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Psychology Factsheets
www.curriculum-press.co.uk Number 86

Biological Explanations of
Aggression
This Factsheet summarises biological explanations of aggression, including neural, hormonal and genetic factors in aggression. Terms in
bold are explained in the glossary.
A. What is aggression?
• Aggression can be defined as an attitude or behaviour that is hostile and which can cause psychological or physical harm to a person/
object.

• It can be categorised into three types:

o predatory aggression against another species.
o social aggression against members of the same species.
o defensive aggression in response to a threat.
B. Explaining aggression
Psychologists explain aggression in various ways. For example, the evolutionary approach considers the role of aggression for our
survival in the environment. This Factsheet covers only biological explanations of aggression which focus on the role of neurons,
hormones, genetics and various brain areas.

Exam Hint:- You must be able to describe and evaluate biological explanations of aggression. However, you also need to know
social and evolutionary explanations of aggression. Do not limit your knowledge to just one of these approaches.

1. Hormonal factors
• High levels of the hormone testosterone are associated with increased physical
aggression. This link is found in many species (e.g., fish, rats, monkeys, humans).

• Men have higher testosterone levels than women and tend to show more physical
aggression. For example, male murderers outnumber female murderers by 10:1 (Anderson
and Bushman, 2002). Females do show aggression but it tends to be less physical and
involves indirect attacks (e.g., insults, isolating others) (Oesterman et al., 1998).

• The highest levels of violence are by men in the 15 to 25-years age range which is when
testosterone levels are highest.
• However, the link between testosterone and aggression is complex as high levels of
testosterone are also found in criminals who show dominant behaviour but are non-violent.

• Rather than making a person aggressive, testosterone may alter the way they react to a stimulus. For example, when young
women were injected with testosterone they showed a greater than usual increase in heart rate when they looked at photographs
of angry faces (van Honk et al., 2001).

• The evidence shows a correlation between levels of aggression and levels of testosterone. However, a correlation does not tell
us about cause and effect between variables; testosterone may cause aggression or aggression may lead to higher levels of
testosterone. Research has shown that testosterone (administered externally) increases subsequent aggressiveness, but
aggressive encounters can cause increased secretion of testosterone (Sapolsky, 1998).

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2. Neural and brain systems

(a) Serotonin
• In humans, the neurotransmitter serotonin is involved in maintaining mood and suppressing impulsive behaviour. Low levels of
serotonin are associated with increased aggressive behaviour. For example:
o Low serotonin levels are associated with impulsive aggression in monkeys (Higley, Suomi and Linnoila, 1990).
o Low serotonin levels are associated with assaults, self-injury and violent suicide in humans (Dolan, Anderson and Deakin,
2001).
o Many studies have found low serotonin turnover in people with a history of violent behaviour (i.e., they may have a normal
amount of serotonin but release only small amounts) (Virkkunen et al., 1987).
o Kruesi et al. (1992) found that children/adolescents with a history of aggression who had lowest serotonin turnover were most
likely to get into trouble again for aggressive behaviour in the following two years
• There is evidence that suddenly and temporarily lowering people’s levels of serotonin (through diet or drugs) affects them in
different ways. People who are prone to depression become depressed whereas people prone to aggression show more aggressive
behaviour. It may be that people who are frequently violent do not have a stronger urge to be aggressive but have weaker
mechanisms for inhibiting aggression (Davidson et al., 2000).

(b) Amygdala
• The limbic system is linked to the control of emotion. There is
evidence that one part of the limbic system, the amygdala,
influences aggression. For example:
o When the amygdala is stimulated directly in hamsters, they This image shows the underside
show signs of preparing to attack (Potegal et al., 1996). of a human brain. The front of
the brain is at the top of the
o Mark and Ervin (1970) reported the case study of an adult, picture. The cross-hatched ovals
Thomas, who had ‘intermittent explosive disorder’ after are the amygdala on each side of
suffering brain damage. He had outbursts of unprovoked the brain.
violent behaviour, particularly towards his wife. After having
surgery which deliberately destroyed part of his amygdala,
he had no more violent episodes.

(c) Prefrontal cortex

• People who have damage to the prefrontal cortex of the
brain are more likely to fight or show threatening behaviour
than other people, and they may show this on less The prefrontal cortex is the front
provocation (Giancola, 1995). However, people with prefrontal part of the frontal lobe.
problems tend to show a general loss of inhibition and
socially inappropriate behaviours, not just violent behaviour.

Some evidence suggests that abnormal activity in certain brain areas may play a role in some people’s inclination to be
violent. Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasse (1997) used PET scans to compare the brain activity of 41 convicted male murderers
with 41 normal males (who were matched controls). They found that that the murderers did have different brain functioning
compared to the normal controls in some areas. Among other findings, the murderers had reduced activity in the prefrontal
cortex and abnormal activity in the amygdala.

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3. Genetic factors C. Evaluating biological explanations and evidence

• Evidence from twin studies and adoption studies suggests that
there are genetic factors in aggression. For example:
o Monozygotic (MZ) twins have been found to resemble each
other in aggressive and criminal behaviour more than
dizygotic (DZ) twins. It has also been found that adopted
children resemble their biological parents in aggressive and
criminal behaviour more than their adopted parents (Mason
and Frick, 1994).
o Lyons et al. (1995) found that MZ twins resembled each
other much more than DZ twins in adult crimes.
• Both genetic and environmental factors may contribute to
aggressive behaviour. For example, one study found that
aggressive behaviour and conduct disorders in adopted children
were more likely when their biological parents had criminal
records and when their adoptive parents had a variety of
problems (e.g., marital and legal problems, depression and
substance abuse).
• Specific abnormal genes have been found which are involved in
reducing the ability to control impulsive behaviour. One of these
genes breaks down serotonin and biases the brain towards
impulsive, aggressive behaviour. This gene was found mostly
in men who tended to have smaller brain areas related to emotion
and less activity in the areas which control impulsiveness.
• Research with mice has identified specific genes which are
associated with the likelihood of attack (Brodkin et al., 2002).
Exam Hint:- In the exam, read the question carefully and make
sure that you write about the correct explanation. If you are
asked about biological explanations of aggression, do not write
about social explanations!
Exam Hint:- Evolutionary explanations of aggression are not
the same as biological explanations. Writing about evolutionary
explanations when asked about biological ones will not gain
any marks (unless they very clearly refer to purely biological
factors, such as brain systems or neural factors).
You can evaluate the explanations in several ways:
• Evaluate the biological approach in general. For example,
biological explanations of behaviour are criticised for being
reductionist (see Curriculum Press Factsheet ‘The Biological
Approach to Psychology’).
• Use supporting evidence to show a strength of a research study/
explanation (i.e., their findings correspond) or use contradictory
evidence to show a limitation of a study/explanation. For
example, there appears to be an established link between levels
of testosterone and aggression but high levels of testosterone
are also found in criminals who are dominant and non-violent.
• You can evaluate the research methods used. For example, as
many studies of aggression use non-human animals it is not
clear if the findings generalise to human behaviour. Case studies
provide valuable detailed evidence of circumstances which could
not be done experimentally but the findings may not represent
the behaviour of ‘normal’ people. Similarly, correlations, twin
studies, adoption studies and PET scans all have their own
strengths and limitations.
• Remember that there are ethical issues and various implications
of the biological explanations. For example, can we, or even
should we, treat aggression using drugs or surgery? Also,
genetic explanations for aggression are deterministic.
Exam Hint:- Do not use rote-learnt points of evaluation. Make
sure that you show your knowledge by applying your
evaluation specifically to the evidence/explanation which you
are discussing.
Example Exam Question
Outline and evaluate one biological explanation of aggression
This question requires you to first briefly describe (outline) one
biological explanation and then weigh up its strengths and
weaknesses (evaluate it). You can choose from any of the
explanations in this Factsheet. Make sure that you do this for
just one explanation, such as writing about brain systems (e.g.,
amygdala, prefrontal cortex) or genetic factors, not both. Also
ensure that you use research evidence in your answer. Section
C in this factsheet explains how you can evaluate such evidence
and the biological explanations.

Glossary
Adoption studies: Studies examining similarity in a trait between a child and its adoptive parents (suggesting environmental influence on that trait) or its
biological parents (suggesting a genetic basis for that trait).
Case study: In-depth and detailed study of a single individual or single group of people.
Correlation: Relationship between two variables.
Deterministic: Concept that all events/actions are determined by causes that are independent of human will.
Dizygotic (DZ) twins: Fraternal twins who develop from different eggs; they share 50% of the same genes (as for any siblings).
Hormone: A chemical messenger in the body which is released by a gland in the endocrine system and circulates in the blood, affecting only target organs.
Limbic system: A set of brain areas which are involved in emotion. The areas include the hypothalamus, amygdala and cortex, amongst others, and are
located around the brainstem.
Monozygotic (MZ) twins: Identical twins who develop from the same egg; they have exactly the same genes (100%).
Neurotransmitter: A chemical released by a neuron (nerve cell) that affects other neurons.
PET scan: Positron emission tomography; method used to obtain dynamic pictures of activity in the living brain.
Prefrontal cortex: The anterior (front of head) portion of the frontal lobe in the brain.
Reductionist: Examining complex behaviours by breaking them down into more basic elements.
Turnover: The amount of release and re-synthesis of neurotransmitters by neurons.
Twin studies: Studies examining the genetic basis of a trait by comparing MZ and DZ twins who have been raised in the same environment (any differences
suggests genetic factors) or by comparing MZ twins who are reared apart in different environments (any similarities suggesting genetic factors).

Acknowledgements: This Psychology Factsheet was researched and written by Amanda Albon. The Curriculum Press, Bank House, 105 King Street, Wellington, Shropshire, TF1 1NU.
Psychology Factsheets may be copied free of charge by teaching staff or students, provided that their school is a registered subscriber. No part of these Factsheets may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any other form or by any other means, without the prior permission of the publisher. ISSN 1351-5136
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Worksheet: Biological explanations of aggression

Name
1. (a) Outline two research findings from one biological explanation of aggression.

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(b) Give one point of evaluation for these two research findings.

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2. Name one hormone, one neurotransmitter and one brain area involved in aggression.

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Neurotransmitter: ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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3. Briefly explain how twin studies indicate that there is a genetic factor in aggression.

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4. Complete the table to show one advantage and one disadvantage of three research methods. Choose three methods from the following:
laboratory experiments, animal studies, correlations, case studies, twin studies, adoption studies, PET scans.

Research method Advantage Disadvantage

1.

2.

3.