts

+unreacted material

Reactor is the heart of a chemical process. The basic function of the

chemical reactor is the conversion of raw materials into products by the use
of a chemical reaction. There are two types of reactors commonly found.

1. Continuous reactor
2. Batch reactor
Product Separation
Following the completion of reaction, output stream consists of
products, byproducts and un-reacted materials. These are separated
in the separation system. Some of the un-reacted materials are
recycled back to the fed stream.

Purification and product storage

Quality of the finished product is paramount. Depending on the type
of the product, packaging and storage facilities are needed.

Utilities needed for the process

The word utilities is used to describe the ancillary services needed
for the industry: process water, cooling water, process steam,
electricity, compressed air, refrigerants and etc..
Introduction to unit operations
Chemical process on whatever scale conducted may be resolved into a
coordinated series of individual processing units called unit operations.

Building blocks Unit

of a process operations

Study of these unit operations is important because all industrial operations

are composed physically of a series of these in their proper sequence. In
different processes, these unit operations have to be conducted at different
operation conditions.
Unit operations conducted in the process industry
Distillation Mixing Leaching
Evaporation Crystallization Sedimentation
Absorption Centrifugation Crushing
Drying Solvent extraction Sieving
Filtration Adsorption
Membrane separation

Chemical processes may have some unit operations in common.

E.g.
Distillation :Petroleum industry, Alcohol industry
Filtration :Waste water plants, Polymer industry
Centrifugation :Latex industry, Sugar industry
Definitions of unit operations
Distillation : Components of a liquid mixture are separated based on
their boiling point variations

Evaporation: This involves the evaporation of volatile solvents such as

water from a non-volatile solute such as salt or any other material in solution

Drying : In this operation volatile liquids are removed from solid materials by
the application of heat

Absorption: A component of a gas mixture is removed by contacting with

a liquid flowing through packing material

Liquid-Liquid extraction: A solute in a liquid solution is removed by

contacting with another liquid solvent, which is relatively immiscible with the
solution

Leaching: This involves treating finely divided solid with a liquid that
dissolves out and removes a solute contained in solid
Crystallization: This is the removal of solute such as salt or sugar from
a concentrated solution by precipitating the solute from solution

Adsorption: A component of gas or liquid stream is removed by a

solid adsorbent

Membrane separation: Solute from liquid is separated by diffusion of

this solute through semi impermeable membrane that is a barrier to
another fluid

Filtration: In filtration, a pressure difference is set up and causes the

fluid to flow through the small holes of a screen or cloth, which block the
passage for large particles
Applications of unit operations in sugar industry
Sugar cane

Crusher and mill Crushing and Milling

Reactor Clarification

Filter Filtration

Evaporator Evaporation

Crystallizer Crystallization

Centrifuge Centrifugation

Sugar molasses

Raw sugar
Introduction to separation processes
In processes most of the materials and substances occur as mixtures of
various components in gas, liquid, or solid phase. Original mixture is
normally contacted with another phase to remove or separate
components.

Transfer of solute
material in molecular
Phase 2 manner from one phase
to another
Phase 1

When the two phases are brought into intimate contact with each other a
solute or solutes can diffuse from one phase into another. The two
phases may be Gas-Liquid, Liquid-Liquid, Gas-Solid, or Solid-Liquid.
By selecting appropriate operating conditions, one phase is enriched
while the other phase is depleted with required component.
Distillation
Liquid mixtures are separated in to their constituents by using boiling
point variations. When a liquid mixture containing two or more
components is heated to its boiling point, the composition of vapour is
different from that of the liquid. The vapour phase is rich in more volatile
components (i.e. Low boiling points) and less volatile components
concentrate in liquid phase. The vapour is separated out and
condensed. Distillation is an equilibrium stage operation.
 Evaporation
In the evaporation solution is concentrated by vaporizing the volatile solvent
(usually water)

Solution = Non volatile solute + volatile solvent

E.g. salt industry, Sugar industry.

Steam

Feed
(Low Evaporator Thick
concentration) liquor
+Vapor

Condensate
Drying
Drying of solutes defines the removal of small amounts of water or other
liquid from the solid material to reduce the residual liquid in to acceptable
values.
E.g. Crystals, Flakes, Granules, Powders, Sheets etc.

Drum dryer Spray dryer

Absorption
A packed column for gas absorption
In this unit operation the contacting phases are liquid and gas. Solute is
transferred from gas to liquid.

Gas
Liquid
phase
solute phase

A solute rich gas enters at the bottom of the tower and flows upwards
through the packing materials. Packing provides the large interfacial area
for contact. The solute in the rich gas is absorbed by the liquid or solvent
sent at the top of the tower and dilutes gas leaves at the top. The liquid
enriched with solute leaves at the bottom of the tower.

For (NH3 + air): liquid solvent used at the top of the tower is water.
For (SO2+ Air): liquid solvent used at the top of the tower is alkaline
solution.
Liquid – Liquid extraction

When a solute or solutes are removed from one liquid phase into
another liquid phase, the process is called L-L extraction. The two
phases are chemically quite different. This leads to the separation of
the components according to the physical and chemical properties.

Extraction Tower
Leaching

Fluid is used to extract a solute from a solid. In leaching operation

considerable amount of solute is removed.
E.g. extraction of copper from solid ore using H2SO4, Vegetable oils
from Soya beans, Pharmaceutical products from roots, leaves and
stems.
Leaching Equipment
Crystallization

Crystallization is the process of production of crystals from vapour, melt or

solution. The most important process industrially is the crystallization of
dissolved solids from solutions. There are two reasons crystals produced
from impure solutions is pure and low energy requirements.
E.g. Sugar, Fertilizer, Pharmaceuticals, Fine chemicals

Industrial Crystallizer
Membrane separation

The relatively thin solid membrane controls the rate of movement of

molecules between two phases.
E.g. to remove salt from water, purify gases etc.
Adsorption

In this unit operation one or more components of a liquid or gas stream

are adsorbed on the surface or in the pores of a solid adsorbent and
there by separation is obtained.
E.g. remove organic compounds from polluted water
remove other gases from CO2 in aprocess stream
Unit operations based on mechanical and
physical separation
In the mechanical separation processes, the separation will be done
using mechanical-physical forces and not molecular or chemical
forces and diffusion. The mechanical and physical forces will be
acting on particles, liquids or mixtures and not on the individual
molecules.

E.g. Filtration, sedimentation, and thickening, centrifugal

separations, gas-solid separation by cyclone separators
Fundamental concepts and basics for unit
operation calculations

Material balance

Input materials to the system + Generation within system =

Consumption within system + Output material from system +Material
accumulation within system

Energy balance

Energy balance is made around any unit operation or plant to determine

the energy required to carry out operation or to maintain desired
operating conditions. All energy types should be included in an energy
balance.
 Equilibrium conditions

When the material being processed or in contact for any length of time
under specified conditions such as pressure, temperature, composition, they
tend to achieve equilibrium which is determined by specific conditions. This
is important in understanding those unit operations involving transferring of
material from one phase to another. E.g. Absorption, Distillation, Leaching,
Extraction etc.

Rate of an operation

Most of the operations, equilibrium is not allowed because of insufficient

time or it is not required. When equilibrium is achieved no further change
can take place and process stops. But it is necessary to keep the process
going. Therefore rate operations such as energy, mass and momentum, are
of greatest importance.
Process Flow sheeting
Flow Sheet
• Is a diagrammatic model of the process

• Shows the arrangement of equipment selected to carry our the process

• Includes
stream connections
names of streams
stream flow rates
compositions
and operating conditions (temp., pressure)
instruments
optional details of streams molar compositions
physical data (, )
code no. of streams
enthalpies of streams
brief description of stream
Types of diagrams

Block Diagram
Material Flow Sheet
Energy Flow Sheet
Process Flow Diagram
Information Flow Diagram
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram
Block Diagram
Simplest form of presentation
Each Block can be represent
a single piece of equipment or
a complete stage in the process
For complex processes,
usage of block diagram is limited to showing the overall process
represent only the principle stages

Useful for representing a process in a simplified form in reports and text books,
but have only a limited use as engineering document

Stream flow rates and compositions can be shown

- adjacent to stream lines when only a small amount of information is shown
- in a separate table
Liquid
storage
LS- 01
Mixing Reactor

M-03 R-04

For recycling
Liquid
storage
LS- 02
Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

• Is the pictorial representation of the process layout with standard symbols

• Equipment should be drawn approximately to the scale (mainly principal
equipment)
• All equipment should be labeled
• Is shown the sequence of unit operations and stream connections
•Usually include auxiliary services to the process
circulating oil
air
water
Steam
flue gas
refrigeration, etc.
Standard symbols
BS 8888 ; BS 1553

Heat exchange
Reactor Sealed tank

Fluid contacting
Tray column column
Fragment of PFD
Material Flow Sheet

• Is drawn with standard symbols and labeled and include all data obtained

If no space available to label equipment, a equipment key can be drawn at

the bottom of the flow sheet
Following data should be shown on the flow sheet in deferent ways
flow rate of each component
total stream flow rate
percentage composition

Simplest method suitable for simple processes with few equipments,

tabulate the data in blocks alongside the process stream
Better method applicable for all complex processes,
stream line is numbered and the data tabulated at the top or bottom of
the sheet (above and below the equipment layout)
 N Component Flow rate T P

C1
R2

N Component Flow rate T P

Equipment key
C1 Column
R2 Reactor
Energy Flow Sheet

Energy balance is to determine the energy requirement of the process:

the heating, cooling and power required.

In energy flow sheet

Inlet and outlet energy flow rates should be shown separately for each
piece of equipment
Include
- energy (calculated by total enthalpy form or using specific capacity data)
of each component in all (inlet and outlet) streams
-process conditions of all (inlet and outlet) streams
- process conditions of the specific equipment
Energy Balance Sheet
Information Flow Diagram (IFD)
• Is used in simulation programs
• Is presented by blocks
• Each block represents a calculation module in the simulation
program, usually a process unit or part of a unit
• units in which no change of composition or temperature or pressure
occurs are omitted from IFD
• But other operations not shown on the process flow diagram as
actual pieces of equipment, but which can cause changes in the
stream composition must be shown.
• Flow of information should be shown with lines and arrow
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P & I)

• Shows the engineering details of equipment, instrument, piping, valves and

fittings and their arrangement
• Sometimes called as Engineering Flow Sheet or Engineering Line Diagram
• P & I should be included with
All process equipment identified by equipment number
All pipes identified by a line number. Pipe size and material of
construction should be shown (material may include as a part of the
identification number)
All valves with an identification no. along with their type & size should
be shown
Ancillary fittings that are part of piping system such as inline sight
glasses, strainers and stream traps with an identification no.
Pumps identified by a suitable code no.
All control loops and instruments with identification
Instrument Identification

Measured Variable Type of Conditioner Type of Component

F = Flow R = Recorder T = Transmitter
L = Level I = Indicator M = Modifier
P = Pressure C = Controller E = Element
Q = Quantity A = Alarm
T = Temperature
Pure oxygen is manufactured by liquefying air and distilling it to recover pure
oxygen and nitrogen. The entering air is contacted with potassium hydroxide
solution in a CO2 absorption tower to remove carbon dioxide. The air (free of
carbon dioxide) is then sent through a compressor to increase its pressure to
200 atm. In this process the temperature arises to 50 0C and this is cooled to
30 0C in a water-cooled heat exchanger. The resultant air at 200 atm and 30
0C is cooled to -30 0C in a first stage cooler and it is further cooled to -180
0C in a second stage cooler. The liquefied air mixture (N and O ) is distilled
2 2
in a distillation column to produce a distillate product of 98% N2 and 2% O2
and a bottom product of 99% O2 and 1% N2.

Draw a block diagram for the above process and indicate all process streams
by arrows and label all streams and process units with pressure, temperature
and compositions as per the above process description
Material Balances
Material Balance

Material balance calculations are a prerequisite to all

other calculation in Chemical Engineering problems.
To make a material balance, for a process it is
required to specify the system for which the balance
is made and outline its boundaries.
 Basic concept
Process - A series of actions or operations or treatments that result an end
product. Chemical engineering focuses on operations such as chemical
reactions, fluid transport, size reduction, heat generation and transport,
distillation, gas absorption, bioreactors and so on that cause physical and
chemical change in materials.

surrounding system boundary

System - A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study

Surrounding - The mass or region outside the system

Boundary - The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from
its surroundings
There are two types of systems
1. Open system:
An open system is one in which material is transferred across
the system boundary, that is, enters the system, leaves the system, or
both.

mass transfer
Work transfer
system
System Heat transfer
boundary
 2. Closed system ( Non flow system)
There is no transfer of mass across the boundary during the
time interval of interest. But work and heat transfer is possible.
Eg. Batch reactor, Drying, gas heated in cylinder.

No mass transfer
Work transfer
system
System Heat transfer
boundary

Material balances is based upon the law of conservation of mass which

states “matter is neither created nor destroyed”
General Material Balance Equation

Material in + Generation = Material out + Consumption

+ Accumulation

Input
flow Output
streams SYSTEM Flow
streams

Although the material balance for a single process unit is simple,

complete material balances for a large process are very complex.
Material balance can be applied to:
• Total mass
• Total moles
• Mass of a compound
• Mass of an atomic species
• Moles of a compound
• Moles of an atomic species
 Material balance equation can be reduced as
follows:
• For a steady state process with a chemical reaction or nuclear
reaction, the accumulation term will be zero.

Material in + Generation = Material out + Consumption

• If there is no chemical or nuclear reaction, reaction at the steady
state balance reduces to

Material in = Material out

•For an unsteady steady state with no chemical reaction or nuclear
reaction

Material in = Material out + Accumulation

In a steady state process the stream flow rates, and the

compositions do not vary with time
 Multiple units in which no reaction occurs
Acetone is used in the manufacture of many chemicals and also
as a solvent. In its later role, many restrictions are placed on the
release of acetone vapour to the environment. You are asked to
design an acetone recovery system having the flow sheet
illustrated in the figure below. All the concentrations show in the
figure of both gases and liquids are specified in weight percent.
Calculate A, F, B, and D if the entering gas flow rate is
1400 kg/hour 3
Air
Water 100% D (kg)
A(kg)
Air 0.995 W (kg) Condenser
Water 0.005
Distillate
Acetone 0.99
Water 0.01
Absorption Distillation
column column
B (kg)
Entering gas 2 Bottoms
1
Acetone 0.03 Acetone 0.04
Air 0.95 Water 0.96
Acetone 0.19
Water 0.02 G (kg) F (kg)
Water 0.81
 Air 3
Water 100% D (kg)
AirA 0.995 A(kg) Condenser
W (kg)
WA 0.005
Distillate
System 1 AcD 0.99
WD 0.01
Absorption Distillation
column column
B (kg)
Entering gas 2 Bottoms
1
AcG 0.03 AcB 0.04
AirG 0.95 AcF 0.19 WB 0.96
WG 0.02
G 1400 kgF (kg) WF 0.81

• Both Absorption & Distillation are physical separation

processes and therefore there is no reaction or
consumption of materials
• At steady state no accumulation of materials
 Air
A(kg)
Water 100% Basis 1 hour
Air 0.995 W (kg)
A Material Balance on Unit 1
W 0.005
A
SYSTEM 1
Material in = Material out
Absorber
Air:
column W . AirW + G . AirG = A . AirA + F . Air F
Entering gas
1
Ac 0.03
G
0 + 1400 x 0.95 = 0.995A + 0
Air 0.95 Ac 0.19
G
W 0.02 F (kg) F
W 0.81
A = 1336. 7 kg
G G 1400 kg F

Acetone: W . AcW + G . AcG = A . AcA + F . Ac F

0 + 1400 x 0.03 = 0 + 0.19F
F = 221.05 kg

Water: W . WW + G . WG = A . WA + F . W F
W x 1 + 1400 x 0.02 = 0.005A + 0.81F
W = (1336.7 x 0.005) + (221.05 x 0.81) – 28 = 157.7 kg
System 2 3
D (kg)
Condenser

Distillate
Ac 0.99
D
W 0.01
Distillation D
column Material Balance on the Units 2 & 3
F 221.05 kg B (kg)
2 Bottoms
Ac 0.19 Ac 0.04
F
W 0.81
F
B
W 0.96
B
Material in = Material out

Acetone: F . AcF = D . AcD + B . Ac B

0.19 F = 0.99 D + 0.04 B…………(1)

Water: F . WF = D . WD + B . W B
0.81 F = 0.01 D + 0.96 B ……………(2)

From Eqns (1) & (2) D = 34.91 kg

B = 186 1 kg
 Recycle
Processes in which a flow steam is returned (recycled) to an
earlier stage in the processing sequence are frequently used. If
the conversion of a valuable reagent in a reaction process is
appreciably less than 100%, the un-reacted material is usually
separated and recycled.

 By-pass
By-pass stream is one that skips one or more stages of the
process and goes directly to another downstream stage.
Processes with by-pass streams are similar to those involving
recycle, except that the stream is fed forward instead of
backward.

 Purge
This is a stream use to remove an accumulation of inert or
unwanted material that might build up in the recycle stream
 By-pass

Fresh
Feed Product
Process Process
Separator
Unit 1 Unit 2

Recycle Purge
 In the feedstock preparation section of a plant manufacturing
natural gasoline, isopentane is removed from feed. The process
and components are shown in the figure. What fraction of the
butane free gasoline is passed through the isopentane tower? The
process is in the steady state and no reaction occurs.

S
i-C5H12 100%

Iso-
De- X
pentane n-C5H12
butanizer
tower 100%
Y To natural
F P gasoline plant
n-C5H12 80%
n-C5H12 90%
i-C5H12 20%
i-C5H12 10%
Basis 100 kg of F
S i-C5H12 100 %
Boundary line
for overall
balance

Iso-
De- X n-C5H12
pentane
butanizer 100%
tower
Y
To natural
P gasoline plant
n-C5H12 80 %
F n-C5H12 90 %
i-C5H12 20 %
100 kg i-C5H12 10 %
 S i-C5H12100% Basis 100 kg of F
Boundary line
for overall
balance
Total Material Balance
Iso-
De- X propane
pentane n-C5H12100% Material in = Material out
butanizer
tower Y

F
To natural
P gasoline plant F = S + P …….. (1)
100 kg
n-C5H1280% n-C5H1290%
i-C5H12 20% i-C5H1210%
N-pentane
F . NF = S . NS + P .NP
100 x 0.8 = 0 + 0.9 P ……(2)
P = 88. 9 kg

From eqn (1) S = F - P

= 100 - 88.9
= 11.1 kg
 S i-C5H12 100 %
11.1 kg

n-C5H12 80 % Iso-
i-C5H12 20 % pentane
Tower
X (2) Y n-C5H12 100 %

P 88.9 kg To natural
gasoline plant
F 100 kg n-C5H12 90 %
n-C5H12 80 % i-C5H12 10 %
i-C5H12 20 %
METHOD 1 Isopentane balance on unit (2)
X . IX = S . IS + Y .IY
X x 0.2 = S x 1 + 0 ……(3)
S i -C H 100 %
11.1 kg 5 12 S = 0.2 X
X = 55.5 kg

n-C H 80 % Iso -
5 12
i -C H 20 % pentane
propane
5 12
Tower n-C H 100 %
X Y 5 12
(2)

P 88.9 kg To natural
gasoline plant
F 100 kg n-C H 90 %
5 12
n-C H 80 % i -C H 10 %
5 12 5 12
i -C H 20 %
5 12
 S i-C5H12 100 %
11.1 kg METHOD 2
Material Balance on unit (2)

n-C5H12 80 % Iso- Total X = S + Y ………. (4)

i-C5H12 20 % propane
pentane
Tower
X Y n-C5H 12 100 %
(2)

P 88.9 kg To natural
gasoline plant N-pentane balance on unit (2)
F 100 kg n-C5H12 90 %
n-C5H12 80 % i-C5H12 10 % X . NX = S . NS + Y .NY
i-C5H12 20 %
0.8 X = 0 + Y x 1
Y = 0.8 X ……(5)

From eqn (4) & (5) X = S + 0.8 X

0.2 X = S
X = 11.1/0.2
= 55.5 kg
 Material balance problems that involve chemical
reactions

The general equation for material balance applies to total mass,

component mass balances in which generation and consumption
terms are zero. But often in component and total balances,
moles will not necessarily balance.
 Sulfuric acid is produced as a by-product in the manufacture of
zinc from sulfide ores. The ore containing 70 % ZnS and 30 %
inert impurities is burnt in a furnace. The resulting SO2 is
oxidised to SO3 and absorbed by water to give sulfuric acid. The
acid is 98% H2SO4 and 2% water. 99% of the sulfur in the ore is
recovered as acid.
1. Calculate the quantity of sulfuric acid produced in a zinc plant
processing 20,000 kg of ore per day
2. How much water is required?
ZnS + 3/2 O2 = ZnO + SO2……… .Furnace
SO2 + ½ O2 = SO3…………………..Oxidizer
SO3 + H2O = H2SO4……………….Absorber

Molecular weights
ZnS = 97.4, H2O = 18, SO2 = 64.1, S = 32.1, H2SO4 = 98.1
 Basis 1 day
Waste gases
F
SO2 + Air
Water
W
Air C
B

Furnace Oxidizer Absorber

(Efficiency 99%) (2) (3)
20,000 kg (1)
A
Ore
ZnS- 70%
Impurities- 30%
Product P
SO3 + Air
D H2SO4 -98%
E Water – 2%
ZnO + Impurities
+ 1% ZnS
Basis 1 day Amount of ZnS in A = 20,000 x 0.7
C
SO2 + Air
= 14,000 kg
B
Air
ZnS + 3/2O2 = SO2 + ZnO
Furnace
(Efficiency 99%) S balance on unit (1)
(1)
A Moles of SA = Moles of SC + Moles of SD
Ore
SA = 14,000/97.4
20,000 kg
= 143.74 moles
D

ZnO + Impurities + 1 % ZnS If the furnace is 100% efficient,

Moles of SC = Moles of SA

Since the furnace is 99% efficient

Moles of SC = 0.99 x Moles of SA
Sc = 143.74 x 0.99
= 142.3 moles
 SO2 + Air
C

Oxidizer
(2) SO2 + 1/2O2 = SO3

D
S balance on unit (2)
SO3 + Air
Moles of SC = Moles of SD
Moles of SD = 142.3 moles
 Waste gases
E
S balance on unit (3)
Water
W Moles of SD = Moles of SP
Moles of SP = 142.3 moles

Absorber Moles of pure H2SO4 produced = 142.3 moles

(3) kg of pure H2SO4 produced = 142.3 x 98.1 kg
= 13,957 kg

98% H2SO4 contains 2% water % & 98% pure H2SO4

D 13,957 x 100
Product P 98 % H2SO4 produced =
SO3 + Air H2SO4 - 98 % 98
Water – 2% = 14,242 kg

SO3 + H2O = H2SO4

 Waste gases SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
F

Water Moles of SD = 142.3

W
Moles SO3 = 142.3

Absorber Moles of H2O utilized for conversion = 142.3

(3)
Water consumed in conversion = 142.3 x 18 kg
= 2561 kg

D
Mass balance for Water
P
W x WW = P x PW + consumption
SO3 + Air Product W = 0.02 x 14242 + 2561
H2SO4 - 98%
Water – 2% = 2846 kg
NATURAL RESOURCES

Mrs. Jayangi Wagaarachchige

Lecturer-University of Moratuwa
 Raw Materials
Sources of Materials
Geosphere-refers to that part
of the solid Earth on which
humans live
Biosphere- refers to totality of
living organisms
Hydrosphere- made up with
three forms of water; vapour
liquid and ice
Atmosphere- made up with
gases and aerosols
 Geosphere
All the rocks, minerals, soil and sediments that compose the solid earth.
Geosphere connection to green chemistry
• Plants that provide most food for humans and animals grow on the
geosphere.

• Plants growing on the geosphere already provide, and have the potential
to provide much more, biomass for use as renewable materials, such as
wood, fiber, raw materials, and fuel.

• The geosphere is the source of nonrenewable minerals, ores, fossil fuels,

and other materials used by modern industrialized societies.

• Modifications and alterations of the geosphere have profound effects

upon the environment.

• Sources of fresh water are stored in lakes and rivers on the surface of the
geosphere, move by means of streams, rivers, and canals on the
geosphere, and occur in aquifers underground.

• The geosphere is the ultimate sink for disposal of a variety of wastes

Main reasons for the geosphere's importance in the
global environment:
•The mass of the geosphere and the diversity of its chemical and mineral
composition are greater than those of the other spheres, making the
geosphere the ultimate source of many materials. The elevation of the land
surface determines the direction of primary transport from the land to the
ocean.

•Human industrial activities occur on land, deriving most of the needed

fuels and raw materials from the Earth's sediments and crust, and their
agricultural activities affect primarily the land vegetation and soils. These
activities, originating in the geosphere, perturb, through their products, the
hydrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere with which the geosphere
exchanges materials.
 Oceanic crust -
dominated by minerals
consisting of Silicon,
Oxygen and Magnesium
and is thus called SIMA;

Continental crust –
is made up of SIAL, in
which Silicon
and Aluminum dominate

These elements form the building blocks of most of the inorganic materials.
eg. glass (SiO2), concrete (CaCO3) and iron (Fe).

Mostly silicon oxides or silicates, such as quartz, SiO2, and potassium feldspar, KAlSi3O8.
Materials from Geosphere
Minerals

Ores - Rock like material containing metals which can be economically

isolated in the form of a technically pure product
Eg. Iron ores
Magnetite-Fe3O4, Hematite-Fe2O3, Limonite-Fe(OH)3
Copper ores
Cu2S, CuS, FeCuS2
Titanium ores
Ilmenite-FeTiO3, Rutile;- TiO2
Thorium ore - Monazite
Polymetal ores- several metals in large amounts to be extracted
e.g. Sulphides of copper-zinc, lead-zinc-silver
 Non-Metaliferous materials (Non-Metallics)

used for manufacturing chemicals, building materials and other

non-metallic materials (not metallic ores) but not as a source of
metal

Sulphur -Chemical industry

Phosphate -Fertilizer
Silicon -Electronic Industry

Igneous rock, solidified molten rock, undergoes weathering to produce

secondary minerals.
Clays are common secondary minerals, such as kaolinite, Al2Si2O5(OH)4.
Soil
• is the product of the weathering of rock by physical, chemical, and
biochemical processes that produces a medium amenable to support of
plant growth

• Soil is a term that actually describes a wide range of finely divided

mineral matter containing various levels of organic matter and water
that can sustain and nourish the root systems of plants growing on it

• Generally composed of 95% inorganic matter, but some soils contain up

to 95% organic matter, and some sandy soils may have only about 1%
organic matter

• Silicates are the most common mineral constituents of soil, including

finely divided quartz (SiO2), orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), and albite
(NaAlSi3O8).
Water

Main uses:

Raw material

 Raw material when it becomes a part of the product

(eg. In the beverage industry, chemical industry)

 reactant in the manufacture of phosphoric acid

 solvent common to all industries

Heat transfer

 largest demand in the manufacturing industries is for

heat transfer, water is usually the transfer medium
 also used for cooling the reactants, when heat is
liberated in an exothermic reaction
 water vapour or hot (often superheated) water serves for
heating reacting materials in order to increase the process
rate or to compensate for heat consumed in endothermic
reactions
 condensers, heat exchangers, coolers, refrigeration and
air-conditioning equipment and cooling towers extensively
use water
SOURCES OF WATER
Surface water-
 Rivers, lakes - industrial and municipal use
 Contains mineral impurities, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides (of
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium etc.) and dissolved gases

Ground water-
 Water from wells springs, etc.
 Contains dissolved solids, and saturated with various minerals and
salts
 NaCl is a raw material for soda ash, sodium hydroxide and chlorine
manufacture

Sea water-
 Contains NaCl (2.73%) and other salts (0.8%)
 Chemicals that produced from sea water includes gypsum salt
(CaSO4.2H2O), Epsom salt (MgSO4.2H2O), Mg(OH) 2, NaOH,
bleaching powder, etc.
MATERIALS FROM ATMOSPHERE
Air 78% N2
21% O2
1% other gases

Gaseous nitrogen and oxygen can be produced by liquefaction

followed by fractional distillation

Uses of oxygen
Support combustion, oxidation, steel manufacture, welding,
to sustain animal life, explorer s of outer surface.

Uses of nitrogen
Manufacture of ammonia, nitric acid and nitrous acid
 Materials from Biosphere
Wood
use in pulp and paper industry, manufacture of particle boards, fiberboards
use as a bio fuel
chemicals by steam distillation and solvent extraction

Cotton, rayon, wool and silk

textile industry

Animal and vegetable oil (occur in seeds, flesh from some fruits, stem,
branches, roots and leaves of plants)
coconut, olive, palm – food industry
corn – soap and detergent industry
soya bean, linseed - paint and varnishes industry
castor oil – paint industry
cotton seed – animal feed
Combustion of fuel
Gaseous fuels – natural gas, coal gas, liquefied petroleum gas,
liquefied refinery gas, water gas, town gas, etc.
Liquid fuels – gasoline, kerosine, diesel fuel, furnace gas oil,
aviation fuels
Solid fuels - Coal, peat, wood, wastes

Renewable sources of energy

Nuclear energy
Uranium and Plutonium
Is released by 03 exothermic processes called radioactive
decay, fission , fusion)
Nonrenewable
Energy obtained from static deposits of any source that remains bound
unless exploited by human interaction

Eg. Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels

Renewable

Energy obtained from the repetitive currents of energy occurring in the

natural environment

Solar energy from sun radiation – using solar cells

Wind energy – using wind turbines
Tidal energy from ocean waves
Geothermal energy – earth heat
Hydropower – from forces of moving water
Bio fuels – bio diesel, vegetable oil, wood, cow manure, wastes (coir
dust, saw dust, paddy husk)
Naturally occurring fuels

Coal

• originated by the action of decay, heat and pressure upon the

remains of trees, bushes, ferns and other forms of plant life that
deposited in huge swamps millions of years ago

Principal uses of coal

Combustion -to obtain thermal energy for power generation
and process heating
Gasification -to obtain industrial gases for heating, chemical
reduction, and hydrogenation and synthesis reactions
Carbonization -to convert coal to coke, char, tar, chemicals
and industrial gases
Petroleum

 A complex mixture of hydrocarbons, consisting of dissolved

gases (largely methane, ethane, and significant amounts of
butane propane and other hydrocarbons), water and solids

 Contains certain levels of non-hydrocarbon constituents -

oxygen, nitrogen sulphur containing compounds -
organometallic compounds in solution and inorganic salts in
colloidal suspension

Petrochemicals are used in

-Chemical industry
-Synthetic fiber manufacture
-Plastic industry
-Synthetic rubber industry
-Fertilizer manufacture
Petroleum Refining
Pillars of refining
Natural Gas

 consists of hydrocarbons produced from gas

in oil wells

 contains mainly methane, and a certain amount

of ethane depending on its geographical source

 has excellent combustion characteristics, and is

used extensively as a fuel for residential,
commercial and industrial uses

 also an important raw material for the production

of a wide variety of chemical products
Process Development
 Task of process development is to extrapolate a
chemical reaction discovered and researched in the
laboratory to an industrial scale, taking into
consideration the economic, safety, and ecological
boundary conditions.

The starting point is the laboratory equipment and the

outcome of development is the production plant, in
between, process development is required.
 PROCESS
DEVELOPMENT

Lab Scale Distillation Unit

Industrial Scale
Distillation
column
 Development of a Chemical Engineering process
may have one of the following objectives.

1. Design and construction of a new plant (grass

root designing)

Development of a new process for the production of new

material, compound or a product, never made in commercial
quantity. New materials and new compounds are synthesized
every day. When a promising compound/material or product
is found, the best method of developing it for commercial use
is further investigated.
2. The design and development of a new process
for an old process (modernizing an existing
plant)

The development of a new process for the production of a

product already in large scale production. The new process
may use new, cheap raw materials, avoid troublesome
processing steps, increase the production capacity or it may
reduce the operation cost.

3. Modifications and additions to existing plant;

usually carried out by the plant design group
(process modification)

Existing processes are modified

a. To reduce the present energy consumption (improve energy
efficiency)
b. To cater for the diversification
Procedure for development of a Chemical Process

1. Research, laboratory scale experiments and collection

of process data

2. Process research, mini plant design and development

3. Pilot plant design and development

4. Production plant design and construction

5. Commissioning and operation

1. Research, laboratory scale experiments and collection of
process data

• Establish a new process (usually a batch process) to identify a

promising synthesis route and to discover the associated catalysts
and suitable operating conditions (temperature, pressure etc.) in order
to optimise laboratory synthesis
• Individual process steps are examined independently of each other in
the laboratory
• When the laboratory phase has been completed, further information
must be obtained especially to decide input and output of the reactor.
Potential reaction routes to the main, secondary and by products
Rate of formation, and its dependence on process
parameters such as temperature, pressure, and catalyst
concentration
Kinetics of the main, secondary, and side reactions
Equilibrium data
2. Mini plant (continuous laboratory plant)

• Small, but complete plant handling production quantities of about

100 g/h
• Consisting of a synthesis section, working-up, and all recycling
streams

Process research
• Determines operating conditions for a commercially feasible
process
• Determines yield data for a preliminary economic evaluation
• Discover what variable (temperature, pressure, concentration etc)
must be carefully controlled and suitable operating conditions
(temperature, pressure, concentration etc.) in order to optimise
laboratory synthesis
• Provides information for further development of the process.

Scale-up problem
3. Pilot Plant
• a trial plant with much higher capacity - a few kg/hr or MT/yr
• should be designed as a scaled down version of the industrial
scale plant and not as a larger copy of the existing mini plant
• products are used in application tests or large scale
deliveries to be made to customers
• issues which have not been fully dealt with in the mini plant,
should be solved

• pilot plant must be kept on stand-by until the industrial

scale plant is running satisfactorily
4. Production plant design and development

• Process design is a creative activity and one of the most

rewarding and satisfying activities
• The designer starts with a specific objective in mind, a need, by
developing and evaluating possible design,
to achieve that objective
• Design of one design depending on the nature of the constraints

• Process selection
Possible designs - within the external constraints
Plausible designs - within the internal constraints
Probable design - likely candidate
Best design - judge the best solution to the problem
Design Constraints

Region of all designs

Plausible
designs

Possible designs
 Steps involved in Process Design
1. Feasibility survey
• Examination of technical and economic factors of the
proposed process
• All data to be assembled, including information on possible
processes, equipment performance, and physical property
data, which are obtained from design manuals and
national standards
• Outcome
Plant capacity on the basis of the market research
The projected capital outlay
The projected production costs for the product
The payout time and profitability
The potential site for the plant
2. Development of flow sheets – both qualitative and quantitative
Block Diagram
Material Balance
Energy Balance
Engineering Flow Diagrams (Process flow sheets)
Piping and Instrumentation (P and I) Diagrams

3. Equipment selection and design

select possible type of material and types of equipment which
will suit the job and obtain a cost estimate for each major item

Factors have to be considered when selecting materials

• Temperature • Pressure • Flow rates
• Cost • Mechanical resistance
• Chemical resistance (Corrosive resistant) • Process safety

4. Fabrication
5. Commissioning and operation
• Commissioning refers to preparing the plant for the production
process
• main objective is to eliminate any problems, which might arise
at later and more critical stages of the plant operation
• During commissioning the need for plant modifications will
arise.
 Laboratory phase The cyclic pattern of
Process development
Draft a process plan

Development of the
Individual steps

Evaluate Abandon
development
Development of entire process
in mini plant and of individual
Steps in pilot plants
Abandon
Evaluate
development

Development of the entire

process in a pilot plant
Abandon
Evaluate development

DESIGN OF AN INDUSTRIAL SCALE PLANT

 1000

Cost of
eliminating
mistakes
100

10
1

Laboratory Mini plant Pilot plant Production plant

Investment cost
 Utilities

Ancillary survives needed in the operation of any process

• Electricity
• Steam for process heating
• Cooling water
• De-mineralized water
• Compressed air
• Inert-gas supplies
• Fuel gas
• Furnace oil
• Refrigeration
• Effluent disposal facilities
Electricity
• For Motor drives, Lighting, and General use
• Generated on site or purchased from national
grid
Steam

Uses of steam
Heating
Engines
Turbines
Ejectors
Pumping
Cooking
Steam
Water tube boiler:
used for high pressure boilers
Steam is either saturated (wet or dry) or superheated (to 730 °F (388 °C)
or higher to ensure that there is no water entrained in the steam)
Formation of steam at constant pressure
Fire tube boiler:
Locomotive type boilers - to produce hot combustion gases
Steam Distribution
Steam Traps
Cooling water
• Natural and forced draft cooling towers are used
• Can be drawn from a convenient river or lake
• Sea water or brackish water can be taken for coastal sites
Compressed air
Centrifugal pumps
 Reciprocating pumps

Piston Pumps

Plunger Pumps
Reciprocating pumps

Diaphragm Pumps
Rotary pumps

External Gear pumps

Internal Gear pumps

Rotary pumps

Lobe pumps

Vane pumps
Rotary pumps

Progressive cavity pumps

Screw pumps
Rotary pumps

Peristaltic pumps
Gate Valves

Globe Valves
Diaphragm Valves

Plug Valves
Butterfly Valves

Ball Valves
Needle Valves

Control Valves
• De-mineralized water
• Inert-gas supplies
• Refrigeration
• Effluent disposal facilities