Running head: GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 1

How Gender Bias Impacts the Sporting Realm

Shirell A. Washington

Global Connections

Gregory Falls

December 17, 2018

Global Studies and World Languages Academy at Tallwood High School

GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 2
Table Of Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………....3

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..4

Literature Review……………………………………………………………………….....5

Limitations………………………………………………………………………………....6

Discussion………………………………………………………………………………….7

Gender Pay Gap…………………………………………………………………....7

Gender Equality in Sports: A Global Perspective………………………………….9

Media Representation………………………………………………………………13

Different Playing Conditions……………………………………………………….14

Gender Bias: Beyond Sports………………………………………………………..15

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..17

References..………………………………………………………………………………….18
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 3

Abstract

This paper explores the impact that gender bias has on professional sports. This is seen through

the many issues that have arisen since the inclusion of the Title IX law. Findings have found that

women in sports are still paid less for playing a sport that men participate in as well. They

receive less coverage in the media than men. Female athletes tend to be sexualized and are

expected to act feminine and elegant. Also, findings show that society plays a large role in why

there is bias towards female athletes. The only way to raise awareness of gender bias in sports is

to help people realize having a misogynistic mindset along with an unconscious bias only slows

the process of achieving gender equality in sports. This paper seeks to understand the reasons

why there is bias in sports towards women and why society continues to let it happen.
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 4

Introduction

“Gender equality is the unfinished business of the twenty-first century,” said Elizabeth

Broderick, Australia’s Sex Discrimination Commissioner. Arguably, gender equality has been

unfinished business for any century, but this quote shines a light on how long the world has taken

to achieve gender equality. The issue of gender inequality did not start because some person

brought it up; society, specifically parents and peers, have started instilling in humans that boys

and girls are different, causing this “norm” to be passed down throughout history. Even though

there have been changes in policies and laws that have made some progress in gender equality,

there is still one area where gender inequality lingers in the shadows: sports. All over the world,

women are discriminated against when it comes to playing any type of sport that involves

aggression or strength. Also, men deal with gender stereotypes in sports. When men are seen

participating in sports that are labeled “feminine”they are called wussies, feminine, or even

homosexual. On the other hand, there are sports where men and women compete on the same

team or in the same sport but all the events are practically the same; there are still certain rules

that only pertain to a specific gender. Sports such as track, swimming, tennis, and soccer are

some of the few sports that have specific standards for men and women to meet or do. Society

wants to say the world has achieved gender equality in sports by allowing women to participate

in these “masculine” sports, but there are gaps that still need to be filled. Ultimately, gender roles

and bias in sports are as tangible as gender norms in the general public. Inequality in sports still
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 5
exists today because of unequal pay grades, sport standards, representation in the media, and

gender stereotypes that are instilled in us from a young age.

Literature Review

Sports have become a common activity between males and females. However, even

though men and women can play competitive sports, there still is a line between what sport is

best for a man and what sport is best for a female. Of greatest concern is the relationship between

gender and sports. These concerns have given rise to many different movements and changes to

increase gender equality in sports.

Female Paradox.​ In today’s world, we can understand that gender stereotypes in sports

are instilled in us from a very young age (Paloian, 2012). Female sports are categorized as more

aesthetically pleasing while male sports are seen as more strong or aggressive. This is because

society has already established a set of gender norms that men and women have to fall in (Krane

et al., 2004 as cited in Paloian, 2012). Krane et al., came with the theory that females live in a

paradox, meaning women in sports live a double life. Female athletes are required to succeed in

their sport while balancing their femininity (Paloian, 2012).

Stigma Consciousness.​ These two researchers had a theory about the stigma

consciousness in children regarding the relationship between sports and gender (Schmalz and

Kerstetter, 2006). They wanted to show how, from an early age, children began to understand

gendered activities and how that affected what type of sport they participated in. The results were

that gender neutral sports had higher participation between boys and girls, but sports that were

categorized under either male or female were different among the two sexes. Schmalz and

Kerstetter concluded that people are more willing to accept girls participating in masculine
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 6
activities than a boy participating in feminine activities. Also, they concluded that girls are less at

risk for gender stigma than boys.

Representation in the Media.​ Maley (Maley, 2012) examined how media outlets cover

females athletes. Maley had analyzed every Time magazine from 2007-2009. The focus of

Maley’s research was to determine the amount of articles that had featured female athletes and

what was being said about them. He wanted to understand why female athletes are asked

questions about their personal life rather than their accomplishments in the sport they play. One

of Maley’s research questions was: “Does the type of sport the article subject plays affect the

amount of coverage given to the female athlete?” Maley’s research answered “yes” to his

question.

Males Playing Feminine Sports.​ John Jay College of Criminal Justice had conducted a

study on men’s participation in feminine sports. They had asked 30 people between the ages of

18-25 questions based on a picture that showed a male figure skater. One of the question asked

was: “How do you think he handles being a heterosexual or homosexual man in figure skating,

which is largely considered a feminine, homesexual sport?” The results were “40% of women

stated that figure skating provides a way for him to demonstrate his inner femininity, agreeing

with 60% of men.” (Christofi, et al.)

Limitations

A limitation to acknowledge is that the author is also a female athlete who participates in

male-dominated sport: Track and Field. This paper could possibly include potential bias towards

gender inequality in sports. This paper specifically focuses on professional sports and the impact

it has on them--with little references to high school and college level sports. Most of the research
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 7
presented in this paper is after the 1970s to now after the inclusion of federal civil rights law,

Title IX, but there will be possible mentions to women participation in sports prior to 1970s. The

author’s research is limited to certain parts of the world due to the fact that other areas of the

world had limited data to work with.

Discussion

Gender Pay Gap

The significant pay gap between males and females in general has been a concerning

issue for a long time and still exists today. Many laws and policies have been created to ensure

equal pay, but, in the professional sports world, women are still paid less. For example, the US

Women’s Soccer team gets paid way less than the US Men’s Soccer team. However, the

women’s team is the most successful in the world. According to an infographic (McCarthy,

2017) the US Women’s team earns only about 5.4 million a year as a team; meanwhile, Neymar,

a Brazilian soccer player, earned 43.8 million for his 2017-2018 season--and there is a reason for

this. In the professional sporting world, recruiters and/or sponsors are not willing to pay their

female athletes more because they think female athletes will not produce as much revenue

compared to their male counterparts. However, it is not entirely recruiters’ faults when it comes

to gender pay gap. The fans play a prominent role in why female athletes are paid less.

According to Paisley Benaza, a student from Arizona State University in Journalism and Mass

Communications, said, “Jordan brand has endorsed (Maya Moore) and she’s one of the WNBA

players...But is she selling shoes? Are the fans supporting her? If you want them to get paid

more, there needs to be fans in the seats.” (Douglas, 2018) As a fan, people purchase

merchandise for their favorite athlete and/or sports team, which directly relates to how much
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 8
athletes are paid, and, in Maya Moore’s situation, if people do not buy her shoes the amount she

will receive will not be a large sum. Although gender pay gap is a major issue in the professional

sports world, it is also a common concern in college athletics. Though many would think female

college athletes receive less scholarship funding, it is actually the other way around. The author

conducted an interview with a high school coach, Michael Rose. He is the Head Coach of Cross

Country and Track and Field at Tallwood High School in Virginia Beach.The author asked him a

few questions regarding gender bias in college sports. Rose said,“...it is actually the complete

opposite. With Title IX, colleges are required to give equal amounts of scholarship money to

both women and men college athletes.” Coach Rose used track and field and football as an

example to backup his claim: “In track and field, the most percentage of scholarship money goes

to females than males, because almost all colleges have a football team. There is no women’s

football team, so they have to find a balance. Lots of scholarships go out to football players

because it is a popular sport here in the U.S., so colleges have to find that balance in order to stay

in line with the Title IX law.” (M. Rose, personal communication, December 15, 2018). The

author also asked Coach Rose if he thought the gender gap in sports is closing: “Of course I think

it is closing. Taking a look at tennis, the only sport to actually give equal prize money, which I

think is very outstanding” (M. Rose, personal communication, December 15, 2018). Also, an

article from the BBC suggest the gender pay gap is closing. According to a study published by

BBC Sport, “a total 83% of sports now reward men and women equal prize money” (BBC,

2017). Tennis, from the author’s research, is the only sport that has closed or come close to

closing the pay gap. The first time women and men tennis players were paid equal amounts was

in 1970, during the Open Era, when Billie Jean King, an American former World No. 1
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 9
professional tennis player, called for equal distribution (Bodo, 2018). It was not until 1973 when

the governing official of tennis decided to award equal prize money to winners, male and female,

that year. After this event, other places around the world began working towards equal prize

money, specifically for major tennis events. For example, The Australian Open, during the

1970s, had an equal pay policy, but, by the mid-90s, men started earning more. So the Women’s

Tennis Association [WTA] worked towards equal pay. The WTA’s efforts can be shown when

the officials from Down Under agreed to equal prize money in the 2001 event (Bodo, 2018).

Another example was in 2007 when Wimbledon decided to include equal prize money. At this

time, the percent difference in prize money at the Wimbledon was only five percent (Bodo,

2018).

Gender Equality In Sports: A Global Perspective

Attempts to achieve gender equality are also being made around the world. Many

different countries have implemented laws and policies to ensure men and women are treated

fairly in the sports realm. However, there have been some troubling cases of gender inequality.

United States

Prior to Title XI, women sports were not professional but recreational. They were not

competing for any type of reward or medal. In college, women did not play games against other

colleges but rather played against teams from their schools (Bell, et al., 2008). Now in the 21st

century, things have changed. The United States is seen as place of freedom and equality for both

genders. When the government decided to allow equal participation for women and girls in

education programs, Title IX of the Education Amendments Acts 1972, it was a great time for

America. Different olympic sports that used to be male-dominated became open to women to
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 10
participate in, increasing the number of women participating in the olympics since then. The

progression to gender equality in sports in the U.S. is slowly rising. Many movements and

organizations helped change sport history in America. Before, just 1 in 27 girls played sports;

now today it is two in five (Olmstead, 2016). The US is slowly but surely progressing towards

gender equality in sports. However, there are still cases of gender disparity in sports in America.

Though America has many successful, high-ranking, female athletes, they are still faced with

problems concerning the pay gap, how they are expected to play, how they are expected to act,

etc. For a country with a goal to gender equality, America is lacking in the sports sector.

However, many sports organizations have created policies to ensure equality for all athletes. For

example, Lydia Nsekera, chair of International Olympic Committee Women in Sports

Commission, announced how they are working towards gender equality (olympic.org, 2018).

Nsekera said, “We must all rally behind the IOC’s 25 recommendations...The first three

recommendations focus on increasing the pipeline for female leaders at the IOC itself and at

NOCs and IFs and making sure the rank and file membership is also gender-diverse. The last two

recommendations call for the administrations of Olympic Movement stakeholder groups to

include more women…” (olympic.org, 2018) Since the Olympics foundation is such a big

company, their goal for gender equality in sports can really make an impact. Millions of people

around the world watch the Olympics, and if they see a more gender-diverse environment it may

lead society to believe women in sports are not inferior to men in sports.

Middle East

In most predominantly Muslim countries, women are not at the top of the social pyramid.

For a long time, it is hard for one to image a women being able to freely go out and partake in a
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 11
sport of their choosing, considering many Muslim countries still have patriarchal society. Just

last year, in Saudi Arabia, girls were permitted to participate in physical education classes

alongside the boys (Baumhardt, 2014). This just shows how slowly Middle Eastern countries are

progressing towards gender equality. The topic of female athletes should be of concern in this

region because it conflicts with Muslim traditional values and the fact that most Muslim

countries are not trying to become too westernized. The head coach of Qatar Women’s National

Football Team said in a interview that he keeps receiving complaints from parents about their

daughters wearing tight clothing and that the girls will seem less appealing to men (Baumhardt,

2014). Traditionally, women are not allowed to do certain activities without consent from a

patriarchal figure. Also, in middle eastern culture, it is very inappropriate for men to watch

women play sports (Baumhardt, 2014). As one can see, many of the reasons why middle eastern

women are not very popular in sports is due to cultural barriers. That said, around the world,

many people are working on increasing the opportunities in sports for Muslim women. For

example, right before International Women’s Day, Nike released a new product called the Pro

Hijab, specifically designed for middle eastern women in sports to “minimize the practical

challenges of wearing a religious item of clothing” (Dawling, 2018).

Australia

Unlike, the Middle East and United States, women in Australia are getting the equality

they want with a few setbacks. Back in the day, in colonial times, Australian women were only

allowed or permitted to play sports that did not challenge the gender stereotype (“Women in

Sport,” n.d.). Similar to the United States, Australia denied women to participate in sports

predominantly for men. Australian women were only allowed to participate in sports such as
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 12
croquet and lawn bowls (“Women in Sport,” n.d.). Most of the concerns regarding gender

inequality is the same as what is going on around the world. In Australia, female athletes still get

unequal pay, unequal prize money, and unequal sponsorships. “For example, Netball Australia,

only recently doubled the minimum wage to $27,375, with a top wage of $67, 500 for some

players and netball is only expected to become fully professional within five years” (Gacka,

2017). These problems are things that will continue to be up for debate because no one chooses

to acknowledge these issues. In 2016, the Australian Cricket organization implemented a clause

that acknowledged pregnancy when a woman decides to sign with a professional cricket team.

According to the clause, it was mandatory for women to sign a contract stating they were not

pregnant at the time of signing (Rosengarten, 2016), but now the clause has been removed

because Cricket Australia wants to encourage gender equality in sports. However, compared to

the US and Middle East, Australia is flourishing in increasing women participation in sports.

According to the ​Sydney Morning Herald a​ rticle, “A revolution is underway (Pearce, 2016),”

meaning this is the year women are coming up in the sports world. For example, “Women’s

football is the fastest-growing sport in the country, with 1,547,915 women and girls now playing

the sport” (Harrington, 2017). In another example, the AFL (Australian Rules Football) is

particularly popular among women sports in 2017 (Jarrett, 2017). AFL administration noticed

more people were showing up to watch the game between Carlton versus Collingwood--where

about over 24,000 people attended and millions watched at home (Jarrett, 2017). As one can see,

there is one area in the world that is making progress in achieving gender equality, though not

without some setbacks.

GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 13
Media Representation

If one were to google “female athletes,” google will proffer up variations of articles titled

something along the lines of, “​30 Hottest Females Who Dominate Their Sport.​ ” In another prime

example, Lindsey Vonn, Olympic gold medalist alpine skier, is more commonly known for her

bikini shots in ​Sports Illustrated (​ Brown, 2014). There is obviously disparity between the media

and female athletes, and this is not new. A study conducted by University of Southern California

found that “L.A.-based network affiliates devoted 3.2 percent of airtime to women’s sports on

news broadcasts, down from 5 percent from 1989, the first year of the study. ESPN’s

SportsCenter has been even worse, devoting 2 percent of airtime to women’s sports, a proportion

that has remained flat since the study began tracking the show in 1999” (Chaffee, 2017). This is

due to the fact that people are not interesting in female sports. However, people are only

interested when female sports/athletes are attractive-looking rather than athletic-looking. Too

much masculinity is a big “no” for female athletes in society. If a female looks too “big” or too

“strong” they are considered unlady-like or ugly. A notable example from the 21st century is

Serena Williams. Williams is one of world’s top tennis players, but she is constantly criticized

for her muscular build to the point where people have claimed she was born a man. Society has

this idea that women have to keep their athletic side separated from their femininity. This is an

idea called the female paradox (Paloian, 2012). People with a misogynistic mindset believe in the

female paradox theory, because they only see women as caregivers who stay at home doing

chores and raising kids. So this greatly impacts female athletes because there are so many

expectations people give them, that female athletes are misrepresented in the media and society.

The public will never completely understand the amount of work these female athletes put in to
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 14
get where they are now in their respected sports. Female athletes will always be seen as sexual

objects until society realizes women are just as good as men.

Different Playing Conditions

This issue is not very noticable when attending athletic events that include both men and

women, but men and women are expected to play under different rules/guidelines because of

their gender. For example, FIFA decided that the Women’s World Cup would compete on

artificial turf grass (Zeilinger, 2015). This is fairly minor compared to the other issues, but many

female athletes filed complaints because, when they play on turf, they get significantly more

injuries such as burns. However, of course, the Men’s World Cup does not play on artificial turf.

In ice hockey, a common contact sport, women ice hockey players have limited body contact and

are required to wear full face protection; men ice hockey players are required to wear full face

protection until they are 20 years old, and men are allowed to body check at age 12 (Karp, et al.,

2008). In track and field, specifically field events, women have more of an advantage. In the shot

put, women use lighter weights, as well as in the javelin and discuses. The Olympic Women’s

shot is 8.8 pounds (4 kg), and the men’s shot is 16 pounds (7 kg) (Yenor, 2016). This is the same

for high school and collegiate track and field programs. In the WNBA, they have a better free

shooting percentage than the NBA because the women’s ball is smaller than the men’s ball. For

women, the ball size is about 28.5 in circumference, while the men’s ball is about 29.5 in

circumference (Silverman, 2017).

Perhaps the biggest issue women face in terms of playing under different conditions is the

intersex and transgender rules in sports. “Sex-testing rules on testosterone levels in female

athletes disproportionately affect athletes from the global south” (Karkazis & Jordan-Young,
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 15
2018). In track and field, women with high testosterone levels are banned from participating in

certain running events (400m to the mile) due to a regulation made by the IAAF (International

Association of Athletics Federations) (Karkazis & Jordan-Young, 2018). These regulations

require women to go through a medical process that lowers their hormone levels, and if they do

not got through this process then they have to compete with the men (Carroll, 2018). However,

humans cannot control the hormones of women and men. Men will usually be bigger, faster, and

stronger, and this draws people to watch men’s sports over women’s sports.

Gender Bias: Beyond Sports

In sports, it is sometimes hard to spot differences between the two genders. Humans will

continue to have this ideal that men are better at certain activities than women. However, gender

bias does not just exist in sports; it exists everywhere women and men have to work together (i.e

workplace, education, healthcare, etc.). Gender inequality is a global issue that is still being

addressed even though many have claimed to say there is equality between the sexes. In the

workplace, according to the Pew Research Center, “about four-in-ten working women (42%) in

the United States say they have faced discrimination on the job because of their gender” (Parker

& Funk, 2017). This happens even though, in the U.S., there was a federal law passed to protect

people from discrimination based on sex, [Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964]. Still, in the

twenty-first century, there are cases of sexual harassment and mistreatment in the workplace.

Recently, on November 1st, 2018, over 20,000 google employees walked out on the job to

protest sexual harassment policy (Segarra, 2018). According to The New York Times article that

was posted a week before the protest, Google paid millions in exit packages to male executives

who were accused of sexual harassment or misconduct (Wakabayashi et al., 2018). This situation
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 16
just goes to show how people are getting around the laws that were place to protect people from

inequality. People with power can use that power to protect their image. Another area of gender

discrimination is in the healthcare industry. “Both males and females are faced with unfair

stereotypes and expectations, and while certain occupations still clearly prefer one gender over

the other, discrimination faced is relatively equal between the two genders” (Priya, 2017). When

a woman wants to become a doctor, she has trouble entering the field because a doctor is usually

seen as a men’s job. On the other hand, men who want to become nurses face pervasive

stereotypes. As one can see, gender bias in healthcare is split down the middle for both sexes. So

the talk of gender bias being one-sided is not the case for healthcare. However, there are

situations where gender bias occurs in healthcare. For example,​ Gender Discrimination in

Healthcare s​ ays that “The only fields that women dominate are pediatrics and

obstetrics/gynecology. About 75% of pediatricians are women, and approximately 85% of

OB/GYNs are female. It is believed women dominate these fields because they are viewed as

‘female specialties’ only. Many still believe the idea that only women should handle children and

obstetrics” (Priya, 2017). For men in healthcare, “Patients and sometimes even doctors,

particularly in the field of obstetrics/gynecology, often feel strongly that male nurses shouldn’t

be near the patients. One male nurse spoke of an account where he had to watch the delivery of a

baby from the outside of the room while his female classmates were able to play an active role in

the delivery” (Priya, 2017). However, the most common area for gender inequality exist in the

human mind. Around the world, people have always carried this belief that a woman’s job is stay

home, take care of the children, and do household chores. Areas around the world such as India

and the Middle East still live in a patriarchal society where women have little to no rights.
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 17
According to an article about gender bias in society, “many of these attitudes stem from religious

beliefs and thousand-year-old traditions and rituals that even women have been slow to

challenge—understandably, out of fear for their own lives” (Wolfe, 2018). No one is willing to

challenge cultural traditions or societal norms because it is hard to change a way of life someone

has been used to since birth. It is easy to change and add laws to ensure equality between the two

sexes, but people need to begin to change their societal attitudes about gender if they are to get

rid of gender roles and stereotypes.

Conclusion

Women in sports too often receive less than their male counterparts--less money, less

sponsors, less coverage, etc. This is only because the world has grown to living in a society

where men are better at sports than women, and too few have ever challenged this ideal.

However, many people believe that sports have reached gender equality because women are

starting to receive more--though, not more than men. The problem of gender bias in sports can be

eliminated. However, the only way this can happen is if people change the way they perceive

female athletes. Society needs to realize their unconscious bias affects the sporting world.

Society’s bias only increases the pressure on women to prove themselves worthy of participating

in a male-dominated sport. The world should not judge others solely based on the type of sex

they are, but on their talents and abilities that make them an extraordinary athlete. Gender bias in

sports is something that cannot be fixed with laws and policies; it can only be fixed if people

choose to realize there is an imbalance between how the two sexes are treated in sports.
GENDER BIAS IN SPORTS 18

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