Section Data For Steel Profiles

Structural Steelwork Eurocodes
Development of
A Trans-national Approach
Course: Eurocode 3
Module 7 : Worked Examples
Lecture 20 : Simple braced frame
Contents:
1. Simple Braced Frame

1.1 Characteristic Loads
1.2 Design Loads Fd = γF Fk
1.3 Partial Safety Factors for Strength
2. Floor Beam - Fully Restrained

2.1 Classification of Cross-section
2.1.1Flange buckling
2.1.2 Web buckling
2.2 Shear on Web
2.3 Deflection Check
2.4 Additional Checks if Section is on Seating Cleats
2.5 Crushing Resistance
2.6 Crippling Resistance
2.7 Buckling Resistance
2.8 Summary
3. Roof Beam – Restrained at Load Points

3.1 Initial Section Selection
3.2 Classification of Cross Section
3.2.1 Flange buckling
3.2.2 Web buckling
3.3 Design Buckling Resistance Moment
3.4 Shear on Web
3.6 Crushing, Crippling and Buckling
3.7 Summary
4. Internal Column
4.1 Loadings
4.2 Section properties
©SSEDTA 2001
Structural Steelwork Eurocodes – Development of a Trans-National Approach
Worked examples
Design of a 3-storey unbraced frame
4.3 Classification of Cross-Section

4.3.1 Flange (subject to compression)
4.3.2 Web (subject to compression)
4.4 Resistance of Cross-Section
4.5 Buckling Resistance of Member
4.6 Determination of Reduction Factor χy
4.7 Determination of Reduction Factor χz
5. External Column
5.1 Loadings
5.2 Section properties
5.3 Classifcation of Cross-Section
5.3.1 Flange (subject to compression)
5.3.2 Web (subject to compression)
5.4 Resistance of Cross-Section
5.6 Determination of Reduction factor χy
5.7 Determination of Reduction factor χz
6. Design of Cross-Bracing
6.1 Section Properties
6.3 Design of Compression Member
6.3.1 Resistance of Cross-section
6.3.2 Design Buckling Resistance
6.3.3 Determination of Reduction Factor χ?
6.4 Design of Tension Member

6.4.1Resistance of Cross-Section
7. Concluding Summary
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Worked examples
1. Simple Braced Frame

The frame consists of two storeys and two bays. The frames are at 5 m
spacing. The beam span is 7,2 m. The height from column foot to the
beam at floor level is 4,5 m and the height from floor to roof is 4,2 m. It is
assumed that the column foot is pinned at the foundation.
Roof Beam
External 4,2 m
Internal
Column Column
Floor Beam
4,5 m
7,2 m 7,2 m
Figure 1 Typical Cross Section of Frame
It is assumed that resistance to lateral wind loads is provided by a
system of localised cross-bracing, and that the main steel frame is
designed to support gravity loads only.
The connections are designed to transmit vertical shear, and it is also 6.4.2.1(2)
assumed that the connections offer little, if any, resistance to free
rotation of the beam ends. 5.2.2.2
With these assumptions, the frame is classified as ‘simple’, and the
internal forces and moments are determined using a global analysis
which assumes the members to be effectively pin-connected.
1.1 Characteristic Loads
Floor: Variable load, Qk = 3,5 kN/m2 Permanent load, Gk = 8,11
kN/m2
Roof: Variable load, Qk = 0,75 kN/m2 Permanent load, Gk = 7,17
kN/m2
1.2 Design Loads Fd = γF Fk 2.2.2.4(1)
Floor: Gd = γG Gk. At ultimate limit state γG = 1,35 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Gd = 1,35 x 8,11 = 10,95 kN/m2 Table 2.2
Qd = γQ Qk. At ultimate limit state γQ = 1,5 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Qd = 1,5 x 3,5 = 5,25 kN/m2 Table 2.2
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Roof: Gd = γG Gk. At ultimate limit state γG = 1,35 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)

Gd = 1,35 x 7,17 = 9,68 kN/m2 Table 2.2
Qd = γQ Qk. At ultimate limit state γQ = 1,5 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)
Qd = 1,5 x 0,75 = 1,125 kN/m2 Table 2.2
The steel grade selected for beams, columns and joints is Fe360. Table 3.1
(fy = 235 N/mm2)
1.3 Partial Safety Factors for Strength
The following partial safety factors for strength have been adopted 2.3.3.2(1)
during the design:
• Resistance of Class 1,2 or 3 cross-section, γM0 = 1,1
• Resistance of member to buckling, γM1 = 1,1 5.1.1(2)
• Resistance of bolted connections, γMb = 1,25 5.1.1(2)
6.1.1(2)
The following load case, corresponding to permanent and variable
actions (no horizontal loads) is found to be critical.
2. Floor Beam - Fully Restrained
The beam shown in Figure 2 is simply supported at both ends and is
fully restrained along its length.
For the loading shown, design the beam in grade Fe360, assuming that
it is carrying plaster, or a similar brittle finish.
Fd = γG Gk + γQ Qk Table 2.1
Design load, Fd = (5 x 1,35 x 8,11) + (5 x 1,5 x 3,5) = 81 kN/m
81 kN/m
7,2 m
Figure 2 Loading on Fully Restrained Floor Beam
Fd L2
Design moment, MSd =
8
Where MSd is the design moment in beam span,
Fd is the design load = 81 kN/m, and L is the beam span = 7,2m.
81x7,2 2
MSd = = 525 kNm
8
F L 81x7,2
Design shear force, VSd = d = = 292 kN
2 2
To determine the section size it is assumed that the flange thickness is Table 3.1
less than 40 mm so that the design strength is 235 N/mm2, and that the
section is class 1 or 2.
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The design bending moment, MSd, must be less than or equal to the 5.4.5.1(1)
design moment resistance of the cross section, Mc.Rd:
MSd ≤ Mc.Rd
W f
Mc.Rd = Mpl.y.Rd = pl y
γ M0
Where Wpl is the plastic section modulus (to be determined), Table 3.1
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and 5.1.1(2)
γM0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1.
Therefore, rearranging:
M γ 525x103 x1,1
Wpl.required = sd M0 = = 2457 cm3
fy 235
Try IPE 550 5.4.5.1
Section properties:
Depth, h = 550 mm, Width, b = 210 mm
Web thickness, tw = 11,1 mm Flange thickness, tf = 17,2 mm
3
Plastic modulus, Wpl = 2787 cm
This notation conforms with Figure 1.1 in Eurocode 3: Part1.1.
2.1 Classification of Cross-section
As a simply supported beam is not required to have any plastic rotation 5.3
capacity (only one hinge required), it is sufficient to ensure that the 5.3.2 and
section is at least class 2 to develop the plastic moment resistance. Table
5.3.1
Figure 3 shows a typical cross-section for an IPE.
IPE sections have been used in this example to reflect the European
nature of the training pack.
c 2.1.1 Flange buckling Table

5.3.1
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an (Sheet 3)
outstand of a rolled section is 10ε.
tw ε = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2,
d
therefore ε =1.
tf c
Calculate the ratio , where c is half
tf
the width of the flange = 105 mm, and
tf is the flange thickness = 17,2 mm (if
Figure 3 A Typical the flange is tapered, tf should be
Cross-Section taken as the average thickness).
c 105
= = 6,10
t f 17,2
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2.1.2 Web buckling Table

5.3.1
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to bending is 72ε. (Sheet 1)
ε = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore ε =1.
d
Calculate the ratio , where d is the depth between root radii = 467,6
tw
mm and tw is the web thickness = 11,1 mm.
d 467,6
= = 42,1 Table
tw 11,1
5.3.1
c d (Sheets 1
< 10ε and < 72ε
tf tw and 3)
∴ Section is Class 1 and is capable of developing plastic moment.
2.2 Shear on Web
The shear resistance of the web must be checked. The design shear 5.4.6
force, VSd, must be less than or equal to the design plastic shear
resistance, Vpl.Rd:
VSd ≤ Vpl.Rd
fy / 3
Where Vpl.Rd is given by A v
γ M0
For rolled I and H sections loaded parallel to the web, 5.4.6(4)
Shear area, Av = 1,04 h tw,
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and Table 3.1
γM0 is the partial material safety factor = 1,1. 5.1.1(2)
1,04ht w fy 1,04 x 550 x 11,1 x 235

∴ Vpl.Rd = = = 783 kN
3xγ M0 3 x 1,1x103
This is greater than the shear on the section (292 kN).

The shear on the beam web is OK.
If the beam has partial depth end-plates, a local shear check is required
on the web of the beam where it is welded to the end-plate.
fy / 3
Vpl.Rd = A v
γ M0
where Av = twd, and
d is the depth of end-plate = (for example) 300 mm.
11,1 x 300 x 235

Vpl.Rd = = 411 kN
3 x 1,1 x 103
This is greater than the shear on the section (292 kN).
The local shear on the beam web is OK.
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Other simple joints may be used instead, e.g. web cleat joints or fin plate
joints.
A further check is sometimes required, especially when there are 5.4.7(3)

significant point loads, cantilevers or continuity, to ensure that the shear
will not have a significant effect on the moment resistance. This check is
carried out for the moment and shear at the same point. The moment
resistance of the web is reduced if the shear is more than 50% of the
shear resistance of the section. With a uniform load, the maximum
moment and shear are not coincident and this check is not required for
beams without web openings.
Eurocode 3 requires that the deflections of the beam be checked under 4.2
the following serviceability loading conditions:
• Variable actions, and
• Permanent and variable actions.
Figure 4 shows the vertical deflections to be considered.
δ1 δ0
δ max
δ2
L
Figure 4 Vertical Deflections
δ0 is the pre-camber (if present),

δ1 is the deflection due to permanent actions,
δ2 is the deflection caused by variable loading, and
δmax is the sagging in the final state relative to the straight line joining the
supports.
For a plaster or similar brittle finish, the deflection limits are L/250 for Table 4.1
δmax and L/350 for δ2. Deflection checks are based on the serviceability Figure 4.1
loading.
5 Fk L3
For a uniform load δ = x
384 EI y
where Fk is the total load = Qk or (Gk + Qk) as appropriate,
L is the span = 7,2 m, 3.2.5
E is the modulus of elasticity (210 000 N/mm2), and
Iy is the second moment of area about the major axis = 67120 x 104
mm4.
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For permanent actions, Fk = 5 x 8,11 x 7,2 = 292 kN.

Therefore, deflection due to permanent actions,
5 x 292x103 x 72003
δ1 = = 10,1 mm
384 x 210 000 x 67120x104
For variable actions, Fk = 5 x 3,5 x 7,2 = 126 kN.

Therefore, deflection due to variable actions,
5 x 126x103 x 72003
δ2 = = 4,3 mm
384 x 210 000 x 67120x104
The maximum deflection, δ max = δ 1 + δ 2 = 10,1 + 4,3 = 14,4 mm

L 7200 Table 4.1
Deflection limit for δ 2 = = = 20,6 mm
350 350
The actual deflection is less than the allowable deflection: 4,3 mm < 20,6
mm Table 4.1
L 7200
Deflection limit for δ max = = = 28,8 mm
250 250
The actual deflection is less than the allowable deflection: 14,4 mm <
28,8 mm ∴ OK.
The calculated deflections are less than the limits, so no pre-camber is 4.3.2(2)
required. It should be noted that if the structure is open to the public, Lecture 3,
there is a limit of 28 mm for the total deflection of δ1 + δ2 (neglecting any section
pre-camber) under the frequent combination, to control vibration. This is 6.2
based on a single degree of freedom, lumped mass approach. For the
frequent combination the variable action is multiplied by ψ, which has a 2.3.4(2)
value of 0,6 for offices.
2.4 Additional Checks if Section is on Seating Cleats

There are cases where the beams may be supported on seating cleats,
or on other materials such as concrete pads. A similar situation arises
when a beam supports a concentrated load applied through the flanges.
In these cases the following checks are required: 5.7.3
• Crushing of the web 5.7.4
• Crippling of the web 5.7.5
• Buckling of the web
Generally, these checks need only be carried out for short beams or
beams with concentrated loads. For the sake of completeness, these
checks are included in this worked example.
The following detailed checks are for an 85 mm stiff bearing. (The actual
length of stiff bearing will depend on the detail of the connection - see
Figure 5.7.2)
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2.5 Crushing Resistance 5.7.3

The crushing resistance is given by
(ss + sy )t w fyw
R y.Rd =
γ M1
where ss is the length of stiff bearing = 85 mm, Table 3.1
tw is the web thickness = 11,1 mm, 5.1.1(2)
fyw is the yield strength of the web = 235 N/mm2, 5.7.3(1)
γM1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1, and
sy is the length over which the effect takes place, based on the section
geometry and the longitudinal stresses in the flange.
sy = 2tf (bf/tw)0,5 (fyf/fyw)0,5 [1 - (σf.Ed /fyf)2 ]0,5
At the support, the stress in the beam flange, σf.Ed, is zero, fyf = fyw but 5.7.3(3)
the value of sy is halved at the end of the member.
2 x 17,2 x (210 / 11,1) 0,5

sy = = 75 mm
2
(85 + 75) x 11,1 x 235
∴ Crushing resistance, Ry.Rd = = 379,4 kN
1,1x103
This is greater than the reaction (292 kN).
The crushing resistance is OK
2.6 Crippling Resistance

The crippling resistance is given by 5.7.4(1)
2
0,5t w (Efyw ) 0,5[(t f / t w ) 0,5 + 3(t w / t f )(ss / d)]
R a.Rd =
γ M1
where tw is the thickness of the web = 11,1 mm, 3.2.5

E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2, Table 3.1
fyw is the yield strength of the web = 235 N/mm2,
tf is the flange thickness = 17,2 mm, 5.7.4(1)
ss is the length of stiff bearing = 85 mm, but ss is limited to a maximum of
0,2d (467,6 mm x 0,2 = 93,5 mm),
d is the depth between root radii = 467,6 mm, and 5.1.1(2)
γM1 is the partial material safety factor buckling resistance = 1,1.
0,5 x 11,12 (210000 x 235) 0,5[(17,2 / 11,1) 0,5 + 3(11,1 / 17,2)(85 / 467,6)]
R a,Rd =
1,1x103
= 626 kN

The crippling resistance is OK.
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2.7 Buckling Resistance

The buckling resistance is determined by taking a length of web as a 5.7.5
strut. The length of web is taken from Eurocode 3, which in this case,
gives a length: Figure
s 5.7.3
beff = 0,5(h2 + ss ) 0,5 + a + s but ≤ [h2 + ss2]0,5
2
2
where h is the height of the section = 550 mm,
ss is the length of stiff bearing = 85 mm, and
a is the distance to the end of the beam = 0 mm.
85
b eff = 0,5(5502 + 852 ) 0,5 + = 320,5 mm
2
Provided that the construction is such that the top flange is held by a 5.7.5(4)
slab and the bottom by seating cleats, against rotation and
displacement, the effective height of the web for buckling should be
taken as 0,7 x distance between fillets.
l = 467,6 mm x 0,7 = 327 mm
t 11,1
Radius of gyration for web, i = w = = 3,2
12 12
l 327 5.5.1.4(3)
Slenderness of the web, λ = = = 102
i 3,2 5.5.1.2
λ 0,5
Non-dimensional slenderness of the web, λ = βA
λ1 5.7.5(3)
Where λ1 = 93,9 ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9, and βA = 1
102
∴ Non - dimensional slenderness of the web, λ = = 1,09 5.7.5(3)
93,9
and Table
Using buckling curve c, the value of the reduction factor, χ may be 5.5.2
determined from Table 5.5.2.
Reduction factor, χ = 0,49 5.5.1.1(1)
χβ A Afy
Buckling resistance of a compression member, N b.Rd =
γ M1
A is the cross-sectional area = beff tw, Table 3.1
γM1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1.
0,49 x 1 x 320,5 x 11,1 x 235
N b.Rd = = 372,4 kN
1,1x103
The buckling resistance is OK.
2.8 Summary
The trial section IPE 550 is satisfactory if the section is on a stiff bearing
85 mm long. If it is supported by web cleats or welded end plates, the
web checks, except for shear, are not required and the section is again
satisfactory.
The beam is satisfactory.
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3. Roof Beam - Restrained at Load Points

The roof beam shown in Figure 5 is laterally restrained at the ends and
at the points of application of load. The load is applied through purlins at
1,8 m spacings.
Internal point load = 1,8 [(5 x 1,35 x 7,17) + (5 x 1,5 x 0,75)] = 97,2 kN
External point load = 0,9 [(5 x 1,35 x 7,17) + (5 x 1,5 x 0,75)] = 48,6 kN
It is assumed that the external point loads will be applied at the end of
the beams, and will contribute to the maximum shear force applied to
the end of the beam, and the moment induced in the column due to the
eccentricity of connection.
For the loading shown, design the beam in grade Fe360 steel.
48,6 kN 97,2 kN 97,2 kN 97,2 kN 48,6 kN
A B C D E
1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m

7,2 m
Figure 5 Beam Restrained at Load Points
Reactions
VSd (at supports) = [(2 x 48,6) + (3 x 97,2)] / 2 = 194,4 kN
Design Moment
Figure 6 shows the distribution of bending moments.
1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m

0 0
262,4 kNm 262,4 kNm
349,9 kNm
Figure 6 Bending Moment Diagram
Moment at mid-span (maximum)
MSd = [(194,4 - 48,6) x 3,6] - (97,2 x 1,8) = 349,9 kNm
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3.1 Initial Section Selection

Assume that a rolled I beam will be used and that the flanges will be less
than 40 mm thick. For grade Fe360 steel, fy = 235 N/mm2. Because the Table 3.1
beam is unrestrained between load points, the design resistance, Mc.Rd,
of the section will be reduced by lateral torsional buckling. The final
section, allowing for the buckling resistance moment being less than the
full resistance moment of the section, would have to be determined from
experience.
Try IPE O 450 5.4.5.1

Section properties:
Web thickness, tw = 11 mm Flange thickness, tf = 17,6 mm
3
Plastic modulus, Wpl = 2046 cm

As a simply supported beam is not required to have any plastic rotation 5.3
capacity (only one hinge required), it is sufficient to ensure that the 5.3.2 and
section is at least class 2 to develop the plastic moment resistance. Table
5.3.1
3.2.1 Flange buckling Table
5.3.1
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an outstand of a rolled section is 10ε. (Sheet 3)
c
Calculate the ratio , where c is half the width of the flange = 96 mm,
tf
and tf is the flange thickness = 17,6 mm (if the flange is tapered, tf
should be taken as the average thickness).
c 96
= = 5,5
t f 17,6
3.2.2 Web buckling Table

5.3.1
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to bending is 72ε. (Sheet 1)
d
Calculate the ratio , where d is the depth between root radii = 378,8
tw
mm and tw is the web thickness = 11,0 mm.
d 378,8
= = 34,4 Table
tw 11,0
5.3.1
c d (Sheets 1
< 10ε and < 72ε
tf tw and 3)
∴ Section is Class 1.
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3.3 Design Buckling Resistance Moment

The design buckling resistance moment of a laterally unrestrained beam 5.5.2
is given by:
χ LTβ W Wpl.y f y
M b.Rd = Table
γ M1 5.5.2
5.5.2(4)
in which χLT is the reduction factor for lateral torsional buckling, from
Table 5.5.2, for the appropriate value of λ LT , using curve a for rolled
sections.
In this case full lateral restraint is provided at the supports and at the
load points B, C and D. In general, all segments need to be checked, but
in this case they are all of equal length. The segments B - C and C - D
are subject to the most severe condition, but with symmetrical loading
only one segment needs to be checked.
Segment B - C Annex F
The value of λLT can be determined using Annex F. For segment B - C it
is assumed that the purlins at B and C provide the following conditions:
• restraint against lateral movement,
• restraint against rotation about the longitudinal axis (i.e.
torsional/twisting restraint), and
• freedom to rotate in plan. F.1.2(2)
i.e. k = kw = 1,0
For this example, the general formula for λLT has been used, as the
section is doubly symmetric and end-moment loading is present.
The following formula for λLT may be used: Equation
F.15
L / i LT
λ LT = 0 , 25
 ( L / a LT ) 2 
C 1 1 +
0 ,5

 25,66 

where L is the length between B and C = 1800 mm,

Iz is the second moment of area about the z - z axis = 2085 x 104 mm4,
Iw is the warping constant = 998 x 109 mm6,
Wpl.y is the plastic modulus about the y - y axis = 2046 x 103 mm3, and
It is the torsion constant = 89,3 x 104 mm4.
 II 
0,25 0,25 F.2.2(3)
 2085x104 x 998x109 
i LT =  z w2  =  = 47,2 mm
 Wpl.y   (2046x103 ) 2 
I 
0,5
 998x109 
0,5
F.2.2(1)
a LT =  w =  = 957 mm
 It   109x104 
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Note: These properties will probably be tabulated in handbooks.

See also appendix A at the end of this example.
C1 is the correction factor for the effects of any change of moment along
the length, L.
ψ = 262,4/349,9 = 0,75, k = 1, therefore C1 = 1,141 Table
F.1.1
Substituting into the above equation:
1800 / 47,2
λ LT = = 34,6
2 0 , 25

, 0,5 1 +
(1800 / 957) 
1141 
 25,66 
λ LT 0,5 5.5.2(4)
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ LT = βw
λ1
Where λ1 = 93,9 ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9,
5.5.2(5)
βw = 1 for class 1 sections.
34,6
Therefore, λ LT = (1,0) 0,5 = 0,37
93,9
For rolled I sections, buckling curve a should be used. From Table 5.5.2, Table
the reduction factor, χLT = 0,96. (This represents a 4% strength reduction 5.5.3
due to moment) Table
5.5.2
Wpl.y is the plastic modulus about the y - y axis = 2046 x 103 mm3,
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2, and Table 3.1
γM1 is the partial material safety factor for buckling resistance = 1,1. 5.1.1(2)
The design buckling resistance moment for segment B - C is:

5.5.2
χ LTβ W Wpl.y f y 0,96 x 1 x 2046x10 x 235
3
M b.Rd = = = 419,6 kNm
γ M1 1,1 x 106
Mb.Rd = 419,6 kNm > MSd = 349,9 kNm, therefore the section is
satisfactory.
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3.4 Shear on Web 5.4.6(1)

The maximum shear occurs at the supports, VSd = 194,4 kN.
The design shear resistance for a rolled I section is:
Vpl.Rd =
(
1,04ht w fy / 3 ) 5.4.6(4)
γ M0
where h is the height of the section = 456 mm, Table 3.1

tw is the web thickness = 11 mm, 5.1.1(2)
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2, and
γM0 is the partial material safety factor for the resistance of the cross-
section = 1,1.
1,04 x 456 x 11 x 235

Vpl.Rd = = 643 kN
3 x 1,1 x 103
VSd = 194,4 kN < Vpl.Rd = 643 kN, therefore the section is satisfactory.
Inspection shows that VSd < (Vpl.Rd / 2), so there is no reduction in 5.4.7(2)
moment resistance due to the shear in the web.
Eurocode 3 requires that the deflections of the beam be checked under 4.2
the following serviceability loading conditions:
• Variable actions, and

• Permanent and variable actions.
For a general roof, the deflection limits are L/200 for δmax and L/250 for Table 4.1
δ2. Deflection checks are based on the serviceability loading. Figure 4.1
Consider the deflection from the permanent loading.
For a point load, distance a from the end of the beam:
Fk a  L2 a 2 
Central deflection, δ =  − 
EI y  16 12 
3.2.5(1)
where Fk is the value of one point load = (7,17 x 5 x 1,8) = 64,5 kN,
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2,
mm4,
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m, and
a is the distance from the support to the adjacent load = 1,8 m.
64,5x103 x 1800  72002 18002 

Central deflection, δ =  −  = 4,0 mm
210 000 x 40920x104  16 12 
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For a central point load:
Fk L3
Central deflection, δ =
48EI y
3.2.5(1)
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m,
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2, and
mm4.
64,5x103 x 72003
Central deflection, δ = = 5,8 mm
48 x 210 000 x 40920x104
Total deflection due to permanent loading, δ1 = 5,8 + (2 x 4,0) = 13,8

mm
Consider the deflection from the variable loading.
For a point load, distance a from the end of the beam:

F a  L2 a 2 
Central deflection, δ = k  − 
EI y  16 12 
where Fk is the value of one point load = (0,75 x 5 x 1,8) = 6,75 kN, 3.2.5(1)
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2,
mm4,
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m, and
a is the distance from the support to the adjacent load = 1,8 m.
6,75x103 x 1800  72002 18002 
Central deflection, δ =  −  = 0,4 mm
210 000 x 40920x104  16 12 
For a central point load:
Fk L3
Central deflection, δ =
48EI y
3.2.5(1)
L is the span of the beam = 7,2 m,
E is the modulus of elasticity = 210 000 N/mm2, and
mm4.
6,75x103 x 72003
Central deflection, δ = = 0,6 mm
48 x 210 000 x 40920x104
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Worked examples
Total deflection due to variable loading, δ2 = 0,6 + (2 x 0,4) = 1,4 mm

Therefore, the total central deflection, δmax = δ1 + δ2 = 13,8 + 1,4 = 15,2
mm.
The limit for δ2 is L/250 = 7200/250 = 28,8 mm. The limit for δmax = L/200 Table 4.1
= 7200/200 = 36 mm. 13,8 mm < 28,8 mm and 15,5 mm < 36 mm, and
therefore the deflections are within limits and no pre-camber of the beam Figure 4.1
is required.
3.6 Crushing, Crippling and Buckling
If the beam is supported on seating cleats, the checks for web crushing, 5.7.1
crippling and buckling must be made. To satisfy the assumptions made
in the design, both flanges must be held in place laterally, relative to
each other. If seating cleats are used then the top flange must be held
laterally. There is no requirement to prevent the flanges from rotating in
plan, as k has been taken as 1,0.
3.7 Summary
All Eurocode recommendations are satisfied, therefore this beam is
satisfactory.
The beam is satisfactory.
4. Internal Column
The internal column shown in Figure 7 is subject to loads from the roof
and one floor. Design the column for the given loading, in grade Fe360
steel, as a member in simple framing.
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Worked examples
4.1 Loadings
(54 x 7,2)
At roof level, the applied axial load = 2 x = 389 kN
2
(81 x 7,2)
At first floor level, the applied axial load = 2 x = 583 kN
2
∴ Maximum load, from the first floor to the base, = 389 + 583 kN = 972
kN
Roof
4,2 m
Internal
Column
Floor
4,5 m
Figure 7 Internal Column

Consider the column from ground floor to first floor.
The size of the column must be determined from experience and then
checked for compliance with the Eurocode rules.
Try an HE 240 A Grade Fe360 (terminology in accordance with EC3)
h = 230 mm b = 240 mm
tw = 7,5 mm tf = 12 mm
d/tw = 21,9 c/tf = 10
2
A = 7680 mm Iy = 77,63 x 106 mm4
Iw = 328 x 109 mm6 Iz = 27,7 x 106 mm4
4 4
It = 41,6 x 10 mm Wpl.y = 745 x 103 mm3
Wel.y = 675 x 103 mm3 iy = 101 mm
iz = 60 mm
 II 
0,25 0,25 F.2.2(3)
 27,7x106 x 328x109 
i Lt =  z w2  =  = 63,6 mm
 Wpl.y   (745x103 ) 2 
I 
0,5
 328x109 
0,5
F.2.2(1)
a Lt =  w  =   = 888 mm
 It   41,6x104 
All the above properties can be obtained from section property tables.
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Worked examples
4.3 Classification of Cross Section 5.3

This section is designed to withstand axial force only. No moment is
applied as the connecting beams are equally loaded.
4.3.1 Flange (subject to compression) Table
Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an outstand of a rolled section is 10ε. 5.3.1
(Sheet 3)
ε = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore ε = 1.
From section properties, c/tf = 10
4.3.2 Web (subject to compression) Table
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to compression only is 5.3.1
33ε. (Sheet 1)
From section properties, d/tw = 21,9 Table
c/tf ≤ 10ε and d/tw ≤ 33ε 3.5.1
∴Class 1 section. (Sheets 1
and 3)
Class 1
section
4.4 Resistance of Cross-Section 5.4.4
It is highly unlikely that the resistance of the cross-section will be the
critical case - it is generally the buckling resistance that governs the
suitability of a cross-section. For the sake of completeness, the check is
included in this worked example. The resistance of the cross-section will
only be critical if a short, stocky column is used.
For members in axial compression, the design value of the compressive 5.4.4(1)
force, NSd, at each cross-section shall satisfy NSd ≤ Nc.Rd
For a class 1 cross-section, the design compression resistance of the 5.4.4(2)
cross-section, Nc.Rd, may be determined as:
Af
N c.Rd = y
γ M0
where A is cross-sectional area = 7680 mm2, Table 3.1
7680 x 235
N c.Rd = = 1641 kN
1,1x103
NSd = 972 kN, therefore Nsd ≤ Nc.Rd. The section can resist the applied
axial load.
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Worked examples

A class 1 member should be checked for failure due to flexural and
lateral torsional buckling. Here, since My = Mz = 0, only failure due to
flexural buckling needs to be checked.
The design buckling resistance of a compression member shall be taken 5.5.1.1(1)
as:
χβ A Afy 5.5.1.1(1)
N b.Rd =
γ M1
Table 3.1
where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode, 5.1.1.(2)
βA = 1 for class 1 cross-section,
A is the cross-sectional area = 7680 mm2,
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/mm2 , and
The magnitude of the reduction factor, χ depends on the reduced

slenderness of the columns. χ is the lesser of χy and χz, where χy and χz
are the reduction factors from clause 5.5.1 for the y-y and z-z axes
respectively. Values of χ for the appropriate value of non-dimensional
slenderness, λ may be obtained from Table 5.5.2.
 λ  0,5 5.5.1.2(1)
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ =   β A
 λ1 
l 5.5.1.4(3)
Where the slenderness, λ =
i
l is the column buckling length, and
i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis. 5.5.1.5(2)
The braced frame is designed as a simple “pinned” structure. Therefore,
the buckling length ratio l/L is equal to 1 - the buckling length is equal to
the system length. 5.5.1.2(1)
0,5
 E
λ 1 = π   = 93,9ε
 fy 
4.6 Determination of Reduction Factor, χy
Slenderness, λy = l/iy = 4500/101 = 44,6 5.5.1.4(3)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
 λ y  0,5  44,6 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ y =   β A =   x 1 = 0,47
0,5
 λ1   93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, χy = 0,89 Table
5.5.3
Table
5.5.2
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4.7 Determination of Reduction Factor, χz

Slenderness, λz = l/iz = 4500/60 = 75 5.5.1.4(3)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
λ   75 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ y =  z  β A 0,5 =   x 1 = 0,8
0,5
 λ1   93,9  Table
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve c,the reduction factor, χz = 5.5.3
0,6622 Table
5.5.2
Therefore χ = χz = 0,6622.
Design buckling resistance of member: 5.5.1.1(1)
χβ A Afy 0,6622 x 1 x 7680 x 235
N b.Rd = = = 1086 kN
γ M1 1,1x103
The design buckling resistance of the member is greater than the
applied load (972 kN), therefore the column is satisfactory.
The column is OK.
5. External Column
The external column shown in Figure 8 is subject to loads from the roof
and one floor. Design the column for the loading given below, in grade
Fe360 steel, as a member in simple framing.
5.1 Loadings
(54 x 7,2)
At roof level, the applied axial load = = 194 kN
2
(81 x 7,2)
At first floor level, the applied axial load = = 292 kN
2
∴ Maximum load, from first floor to base, = 194 + 292 kN = 486 kN
The beams in the frame are designed to span from column centre to
column centre, therefore all axial load is applied at the mid-point of the
column. No moment due to eccentricity of applied load is therefore
applied to the column.
See Annex H
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Roof
4,2 m
First Floor
4,5 m
Figure 8 External Column

Consider the column from ground floor to first floor.
The size of the column must be determined from experience and then
checked for compliance with the Eurocode rules.
Try an HE 200 A Grade Fe360
h = 190 mm b = 200 mm
tw = 6,5 mm tf = 10 mm
d/tw = 20,6 c/tf = 10
A = 5380 mm2 Iy = 36,92 x 106 mm4
Iw = 108 x 109 mm6 Iz = 13,36 x 106 mm4
It = 21,0 x 104 mm4 Wpl.y = 429 x 103 mm3
Wel.y = 389 x 103 mm3 iy = 82,8 mm
iz = 49,8 mm
 II 
0,25 0,25 F.2.2(3)
13,36x106 x 108x109 
i Lt =  z w2  =  = 52,9 mm
 Wpl.y   (429x103 ) 2 
I 
0,5
 108x109 
0,5
F.2.2(1)
a Lt =  w  =   = 717 mm
 It   21,0x104 
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Worked examples
5.3 Classification of Cross Section 5.3

This section is designed to withstand axial force only.
5.3.1 Flange (subject to compression) Table
(Sheet 3)
ε = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, ∴ ε = 1.
10ε = 10 x 1 = 10
From section properties, c/tf = 10
5.3.2 Web (subject to compression) Table
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to compression only is 5.3.1
33ε. (Sheet 1)
ε = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, ∴ ε = 1.
33ε = 33 x 1 = 33
From section properties, d/tw = 20,6
c/tf ≤ 10ε and d/tw ≤ 33ε Table
∴Class 1 section. 5.3.1
(Sheets 1
and 3)
5.4 Resistance of Cross-Section 5.4.4
only be critical if a short stocky column is used.
Af
N c.Rd = y
γ M0
5380 x 235
N c.Rd = = 1149 kN
1,1x103
NSd = 486 kN, therefore Nsd ≤ Nc.Rd. The section can resist the applied
axial load.
23/02/07 23
Worked examples

A class 1 member should be checked for failure due to flexural and
lateral torsional buckling. Here, since My = Mz = 0, only failure due to
flexural buckling needs to be checked.
as:
χβ A Afy
N b.Rd = 5.5.1.1(1)
γ M1
where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode,
βA = 1 for class 1 cross-section, Table 3.1
A is the cross-sectional area = 5380 mm2, 5.1.1.(2)
The magnitude of the reduction factor, χ depends on the reduced
slenderness of the columns. χ is the lesser of χy and χz, where χy and χz
are the reduction factors from clause 5.5.1 for the y-y and z-z axes
respectively. Values of χ for the appropriate value of non-dimensional
slenderness, λ may be obtained from Table 5.5.2.
λ 5.5.1.2(1)
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ =   β A 0,5
 λ1 
l 5.5.1.4(3)
i
l is the column buckling length, and
i is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis. 5.5.1.5(2)
The braced frame is designed as a simple “pinned” structure. Therefore, Annex E
the buckling length ratio l/L is equal to 1 - the buckling length is equal to Figure
the system length. E.2.1
0,5
 E
λ 1 = π   = 93,9ε 5.5.1.2(1)
 fy 
5.6 Determination of Reduction Factor, χy
Slenderness, λy = l/iy = 4500/82,8 = 54,3 5.5.1.4(3)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
 λy   54,3 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ y =   β A 0,5 =   x 1 = 0,58
0,5
λ
 1  93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, χy = 0,84 Table
5.5.3
Table
5.5.2
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Worked examples
5.7 Determination of Reduction Factor, χz

Slenderness, λz = l/iz = 4500/49,8 = 90,4 5.5.1.4(3)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
λ   90,4 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ y =  z  β A 0,5 =   x 1 = 0,96
0,5
 λ1   93,9  Table
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve c,the reduction factor, χz = 0,55 5.5.3
Table
5.5.2
Therefore χ = χz = 0,55.
χβ A Af y 0,55 x 1 x 5380 x 235
N b.Rd = = = 632,2 kN
γ M1 1,1x103
applied load (486 kN), therefore the column is satisfactory.
The column is OK.
6. Design of Cross-Bracing
All horizontal loading will be resisted by bracing. For the purpose of
illustration assume this will be present on every other frame (i.e. at 10 m
spacing). It is more likely that bracing will be located at each end of the
building or perhaps in a stair/lift well. The forces may therefore be 2.2.2.4(2)
greater than here but the principles would remain the same. For the Table 2.2
loading shown, design the bracing members in grade Fe360 steel.
Characteristic wind load, Qk = 1,6 kN/m2.

Design wind load, Qd = γQ Qk
At ultimate limit state, γQ = 1,5 (unfavourable), Qd = 1,5 x 1,6 = 2,4

kN/m2.
Therefore, the total load (per m height of frame) = 10 x 2,4 = 24 kN/m.
23/02/07 25
Worked examples
4,2 m
24
kN/m
4,5 m
7,2 m
Figure 9 Wind Load on Frame
It is assumed that the uniformly distributed load acts as two point loads
on the frame.
Top load = (24 x 2,1) = 50,4 kN.

Middle load = (24 x 2,1) + (24 x 2,25) = 104,4 kN.
Assume that all horizontal load is resisted by the bracing only.
Therefore, the load in the top brace = 50,4 / cos 30,3º = 58,4 kN, and the
load in the bottom brace = (104,4 +50,4)/ cos 32º = 182,5 kN.
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50,4
kN
58,4 kN 4,2 m
104,4
kN
4,5 m
182,5 kN
7,2 m
Figure 10 Equivalent Point Wind Loads and Loads
Within Bracing
Design the bottom brace, as this carries the greater load.
Try a CHS 175 x 5,0

Depth of section, d = 175 mm, Thickness, t = 5 mm
Area of section, A = 2670 mm2, Ratio for local buckling, d/t =
35,
Radius of gyration, i = 60,1 mm.
As the bracing is axially loaded, check the section classification is at 5.4.4(1)a
least class 1, 2 or 3.
Figure 11 shows a typical CHS cross-section.
t d
Figure 11 Typical CHS Cross-Section
23/02/07 27
Worked examples
Class 1 limiting value of d/t for a tubular section is 50ε2. Table

ε = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, ∴ ε = 1. 5.3.1
(Sheet 4)
50ε2 = 50 x 1 = 50
From section properties, d/t =35, therefore the section is Class 1.
6.3 Design of Compression Member
The bracing members need to be checked as axially loaded.
6.3.1 Resistance of Cross-Section
only be critical if a short, stocky column is used.
The applied axial load, NSd, must be less than the design compressive 5.4.4(1)
resistance of the cross-section, Nc.Rd.
Applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN.

Afy
Design compressive resistance of cross-section, Nc.Rd = N pl.Rd =
γ M0
2 Table 3.1
Where A is the cross-sectional area = 2670 mm , 5.1.1(2)
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/ mm2, and
2670 x 235
N pl.Rd = = 570,4 kN
, x 103
11
The design compressive resistance of the cross-section, Nc.Rd = 570,4

kN, is greater than the applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN. Therefore the
section is satisfactory.
6.3.2 Design Buckling Resistance
A class 1 member subject to axial compression should be checked for
failure due to buckling.
as:
χβ A Afy
N b.Rd =
γ M1
5.5.1.1(1)
where χ is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling mode,
βA = 1 for class 1 cross-section, Table 3.1
A is the cross-sectional area = 2670 mm2, 5.1.1.(2)
Values of χ for the appropriate value of non-dimensional slenderness, λ
may be obtained from Table 5.5.2.
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Worked examples
λ 5.5.1.2(1)
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ =   β A 0,5
 λ1 
l 5.5.1.4(3)
i
l is the member buckling length, and
i is the radius of gyration. 5.5.1.5(2)
Annex E
The bracing is designed as a simple “pinned” member. Therefore, the Figure
buckling length ratio l/L is equal to 1 - the buckling length is equal to the E.2.1
system length.
Length of member = ( 4,5
2
)
+ 7,2 2 = 8500 mm
5.5.1.2(1)
0,5
 E
λ 1 = π   = 93,9ε
 fy 
6.3.3 Determination Of Reduction Factor, χ
Slenderness, λ = l/i = 8500/60,1 = 141 5.5.1.4(3)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9
λ  141 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ =   β A 0,5 =   x 1 = 1,50
0,5
 λ1   93,9 
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, χ = Table
0,3422. 5.5.3
Table
5.5.2
χβ A Af y 0,3422 x 1 x 2670 x 235
N b.Rd = = = 195,2 kN
γ M1 1,1x103
applied load (182,5 kN), therefore the bracing is satisfactory.
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Worked examples
6.4 Design of Tension Member

When the wind load is applied in the opposite direction, the bracing will
be loaded in tension. The section therefore needs to be checked, for the
same magnitude of loading, to ensure it is also satisfactory in tension.
50,4
kN
4,2 m 58,4 kN
104,4
kN
4,5 m 182,5 kN
7,2 m
Figure 12 Equivalent Point Wind Loads and Loads Within Bracing
6.4.1 Resistance of Cross-Section

The applied axial load, NSd, must be less than the design tension 5.4.3(1)
resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd.
Applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN.

Afy
Design tension resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd = N pl.Rd =
γ M0 Table 3.1
2
where A is the cross-sectional area = 2670 mm , 5.1.1(2)
fy is the yield strength of the steel = 235 N/ mm2, and
2670 x 235
N pl.Rd = = 570,4 kN
, x 103
11
The design tension resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd = 570,4 kN, is
greater than the applied axial load, NSd = 182,5 kN. Therefore the
section is satisfactory.
The bracing fulfils all the Eurocode requirements for members in tension
and in compression, and is therefore satisfactory.
The frame is satisfactory for all EC3 checks
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Worked examples
7. Concluding Summary
23/02/07 31
Worked examples

Development of
Course: Eurocode 3
Module 7 : Worked Examples
Lecture 22 : Design of an unbraced sway frame with rigid joints
Summary:
NOTE – This example is a draft version
•
•
•
•
Pre-requisites:
•
Notes for Tutors:

This material comprises one 60 minute lecture.
Objectives:
• To explain the main principles of EC3 by practical worked example.
References:
• Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures Part 1.1 General rules and rules for
buildings
•
•
Contents:
23/02/07 32
Worked examples
WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Design of a Sway Frame
The frame consists of three storeys and three bays. The frames are at 10
m spacing. The beam span is 6,5 m and the total height is 10,5 m, each
storey being 3,5 m high. It is assumed that the column foot is pinned at
the foundation.
Roof beams
3,5 m
Floor beams
Internal Internal
columns columns 3,5 m
External External
3,5 m
columns columns
6,5 m 6,5 m 6,5 m
Figure 1 Typical Cross Section of Frame

The structure is assumed to be braced out of its plane and to be unbraced
in its plane. In the longitudinal direction of the building, i.e. in the direction
perpendicular to the frame plane, a bracing does exist so that the tops of
23/02/07 33
Worked examples
the columns are held in place. The lateral support for the floor beams is
provided by the floor slabs.
All the beam-to-column joints are assumed to be perfectly rigid. The 6.4.2.2(3)
connections must be capable of transmitting the forces and moments
calculated in design. 5.2.2.3
With these assumptions, the frame is classified as ‘continuous’, and the
internal forces and moments are determined using a global elastic
analysis which assumes the members to be effectively held in position.
The steel grade selected for beams, columns and joints is Fe360 (fy = 235 Table 3.1
N/mm2).
Characteristic Loads
Floor: Variable actions, Qk = 1,8 kN/m2, Permanent actions, Gk = 3,0
kN/m2
Roof: Variable actions, Qk = 0,6 kN/m2, Permanent actions, Gk = 2,0
kN/m2
The wind loads are applied as point loads of 10,5 kN at roof level and 21
kN at the first and second storey levels.
The basic loading cases, shown in Figure 2, have been considered in
appropriate combinations.
20 kN/m 10,5 kN
30 kN/m
21 kN
30 kN/m 21 kN
Permanent Loading (G) Wind Loading (W)

6 kN/m 6 kN/m 6 kN/m 6 kN/m
18 kN/m 18 kN/m 18 kN/m 18 kN/m
18 kN/m 18 kN/m 18 kN/m 18 kN/m
loading case 1 (N1) loading case 2 (N2) loading case 3 (N3)
Imposed Loading Cases
Figure 2 Loading Cases
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Worked examples
Frame Imperfections
Frame imperfections are considered by means of equivalent horizontal
loads. The initial sway imperfection is given as:
φ = kcksφ0 5.2.4.3(1)
1
where k c = 0,5 + but kc ≤ 1,0,
nc
1
ks = 0,2 + but ks ≤ 1,0, and
ns
1
φ0 = .
200
In this case, the number of full height columns per floor, nc, is 4 and the
number of storeys in the frame, ns, is 3.
1
Therefore k c = 0,5 + = 0,866 , and
4
1
k s = 0,2 + = 0,73 .
3
1 1
φ = 0,866 x 0,73 x =
200 315
The equivalent horizontal load, H, at each storey of the frame is derived
from the initial sway, φ, and the total design vertical load, N, in any storey
for a given load case. Therefore H = φN.
The relevant values are listed in Table 1 for all the basic loading cases.
Basic loading Storey N φN

case (kN) (kN)
(see Figure 2)
G Roof 390 1,24
2nd Floor 585 1,86
1st Floor 585 1,86
N1 Roof 117 0,37
2nd Floor 351 1,11
1st Floor 351 1,11
N2 Roof 39 0,12
2nd Floor 234 0,74
1st Floor 117 0,37
N3 Roof 78 0,25
2nd Floor 117 0,37
1st Floor 234 0,74
Table 1 Equivalent Horizontal Forces
The equivalent horizontal forces must also be multiplied be the
appropriate partial safety factors for actions.
23/02/07 35
Worked examples
Load Combinations
It was decided to use the simplified combinations for the ultimate limit 2.3.3.1(5)
state and the serviceability limit state. and
The basic load cases are combined at the ULS as summarised in Table 2. 2.3.4(5)
Load Case 1 1,35G + 1,5W
Load Case 2 1,35G + 1,5N1
Load Case 5 1,35G + 1,35W + 1,35N1
Load Case 6 1,35G + 1,35W + 1,35N2
Load Case 7 1,35G + 1,35W + 1,35N3
Table 2 Load Combination Cases at the Ultimate Limit State
The basic load cases are combined at the SLS as summarised in Table 3.
Load Case 1 1,0G + 1,0W
Load Case 5 1,0G + 0,9W + 0,9N1
Load Case 6 1,0G + 0,9W + 0,9N2
Load Case 7 1,0G + 0,9W + 0,9N3
Table 3 Load Combination Cases at the Serviceability Limit State
Partial Safety Factors for Strength 2.3.3.2(1)
The following partial safety factors for strength have been adopted during
the design:
• Resistance of Class 1,2 or 3 cross-section, γM0 = 1,1 5.1.1(2)
• Resistance of member to buckling, γM1 = 1,1 5.1.1(2)
• Resistance of bolted connections, γMb = 1,25 6.1.1(2)
Trial Sections
In order for a global elastic analysis of the structure to be carried out,
initial section sizes must be assumed and allocated to the structural
members. The analysis must then be carried out and the members
checked for the relevant failure modes. The sections will then need to be
modified and the structure re-analysed. This can be a long winded
iterative process.
The engineer may have his own method of selecting initial section sizes.
As a guideline, for this example, columns were selected by assuming an
average stress of approximately 100 N/mm2 under axial forces. Axial
forces can be estimated by approximating the floor area supported by that
column.
Generally, the bending moments withing the beams are critical. Simple
bending moment diagrams can be constructed, assuming fixed end
moments, and the maximum bending moment can then be estimated. An
initial section size can then be determined.
The trial member sizes for this example are:
Inner columns: HEB 260
Outer columns: HEB 220
23/02/07 36
Worked examples
Floor beams: IPE 450

Roof beams: IPE 360
Roof beams
IPE 360
3,5 m
Floor beams
IPE 450
Internal Internal
columns columns 3,5 m
HEB 260 HEB 260
External External
3,5 m
columns columns
HEB 220 HEB 220
6,5 m 6,5 m 6,5 m
Figure 3 Trial Member Sizes

Determination of Design Moments and Forces
This worked example uses the amplified sway moments method of 5.2.6.2(1)
analysis.
An alternative method is to calculate the sway-mode buckling lengths of 5.2.6.2(1)
members, and then carry out a first order linear elastic analysis.
However, it may be possible to directly use a second order elastic 5.2.6.2(1)
analysis.
A global linear elastic analysis is carried out on the sway frame in order to
determine the moments, axial forces and shear forces in each member.
Props are then applied to the structure in order to prevent any horizontal
movement (i.e. as if the structure was now braced), and the analysis
carried out again.
The moments induced in the members from the propped case are then
subtracted from the moments determined from the sway case. The
resultant moments are those induced by “pure sway”.
The “pure sway” moments are then amplified to take account of second
order effects ignored by the linear elastic analysis. The amplified “pure
sway” moments are then added to the moments obtained from analysis of
the propped structure. These are the design moments which each
member must be able to resist.
The members must also be checked for the axial and shear forces
determined from the initial analysis of the sway frame, and in certain
cases the interaction of the design moments with the axial forces and/or
shear forces must also be checked.
This needs to be carried out for every load case so that the critical
conditions for each individual member can be identified.
23/02/07 37
Worked examples
Original Sway Case Moments

Minus
Propped Case Moments

Equals
"Pure Sway" Moments

(To Be Amplified)
23/02/07 38
Worked examples
Figure 4 Determination of “Pure Sway” Moments

Calculation of Amplification Factors
The sway moments should be increased by multiplying them by the ratio: 5.2.6.2(3)
1
1 − VSd / Vcr
where VSd is the design value of the total vertical load, and
Vcr is its elastic critical value for failure in a sway mode.
Instead of determining VSd / Vcr directly, the following approximation may 5.2.6.2(6)
be used:
VSd  δ   V 
=    5.2.5.2(4)
Vcr  h   H 
where δ is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, relative to
the bottom of the storey,
h is the storey height,
V is the total vertical reaction at the bottom of the storey, and 5.2.6.2(4)
H is the total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey.
This approximation may not be used if VSd / Vcr is greater than 0,25.
If VSd / Vcr is greater than 0,25, then the frame may be more susceptible to
buckling. It is therefore necessary to carry out analysis using a direct
second order analysis. It may also be necessary to stiffen the frame - for
example increasing the column sizes.
Alternatively, if the value of VSd / Vcr is less than 0,1 then the structure is 5.2.5.2(3)
classified as non-sway.
The amplification factor will be different for each storey of the structure.
The maximum factor should be used to multiply the moments at all levels
of the structure. This is essentially a conservative method as it
corresponds to the critical elastic load of the whole structure.
The amplification factor for load case 5 of this example was determined as
follows:
23/02/07 39
Worked examples
δ2
δ = δ2 - δ1 = 15,6 mm
h = 3500 mm
V = 3296 kN
H = 81 kN
h
V
δ1
Figure 5 Determination of Amplification Factor
VSd  δ   V  15,6 x 3296
Therefore =    = = 0,18
Vcr  h   H  3500 x 81
1 1
The amplification factor = = = 1,22
1 − VSd / Vcr 1 − 0,18
All the “pure sway” moments for load case 5 were amplified by a factor of
1,22.
The global linear elastic analysis and amplification of sway moments was
carried out for all seven load cases. Tables 4a and 4b shows the
maximum forces in each member.
19 P 20 Q 21
N R
15 16 17 18
9 = Element
12 K 13 L 14
J M G = Node
8 9 10 11
5 F 6 G 7
E H
1 2 3 4
A B C D
Figure 6 Labelling of Members within the Structure
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Worked examples
Membe Node Tension Compressio Shear Bending Maximum

r (kN) n (kN) Moment forces
(kN) (kNm)
1 A - 517,6 C2 -13,1 0
C4
E - -514,3 C2 13,1 C4 44,7 C4
2 B - 1196,4 C2 35,9 C7 0 Axial ld + BM
F - -1192,1 C2 -35,9 -142,1 C7 internal col
C7
3 C - 1196,3 C2 30,8 C6 0
G - -1192,0 C2 -30,8 -124,0 C6
C6
4 D - 529,0 C5 27,6 C7 0 Axial ld + BM
H - -525,7 C5 -27,6 -105,5 C7 external col
C7
8 E - 317,9 C2 -43,9 79,8 C2
C2
J - -314,6 C2 43,9 C2 73,4 C2
9 F - 722,8 C2 25,8 C5 58,6 C7
K - -718,5 C2 -25,8 -69,2 C6
C5
10 G - 722,8 C2 11,5 C1 31,2 C4
L - -718,5 C2 -11,5 -45,9 C7
C1
11 H - 320,0 C2 51,3 C5 -91,7 C5
M - -316,7 C2 -51,3 -93,7 C5
C5
15 J - 113,0 C4 -43,0 73,5 C3
C2
N - -109,7 C4 43,0 C2 77,3 C2
16 K - 253,9 C2 15,2 C6 -41,9 C6
P - -249,6 C2 -15,2 -36,7 C6
C6
17 L - 253,9 C2 -9,8 C3 34,6 C3
Q - -249,6 C2 9,8 C3 24,5 C4
18 M - 113,5 C4 44,8 C5 -76,0 C5
R - -110,1 C4 -44,8 -82,4 C5
C5
Table 4a Maximum Axial Forces, Shear Force and Bending Moment in
Each Column
Shaded boxes indicate the critical case that each section type will be
designed to.
For example, internal columns are the same section for every storey,
therefore the worst case will obviously be one of the base columns.
23/02/07 41
Worked examples
Membe Node Tension Compressio Shear Bending Maximum

r (kN) n (kN) Moment forces
(kN) (kNm)
5 E -28,9 8,5 C1 201,8 -118,5 C4 Internal BM
C2 C4
F 28,9 C2 -8,5 C1 255,2 341,6 C5 on floor
beam
C5
6 F -23,4 1,4 C1 220,8 -241,2 C2
C2 C3
G 23,4 C2 -1,4 C1 231,6 310,7 C5
C5
7 G -31,5 - 244,2 -271,7 C2 External BM
C2 C2
H 31,5 C2 - 213,3 194,4 C5 on floor
beam
C7
12 J -0,6 G 28,1 C5 207,1 -146,8 C2
C3
K 0,6 G -28,1 C5 242,7 288,6 C5
C2
13 K -1,3 C4 15,6 C5 222,0 -242,6 C2
C4
L 1,3 C4 -15,6 C5 223,6 261,3 C5
C2
14 L -1,9 G 6,5 C5 241,0 -271,5 C2
C2
M 1,9 G -6,5 C5 208,5 169,7 C5
C3
19 N - 55,8 C5 109,7 -77,3 C2 Internal BM
C4
P - -55,8 C5 130,4 150,2 C5 on roof beam
C2
20 P - 42,4 C5 119,3 -131,7 C2
C3
Q - -42,4 C5 119,7 135,8 C5
C2
21 Q - 44,8 C5 129,9 -146,7 C2 External BM
C2
R - -44,8 C5 110,1 82,4 C5 on roof beam
C4
Table 4b Maximum Axial Force, Shear Force and Bending Moment in
Each Beam
23/02/07 42
Worked examples
Shaded boxes indicate the critical case that each section type will be
designed to.
Generally, the beams will be designed to the maximum bending moment,
and the columns will be designed for maximum axial load. However, it may
also be necessary to check the interaction of the bending moments and
axial forces for certain load cases.
Floor Beam - Fully Restrained

The maximum moment any floor beam has to resist is 341,6 kNm at node
F, under load case 5. The beam is in tension for this load case, therefore
the interaction of the bending moment and axial force will not need to be
checked.
The maximum compression force any floor beam has to resist is 28,1 kN
(member 12) under load case 5. The beam also has to resist a bending
moment of 288,6 kNm but as the axial force is low it is unlikely that the
interaction will be critical.
The maximum shear force any floor beam has to resist is 255,2 kN at
node F, under load case 5.
The maximum tensile force any floor beam has to resist is 31,5 kN
(member 7) under load case 2. This will not be the critical condition for the
floor beam design.
IPE 450 5.4.5.1
Section properties:
Plastic modulus, Wpl = 1702 cm3
This notation conforms with Figure 1.1 in Eurocode 3: Part 1.1.
Classification of Cross-section
Figure 7 shows a typical cross-section for an IPE.
23/02/07 43
Worked examples
c Flange Buckling Table

Class 1 limiting value of c/tf for an 5.3.1
outstand of a rolled section is 10ε. (Sheet 3)
ε = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2,
tw
d therefore ε =1.
c
Calculate the ratio , where c is half
tf tf
the width of the flange = 95 mm, and tf
is the flange thickness = 14,6 mm (if
the flange is tapered, tf should be
Figure 7 A Typical Cross- taken as the average thickness).
Section c 95
= = 6,5
t f 14 ,6
Web Buckling Table
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web of a rolled section under bending is 5.3.1
72ε. (Sheet 1)
d
Calculate the ratio , where d is the depth between root radii = 378,8 mm
tw
and tw is the web thickness = 9,4 mm.
d 378,8
= = 40,3 Table
tw 9 ,4
5.3.1
c d (Sheets 1
< 10ε and < 72ε
tf tw and 3)
The beam shown in Figure 8 is fixed at both ends and is fully restrained
along its length.
For the critical load cases given above, check the beam, assuming it is
grade Fe360, and that it is carrying plaster, or a similar brittle finish.
Load varies depending
on appropriate load case
6,5 m
Figure 8 Loading on Fully Restrained Floor Beam
Check Moment Capacity
Design moment, MSd = 341,6 kNm (load case 5 - member 5)
The design bending moment, MSd, must be less than or equal to the 5.4.5.1(1)
design moment resistance of the cross section, Mc.Rd:
MSd ≤ Mc.Rd
Wpl fy
Mc.Rd = Mpl.y.Rd =
γ M0
23/02/07 44
Worked examples
where Wpl is the plastic section modulus = 1702 cm3,

W f 1702x103 x 235
Therefore, Mpl.y.Rd = pl y = = 364 kNm
γ M0 1,1
MSd = 341,6 kNm ≤ Mpl.y.Rd = 364 kNm
Therefore the section is satisfactory.
Check Interaction of Maximum Axial Force and
Bending Moment
Interaction case: Design moment, MSd = 341,6 kNm and design axial
force, NSd = 28,1 kN (load case 5 - member 12)
Lateral support to the floor beams is provided by the floor slabs, therefore
there is no need to check for failure due to flexural or lateral torsional
buckling.
A class 1 member subject to moment about the major axis only should 5.4.8.1(2)
satisfy the following:
2
M Sd  N 
+  Sd  ≤ 1
M pl.Rd  N pl.Rd 
Applied bending moment, MSd, = 341,6 kNm,
design bending moment resistance of the section, Mpl.Rd = 364 kNm,
applied axial load, NSd, = 28,1 kN, and
Af
design compression resistance of the cross-section, Npl.Rd = y
γ M0
Table 3.1
where A is the cross-sectional area of the section = 9880 mm2, 5.1.1(2)
fy is the yield strength = 235 N/mm2, and
9880 x 235
Therefore, Npl.Rd = = 2111 kN
1,1
2
341,6x106  28,1x103 
+  = 0,94
364x106  2111x103 
Therefore the section is satisfactory under combined axial load and
bending moment
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Although lateral restraint is provided by the floor slabs, it is necessary to
check for lateral torsional buckling over the length of the beam which is in
hogging (approximately 1,7 m). This is because the floor beams are
restrained only by the upper flange, while the lower flange which is under
compression, has no lateral restraint.
As this is over such a short length of the beam, it is unlikely that this will
be a critical condition. For completeness, however, the check is included
in this worked example.
A class 1 section should satisfy the following: 5.5.4(2)
23/02/07 45
Worked examples
N Sd k LT M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
χ z Afy / γ M1 χ LT Wpl.y fy / γ M1
Applied axial force, NSd = 28,1 kN
Determination of χz
Slenderness, λz = l/iz 5.5.1.4
where l is taken as the length of beam in hogging, and i is the radius of 5.5.1.5(2)
gyration about the appropriate axis.
Slenderness, λz = 1700 / 41,2 = 41,3
λ 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ z =  z  β A 0,5
 λ1  5.5.1.2(1)
where λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9, and 5.5.1.1(1)
βA = 1 for class 1 members
41,3
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ z = = 0,44 Table
93,9
5.5.3
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, reduction factor, χz = 0,91 Table
5.5.2
Cross-sectional area, A = 9880 mm2,
Yield strength of the steel, fy = 235 N/ mm2, and Table 3.1
Partial material safety factor for buckling resistance, γM1 = 1,1. 5.1.1(2)
0 , 25
II 
0 , 25
16,76x106 x 791x109 
i Lt =  z w2  =  = 46,3 mm F.2.2(3)
 Wply  
 (1702x10 3 2
) 

I 
0 ,5
 791x109 
0 ,5
F.2.2(1)
a Lt =  w =  = 1087 mm
 It   66,9x104 
23/02/07 46
Worked examples
To Calculate kLT
µ N 5.5.4(2)
k LT = 1 − LT Sd but kLT ≤ 1,0.
χ z Afy
where µ LT = 0,15λ zβ M.LT − 0,15 but µ LT ≤ 0,9
λ z = 0,44 5.5.4(7)
βM.LT = 1,8 (ψ = 0) and
Figure
∴µLT = (0,15 x 0,44 x 1,8) - 0,15 = -0,03
5.5.3
( −0,03) x 28,1x103
∴ k LT = 1 − = 1,0
0,91 x 9880 x 235
Applied moment, My.Sd = 341,6 kNm
To Calculate Reduction Factor, χLT
The value of χLT can be determined from Table 5.5.2 for the appropriate 5.5.2(4)
value of the non-dimensional slenderness, λ LT .
λ LT 0,5
λ LT = βw 5.5.2(5)
λ1
where λ1 = 93,9 ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9, 5.5.2(1)
βw = 1 for class 1 sections, and
L / i LT Equation
λ LT = F.15
2 0 , 25
0 ,5
C1 1 +
 ( L / a LT ) 

 25,66 
where L is the length = 1700 mm,
iLT = 46,3 mm (from section properties),
ψ = 0, k = 1,0, therefore C1 = 1,879, and
aLT = 1087 mm (from section properties).
1700 / 46,3
λ LT = = 26,2
2 0 , 25

1,879 0,5 1 +
(1700 / 1087 ) 

 25,66 
λ 26,2 0,5 5.5.2(5)
∴ λ LT = LT β w =
0 ,5
1,0 = 0,28
λ1 93,9
Where the non-dimensional slenderness λ LT ≤ 0,4 , no allowance for 5.5.2(7)
lateral torsional buckling is necessary.
Therefore, this section is satisfactory for lateral torsional buckling.
Shear on Web
Design shear force, VSd = 255,2 kN (load case 5 - member 5)
resistance, Vpl.Rd:
VSd ≤ Vpl.Rd
fy / 3
where Vpl.Rd is given by A v
γ M0
23/02/07 47
Worked examples

shear area, Av = 1,04 h tw,
1,04ht w fy 1,04 x 450 x 9,4 x 235
∴ Vpl.Rd = = = 543 kN
3xγ M0 3 x 1,1
This is greater than the shear on the section (255,2 kN).
The section is satisfactory under shear.
Check Tension Resistance of Member
Maximum applied tensile force, NSd = 31,5 kN (load case 2 - member 7)
For members in axial tension, the design value of the tensile force, NSd 5.4.3(1)
must be less than the design tension resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd.
A fy
Nt.Rd = Npl.Rd =
γ M0
where A is the cross-sectional area of the section = 9880 mm2, Table 3.1
9880 x 235
Therefore N pl.Rd = = 2110 kN
1,1
The design tension resistance of the cross-section, Nt.Rd = 2110 kN, is
greater than the applied tensile force, NSd = 31,5 kN, therefore the section
is OK.
Deflection Check
For a plaster or similar brittle finish, the deflection limit is L/250 for δmax. Table 4.1
Deflection checks are based on the serviceability loading. Figure 4.1
The maximum deflection for any floor beam is 6,2 mm which occurs under
serviceability load case 4 at member 5.
L 6500 Table 4.1
Deflection limit for δ max = = = 26 mm
250 250
The actual deflection is less than the allowable deflection: 6,2 mm < 26
mm, therefore the section is OK.
required.
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Worked examples
Summary
The trial section IPE 450 is satisfactory.
Roof Beam
The maximum moment any roof beam has to resist is 150,2 kNm at node
P (member 19), under load case 5.
The maximum compression force any roof beam has to resist is 55,8 kN
(member 19) also under load case 5. The interaction of the axial force and
bending moment will therefore be critical.
The maximum shear force any roof beam has to resist is 130,4 kN at node
P, under load case 2.
The roof beams experience no tensile force.
IPE 360 5.4.5.1
Section properties:
Plastic modulus, Wpl = 1019 cm3
Classification of Cross-Section
Flange buckling Table
ε = 235 / fy and fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore ε =1. (Sheet 3)
c
Calculate the ratio , where c is half the width of the flange = 85 mm,
tf
and tf is the flange thickness = 12,7 mm (if the flange is tapered, tf should
be taken as the average thickness).
c 85
= = 6,7
t f 12 ,7
Web buckling Table
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web of a rolled section under bending is 5.3.1
72ε. (Sheet 1)
d
Calculate the ratio , where d is the depth between root radii = 298,6 mm
tw
and tw is the web thickness = 8,0 mm.
d 298,6 Table
= = 37 ,3 5.3.1
tw 8,0
(Sheets 1
c d and 3)
< 10ε and < 72ε
tf tw
For the critical load cases given above, check the beam, assuming it is
grade Fe360, and that it is for a general roof.
Check Interaction of Maximum Axial Force and
Bending Moment
Interaction case: Design moment, MSd = 150,2 kNm and design axial
23/02/07 49
Worked examples
force, NSd = 55,8 kN (load case 5 - member 19).

There is no lateral support provided for the roof beams, therefore they
must be checked for failure due to flexural and lateral torsional buckling.
Flexural Buckling
A class 1 member subject to moment about the major axis only should 5.5.4(1)
N sd k y M y.sd
+ ≤ 1,0
χ min Afy / γ M1 Wpl.y fy / γ M1
Applied axial force, NSd, = 55,8 kN
To Calculate Reduction Factor, χmin
The reduction factor χmin is the lesser of χy and χz, where χy and χz are the
reduction factors from clause 5.5.1 for the y-y and z-z axes respectively.
Determination of χy
The reduction factor χy depends on the slenderness about the y-y axis.
Assuming that the connections at the beam ends are rigid, then the 5.5.1.5
slenderness about the y-y axis is:
λy = l/iy 5.5.1.4
where l is taken as the system length, and i is the radius of gyration about 5.5.1.5(2)
the appropriate axis.
Slenderness, λy = 6500 / 150 = 43,3
5.5.1.2(1)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1,0 = 93,9
 λ  0,5
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ y =  y  β A
 λ1  5.5.1.1(1)
where βA = 1 for class 1 members
43,3 Table
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ y = = 0,46 5.5.3
93,9 Table
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve a, the reduction factor, χy = 0,935 5.5.2
where l is taken as the system length, and i is the radius of gyration about 5.5.1.5(2)
Slenderness, λz = 6500 / 37,9 = 171,5
λ 
Non-dimensional slenderness, λ z =  z  β A 0,5 5.5.1.2(1)
 λ1  5.5.1.1(1)
171,5
93,9
5.5.3
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, reduction factor, χz = 0,2521 Table
5.5.2
∴ Reduction factor, χmin = χz = 0,2521
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Worked examples
To Calculate ky
µ N 5.5.4(1)
k y = 1 − y sd but ky ≤ 1,5
χ y Afy
where
Wpl.y − Wel.y
µ y = λ y (2β MY − 4) + but µy ≤ 0,90 5.5.4(7)
Wel.y
and
βMy is an equivalent uniform moment factor for flexural buckling Figure
M 5.5.3
βMy = βM,ψ + Q ( β MQ − β M ,ψ )
∆M
where βM,ψ = 1,8 - 0,7ψ, and ψ = 0,47
Therefore βM,ψ = 1,8 - (0,7 x 0,47) = 1,47,
MQ = 187 kNm,
∆M = 231 kNm, and
βM,Q = 1,3.
Therefore βMy = 1,47 + (187/231) x (1,3 - 1,47) = 1,33
1019 - 904
µ y = 0,46(2 x 1,33 - 4) + = −0,49
904
(-0,49) x 55,8x103
ky = 1 − = 1,02
0,935 x 7270 x 235
My.Sd is the design applied moment = 150,2 kNm, and
Wpl.y is the plastic section modulus = 1019 x 103 mm3.
N sd k y M y.sd
+ ≤ 1,0
χ min Afy / γ M1 Wpl.y fy / γ M1
55,8x103 1,02 x 150,2x106
+ = 0,85
0,2521 x 7270 x 235 / 1,1 1019x103 x 235 / 1,1
Therefore this section is satisfactory for flexural buckling
N Sd k LT M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
Applied axial force, NSd = 55,8 kN,
Reduction factor, χz = 0,2521,
Cross-sectional area, A = 7270 mm2, Table 3.1
Yield strength of the steel, fy = 235 N/ mm2, and 5.1.1(2)
Partial material safety factor for buckling resistance, γM1 = 1,1.
0 , 25
II 
0 , 25
 10,43x106 x 314x109 
i Lt =  z w2  =  = 42 ,1 mm F.2.2(3)
 Wply  
 (1019x10 3 2
)


I 
0 ,5
 314 x109 
0 ,5
F.2.2(1)
a Lt =  w  =  = 917 ,5 mm
 It   37,3x104 
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To Calculate kLT
µ N 5.5.4(2)
k LT = 1 − LT Sd but kLT ≤ 1,0.
χ z Afy
λ z = 1,8 5.5.4(7)
βM.LT = βM,ψ + (MQ/∆M)(βM,Q - βM,ψ), and
Figure
where βM,ψ = 1,8 - 0,7ψ, and ψ = 0,47, therefore βM,ψ = 1,8 - (0,7 x 0,47) =
5.5.3
1,47,
MQ = 187 kNm,
∆M = 231 kNm, and
βM,Q = 1,3.
Therefore βM.LT = 1,47 + (187/231) (1,3 - 1,47) = 1,33.
∴µLT = (0,15 x 1,8 x 1,33) - 0,15 = 0,21.
0,21 x 55,8x103
∴ k LT = 1 − = 0,97
0,2521 x 7270 x 235
λ LT 0,5
λ LT = βw 5.5.2(5)
λ1
where λ1 = 93,9 ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9, 5.5.2(1)
βw = 1 for class 1 sections, and
L / i LT Equation
λ LT = 0 , 25 F.15
0 ,5
 ( L / a LT )2 
C1 1 + 
 25,66 
F.1.2(6)
ψ = 0,47, k = 1,0, therefore C1 = 1,107, and
aLT = 917,5 mm (from section properties).
6500 / 42,1
λ LT = = 111,9
2 0 , 25

, 0,5 1 +
( 6500 / 917 ,5) 
1107 
 25,66 
λ LT 0,5 111,9 0,5 5.5.2(5)
∴ λ LT = βw = 1,0 = 1,2
λ1 93,9
Therefore, from Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve a (for rolled sections), 5.5.3(4),
the reduction factor, χLT = 0,53 Table
The plastic section modulus, Wpl.y = 1019 x 103 mm3. 5.5.3
Table
5.5.2
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N Sd k LT M y.Sd 5.5.4(2)
+ ≤ 1,0
55,8x103 0,97 x 150,2x106
+ = 1,41 ≥ 1
0,2521 x 7270 x 235 / 1,1 0,53 x 1019x103 x 235 / 1,1
Therefore, this section is not satisfactory for lateral torsional buckling.
It is highly unusual to have, in practice, unrestrained roof beams. It is,
therefore, asssumed that beams/purlins are present at quarter points
along the beam, reducing the unrestrained length to 1,625 m. The
maximum change in moment occurs between the 3rd restraint and node P 5.5.2(7)
on member 19. When the check is carried out again, λ LT ≤ 0,4 , therefore
no allowance for lateral torsional buckling is necessary.
Shear on Web
resistance, Vpl.Rd:
VSd ≤ Vpl.Rd
fy / 3
γ M0
1,04ht w fy 1,04 x 360 x 8,0 x 235
∴ Vpl.Rd = = = 369 kN
3xγ M0 3 x 1,1
This is greater than the shear on the section (130,4 kN), therefore this
section is satisfactory under shear.
Deflection Check
For a roof generally the deflection limit is L/200 for δmax. Deflection checks Table 4.1
are based on the serviceability loading. Figure 4.1
The maximum deflection for any roof beam is 6,5 mm which occurs under
serviceability load case 4 at member 19.
L 6500 Table 4.1
Deflection limit for δ max = = = 32 ,5 mm
200 200
The actual deflection is less than the allowable deflection: 6,5 mm < 32,5
mm therefore the section is OK.
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required.
Summary
The trial section IPE 360 is satisfactory.
Columns
External Column
The maximum compression force any external column has to resist is 529
kN (member 4) under load case 5.
The maximum moment any external column has to resist is 106 kNm at
node H, under load case 7. The column is also subject to an axial load of
458,4 kN under this load case. However, the critical interaction case is
likely to be under load case 5, with a maximum axial force of 529 kN and a
bending moment of 103 kNm. It is this case that is likely to be critical.
The maximum shear force any external column has to resist is 51,3 kN at
member 11 under load case 5.
Section Properties
All external columns are HE 220 B grade Fe360
h = 220 mm b = 220 mm
tw = 9,5 mm tf = 16 mm
d/tw = 16,0 c/tf = 6,9
A = 9100 mm2 Iy = 80,91 x 106 mm4
Iw = 295 x 109 mm6 Iz = 28,43 x 106 mm4
It = 76,6 x 104 mm4 Wpl.y = 827 x 103 mm3
3 3
Wel.y = 736 x 10 mm iy = 94,3 mm
iz = 55,9 mm
0 , 25
 II 
0 , 25
 51,4 x106 x 754x109 
i Lt =  z w2  =  = 69 ,7 mm F.2.2(3)
 Wply  
 (1283x10 )
3 2 

 Iw 
0 ,5
 754 x109 
0 ,5
F.2.2(1)
a Lt =   =   = 779 ,8 mm
 It   124x104 
Classification of Cross Section 5.3
This section is designed to withstand moments in addition to axial force.
(Note that the section is always in compression.)
Flange (subject to compression) Table
(Sheet 3)
ε = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, ∴ ε = 1.
10ε = 10 x 1 = 10
From section properties, c/tf = 6,9
Web (subject to compression) Table
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to compression only is 33ε. 5.3.1
33ε = 33 x 1 = 33 (Sheet 1)
From section properties, d/tw = 16
c/tf ≤ 10ε and d/tw ≤ 33ε
Therefore the section is Class 1.
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Resistance of Cross-Section 5.4.4

included in this worked example.
Af
N c.Rd = y
γ M0
9100 x 235
N c.Rd = = 1944 kN
11, x103
NSd = 529 kN, therefore Nsd < Nc.Rd.
The section can resist the applied axial load.
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Buckling Resistance of Member

A class 1 member subject to combined bending and axial compression
should be checked for the following modes of failure:
• Flexural buckling (Clause 5.5.4(1)), and
• Lateral Torsional Buckling (Clause 5.5.4(2)).
Flexural Buckling
N Sd k y M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
χ min A fy / γ M1 Wpl.y fy / γ M1
Applied axial force, NSd, = 529 kN
The connections at the column base are effectively pinned, then the 5.5.1.5
λy = l/iy 5.5.1.4
where l is equal to the system length and i is the radius of gyration about 5.5.1.5(1)
(Use the system length as using the amplified sway moment method. If
using the effective length method, this is where the effective lengths would
be greater than 1)
Slenderness, λy = 3500 / 94,3 = 37,1
5.5.1.2(1)
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1,0 = 93,9
 λ  0,5
 λ1  5.5.1.1(1)
37 ,1 Table
93,9 Table
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, χy = 0,9261 5.5.2
be greater than 1)
Slenderness, λz = 3500 / 55,9 = 62,6
5.5.1.2(1)
λ 
 λ1  5.5.1.1(1)
Table
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Worked examples
62 ,6 5.5.3
93,9
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve c, reduction factor, χz = 0,73 5.5.2
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To Calculate ky
µ N 5.5.4(1)
k y = 1 − y sd but ky ≤ 1,5
χ y Afy
where
Wpl.y − Wel.y
µ y = λ y (2β My − 4) + but µy ≤ 0,90 5.5.4(7)
Wel.y
and
βMy is an equivalent uniform moment factor for flexural buckling (ψ = 0) Figure
= 1,8 - 0 = 1,8. 5.5.3
827x103 − 736x103
µ y = 0,4 ( 2 x 1,8 - 4) + = −0,04
736x103
∴ ky = 1 −
( −0,04) x 529x103 = 1,01
0,9261 x9100 x 235
My.Sd is the design applied moment = 103 kNm, and
N Sd k y M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
529 x103 1,01 x 103x106
+ = 0,96
0,73 x 9100 x 235 / 1,1 827x103 x 235 / 1,1
Therefore the section is satisfactory for flexural buckling
N Sd k LT M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
Applied axial force, NSd = 529 kN,
Reduction factor, χz = 0,73,
Cross-sectional area, A = 9100 mm2, Table 3.1
Yield strength of the steel, fy = 235 N/ mm2, and 5.1.1(2)
Partial material safety factor for buckling resistance, γM1 = 1,1.
To Calculate kLT
µ LT N Sd 5.5.4(2)
k LT = 1 − but kLT ≤ 1,0.
χ z Afy
λ z = 0,67 5.5.4(7)
βM.LT = 1,8 (ψ = 0) and
Figure
∴µLT = (0,15 x 0,67 x 1,8) - 0,15 = 0,03
5.5.3
0,03 x 529x103
∴ k LT = 1 − = 0,99
0,73 x 9100 x 235
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λ LT 0,5 5.5.2(5)
λ LT = βw
λ1
5.5.2(1)
where λ1 = 93,9 ε = 93,9 x 1 = 93,9,
βw = 1 for class 1 sections, and Equation
L / i LT F.15
λ LT = 0 , 25
0 ,5
 ( L / a LT )2 
C1 1 + 
 25,66 
ψ = 0, k = 1,0, therefore C1 = 1,879, and
aLT = 779,8 mm (from section properties).
3500 / 69,7
λ LT = = 40,1
2 0 , 25

1,879 0,5 1 +
(3500 / 779,8) 

 25,66 
λ LT 0,5 40,1 0,5 5.5.2(5)
∴ λ LT = βw = 1,0 = 0,43
λ1 93,9
Therefore, from Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve a (for rolled sections), 5.5.3(4),
the reduction factor, χLT = 0,94 Table
The plastic section modulus, Wpl.y = 827 x 103 mm3. 5.5.3
Table
5.5.2
N Sd k LT M y.Sd 5.5.4(2)
+ ≤ 1,0
529 x103 0,99 x 102,8x106
+ = 0,98
0,73 x 9100 x 235 / 1,1 0,94 x 827x103 x 235 / 1,1
Therefore, this section is satisfactory for lateral torsional buckling.
This section is satisfactory for both flexural buckling and lateral torsional
buckling.
Shear on Web
Generally, a shear check on a column web would only be carried out if the
structure is to be subjected to considerable seismic loading. For
completeness, the check will be included in this worked example.
resistance, Vpl.Rd:
VSd ≤ Vpl.Rd
fy / 3
γ M0
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1,04ht w fy 1,04 x 220 x 9,5 x 235
∴ Vpl.Rd = = = 268,1 kN
3xγ M0 3 x 1,1
This is greater than the shear on the section (51,3 kN).
The section is satisfactory under shear.
The column is satisfactory under all loading conditions.
Internal Column
The maximum compression force any internal column has to resist is 1196
kN (member 2) under load case 2.
The maximum moment any internal column has to resist is 142 kNm at
node F, under load case 7. The column is also subject to an axial load of
961 kN under this load case. However, the critical interaction case is likely
to be under load case 5, with an axial force of 1149,7 kN and a bending
moment of 123,9 kNm. It is this case that is likely to be critical.
The maximum shear force any internal column has to resist is 35,9 kN at
member 2 under load case 7.
Section Properties
All internal columns are HE 260 B grade Fe360
h = 260 mm b = 260 mm
tw = 10 mm tf = 17,5 mm
d/tw = 17,7 c/tf = 7,4
2
A = 1180 mm Iy = 149,2 x 106 mm4
9 6
Iw = 754 x 10 mm Iz = 51,4 x 106 mm4
4 4
It = 124 x 10 mm Wpl.y = 1283 x 103 mm3
Wel.y = 1148 x 103 mm3 iy = 112 mm
iz = 65,8 mm
0 , 25
 II 
0 , 25
 51,4 x106 x 754x109 
i Lt =  z w2  =  = 69 ,7 mm F.2.2(3)
 Wply  
 (1283x10 )
3 2 

I 
0 ,5
 754 x109 
0 ,5
F.2.2(1)
a Lt =  w  =   = 779 ,8 mm
 It   124x104 
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Classification of Cross Section 5.3

Flange (subject to compression) Table
(Sheet 3)
ε = 235 / fy where fy = 235 N/mm2, therefore ε = 1.
From section properties, c/tf = 7,4
Web (subject to compression) Table
Class 1 limiting value of d/tw for a web subject to compression only is 33ε. 5.3.1
From section properties, d/tw = 17,7 (Sheet 1)
c/tf ≤ 10ε and d/tw ≤ 33ε Table
Therefore the section is Class 1. 3.5.1
(Sheets 1
and 3)
Resistance of Cross-Section 5.4.4

included in this worked example.
Af
N c.Rd = y
γ M0
11800 x 235
N c.Rd = = 2521 kN
1,1x103
NSd = 1196 kN, therefore Nsd < Nc.Rd.
The section can resist the applied axial load.
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Buckling Resistance of Member

A class 1 member subject to combined bending and axial compression
should be checked for the following modes of failure:
• Flexural buckling (Clause 5.5.4(1)), and
• Lateral Torsional Buckling (Clause 5.5.4(2)).
Flexural Buckling
N Sd k y M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
Applied axial force, NSd, = 1149,7 kN
The connections at the column base are effectively pinned, then the 5.5.1.5
λy = l/iy 5.5.1.4
be greater than 1)
5.5.1.2(1)
Slenderness, λy = 3500 / 112 = 31,3
λ1 = 93,9ε = 93,9 x 1,0 = 93,9
 λ  0,5 5.5.1.1(1)
 λ1 
31,3 Table
93,9 Table
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve b, the reduction factor, χy = 0,97 5.5.2
be greater than 1)
Slenderness, λz = 3500 / 65,8 = 53,2
5.5.1.2(1)
λ 
 λ1  5.5.1.1(1)
Table
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Worked examples
53,2 5.5.3
93,9
5.5.2
From Table 5.5.2, using buckling curve c, reduction factor, χz = 0,803
To Calculate ky
µ y N Sd 5.5.4(1)
ky = 1− but ky ≤ 1,5
χ y A fy
where
Wpl.y − Wel.y
µ y = λ y (2β My − 4) + but µy ≤ 0,90 5.5.4(7)
Wel.y
and
βMy is an equivalent uniform moment factor for flexural buckling (ψ = 0) Figure
= 1,8 - 0 = 1,8. 5.5.3
1283x103 − 1148x103
µ y = 0,33( 2 x 1,8 - 4) + = −0,01
1148x103
∴ ky = 1 −
( −0,01) x 1154x103 = 1,0
0,97 x 11800 x 235
My.Sd is the design applied moment = 123,9 kNm, and
N Sd k y M y.Sd
+ ≤ 1,0
1149,7 x103 1,0 x 123,9x106
+ = 1,02
0,803 x 11800 x 235 / 1,1 1283x103 x 235 / 1,1
Therefore the section fails. The internal column section needs to be
increased and the analysis and checks carried out on the modified
structure.
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1. Joint characterisation
1.1. General
An important step when designing a frame consists of the
characterisation of the rotational response of the joints, i.e. the
evaluation of the mechanical properties in terms of stiffness, strength
and ductility.
Three main approaches may be followed :

• experimental
• numerical
• analytical.
The only practical option for the designer is the analytical approach.
Analytical procedures have been developed which enable a prediction
of the joint response based on the knowledge of the mechanical and
geometrical properties of the joint components.
In this section a general analytical procedure, termed component
method, is introduced. It applies to any type of steel or composite joints,
whatever the geometrical configuration, the type of loading (axial force
and/or bending moment, ...) and the type of member sections.
The method is used in the Lecture on “Practical procedures for the
characterisation of the response of moment resisting joints” where the
mechanical properties of joints subjected to bending moment and shear
force are computed.
1.2. Introduction to the component method J.1.5
The component method considers any joint as a set of individual basic
components. For the particular joint shown in Figure 2.b. (joint with an
extended end-plate connection subject to bending), the relevant
components are the following :
Compression in zone :
• column web in compression;
• beam flange and web in compression;
Tension zone :
• column web in tension;
• column flange in bending;
• bolts in tension;
• end-plate in bending;
• beam web in tension;
Shear zone :
• column web panel in shear.
Each of these basic components possesses its own strength and

stiffness either in tension or in compression or in shear. The column
web is subject to coincident compression, tension and shear. This
coexistence of several components within the same joint element can
obviously lead to stress interactions that are likely to decrease the
23/02/07 64
Worked examples
resistance of the individual basic components.

The application of the component method requires the following steps :
a) identification of the active components in the joint being considered;
b) evaluation of the stiffness and/or resistance characteristics for each individual basic
component (specific characteristics - initial stiffness, design resistance, ... - or the whole
deformability curve) ;
c) assembly of all the constituent components and evaluation of the stiffness and/or resistance
characteristics of the whole joint (specific characteristics - initial stiffness, design resistance,
... - or the whole deformability curve).
In Figure 1, the principles of the component method are illustrated in the

specific case of a beam-to-column joint with a welded connection.
COMPONENT METHOD
Three steps
F
M=Fz
First step: Column web Column web Column web

Identification of the in shear in compression in tension
components
F F F
Second step:
Response of the FRd1 FRd2 FRd3
components Ek1 Ek2 Ek3
∆1 ∆1 ∆1
Stiffness coefficient ki of each component
Resistance FRdi of each component
Third step: M
Assembly of the
components MRd
Sj,ini
φ
Stiffness of the joint Sj,ini = Ez²/Σki

Resistance of the joint MRd = min(FRdi).z
Figure 1 Application of the component method to a welded joint
The assembly procedure consists in deriving the mechanical properties

of the whole joint from those of all the individual constituent
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Worked examples
components. This requires a preliminary distribution of the forces acting

on the joint into internal forces acting on the components in a way that
satisfies equilibrium.
In Eurocode 3 Annex J, the analytical assembly procedures are
described for the evaluation of the initial stiffness and the design
moment resistance of the joint. These two properties enable the
designer to determine the design joint moment-rotation characteristic
whatever the type of analysis (Figures 4 to Figure 6). In Annex A of the
present lecture, information is provided on how the stiffness and
strength assembly is carried out.
The application of the component method requires a sufficient

knowledge of the behaviour of the basic components. Those covered by
Eurocode 3 are listed in Table 1. The combination of these components
allows one to cover a wide range of joint configurations, which should be
sufficient to satisfy the needs of practitioners as far as beam-to-column
joints and beam splices in bending are concerned. Examples of such
joints are given in Figure 2.
Some fields of application can also be contemplated :
• Joints subject to bending moment (and shear) and axial force;
• Column bases subject to coincident bending moment, shear force and axial force where the
components such as :
- concrete foundation in compression;
- end-plates with specific geometries;
- anchorages in tension;
- contact between soil and foundation,
will be activated.
These situations are however not yet covered, or only partially covered,
by Eurocode 3.
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Worked examples
N°
Component
1 Column web panel in shear VSd
VSd
2 Column web in compression
Fc.Sd
3 Beam flange and web in compression
Fc.Sd
4 Column flange in bending

Ft.Sd
Table J.1
5 Column web in tension

Ft.Sd
6 End-plate in bending Ft.Sd
7 Beam web in tension Ft.Sd
8 Flange cleat in bending Ft.Sd
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9 Bolts in tension Ft.Sd
10 Bolts in shear Fv.Sd
11 Bolts in bearing (on beam flange,

column flange, end-plate or cleat)
Fb.Sd
12 Plate in tension or compression Ft.Sd
Fc.Sd
Table 1 List of components covered by Eurocode 3
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Worked examples
(a) Welded joint (b) Bolted joint with extended end-plate
(c) Two joints with flush end-plates (d) Joint with flush end-plate
(Double-sided configuration)
(e) End-plate type beam splice (f) Cover-joint type beam splice
Figure J.4
(g) Bolted joint with angle flange cleats (h) Two beam-to-beam joints
(Double-sided configuration)
Figure 2 Examples of joints covered by Eurocode 3
2. Joint idealisation
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The non-linear behaviour of the isolated flexural spring which

characterises the actual joint response does not lend itself towards
everyday design practice. However the moment-rotation characteristic
curve may be idealised without significant loss of accuracy. One of the
most simple idealisations possible is the elastic-perfectly plastic
relationship (Figure 3.a). This modelling has the advantage of being
quite similar to that used traditionally for the modelling of member cross-
sections subject to bending (Figure 3.b).
The moment Mj,Rd that corresponds to the yield plateau is termed the
design moment resistance in Eurocode 3. It may be considered as the
pseudo-plastic moment resistance of the joint. Strain-hardening effects
and possible membrane effects are henceforth neglected, which
explains the difference in Figure 3 between the actual M-φ
characteristic and the yield plateau of the idealisation.
Mj Mb , Mc
Mj,Rd Mpl,Rd
Sj,ini/η EI/L
φ φ
(a) Joint (b) Member
Actual M-φ characteristic

Idealised M-φ characteristic
Figure 3 Bi-linearisation of moment-rotation curves
The value of the constant stiffness Sj.ini/η is discussed below.

In fact there are different possible ways to idealise a joint M-
φ characteristic. The choice of one of them is dependent upon the type
of frame analysis which is contemplated:
- Elastic idealisation for an elastic analysis (Figure 4) :
The principal joint characteristic is the constant rotational

stiffness.
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Mj Mj
Mj,Rd Mj,Rd
2/3 Mj,Rd
Sj,ini Sj,ini/η
φ φ
Actual M-φ curve
Idealised representation
(a) For elastic verification (b) For plastic verification
Figure 4 Linear representation of a M-φ curve
Two possibilities are offered in Eurocode 3-(revised) Annex J :

• Elastic verification of the joint resistance (Figure 4.a) : the constant
stiffness is taken equal to the initial stiffness Sj.ini; at the end of the
frame analysis, a check that the design moment MSd experienced by
the joint is less than the maximum elastic joint moment resistance
defined as 2/3 Mj,Rd.
• Plastic verification of the joint resistance (Figure 4.b) : the constant
stiffness is taken equal to a fictitious stiffness, the value of which is
intermediate between the initial stiffness and the secant stiffness
relative to Mj,Rd; it is defined as Sj.ini/η. This idealisation is valid for MSd
Type of connection Beam-to-column joint Other types of joint
values less than or equal to Mj,Rd . The
Welded 2 values of η are as3follows
(Table 2) :
Bolted end-plate 2 3
Bolted cleat 2 3,5
J.2.1.2
Table 2 Values of η
- Rigid-plastic idealisation for a rigid-plastic analysis (Figure 5).
Only the design resistance Mj,Rd is needed. In order to allow the

possible plastic hinges to form and rotate at the joint locations, it
is necessary to check that the joint has a sufficient rotation
capacity.
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Worked examples
Type of connection Beam-to-column joint Other types of joint

Welded 2 3
Bolted end-plate 2 3
Bolted cleat 2 3,5
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TITRE 1
Development of
Course: Eurocode 3
Module 7 : Introduction to the design of structural steelwork in
accordance with the new Eurocodes
Lecture 3 : Introduction to EC3
Lecture 24 : Elastic Design of Portal Frames
Contents:
1 Frame geometry
2 Objectives and design strategy
3 Design assumptions and requirements
3.1 Structural bracing
3.2 Structural analysis and design of the members and joints
3.3 Materials
3.4 Partial safety factors on resistance
3.5 Loading
3.5.1 Basic loading
3.5.2 Basic load cases
3.5.3 Load combination cases
3.5.3.1 Ultimate load limit state combinations
3.5.3.2 Serviceability limit state requirements and load
combinations
3.5.4 Frame imperfections
4 Preliminary design
4.1 Member selection
4.2 Joint selection
5 Classification of the frame as non-sway
6 Design checks of members
7 Joint design and joint classification
7.1 Joint at the mid-span of the beam
7.2 Haunch joint at the beam-to-column joint
8 Conclusions
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75
RAKENNUSTEKNIIKKA
Olli Ilveskoski 30.08.2006 rev2 10.01.2007
Frame geometry
The skeletal structure of a two bay pinned-base pitched portal frame with
haunches for an industrial building is shown in Figure 1.
11,86m
Ridge
Eaves
1,5m
Haunch Pitch 7,7°
8m
23,5m 23,5m
Figure 1 Frame geometry
The outside dimensions of the building, including the cladding, are :

Width : 48 m
Height : 10 m
Length : 60,5 m
The portal frames, which are at 6,0 m intervals, have pinned-base 8 m
high columns at centrelines of 23,5 m and have rafters sloped at 7,7° with
a centreline ridge height of 9,5 m above ground level.
Haunches are used for the joints of the rafters to the columns.
Objectives and design strategy
The principal objective is to aim at global economy, without increasing the
design effort in any significant manner. A traditional approach to the
design of the structure including the joints is adopted initially.
The traditional approach (see Chapter 2) is taken here to describe when
the design of the joints is carried out once the global analysis and the
design of the members have been accomplished. With such a separation
of the task of designing the joints from those of analysing the structure and
designing the structural members, it is possible that they are carried out by
different people who may either be within the same company or, in some
cases, may be part of another company.
It has been usual for designers to put web stiffeners in the columns so as
to justify the usual assumption that the rafter-to-column joints are rigid. It is
recognised that eliminating these stiffeners simplifies the joint detailing
and reduces fabrication costs. Although the removal of the stiffeners may
have an impact on the member sizes required, in particular those of the
columns, this is not always the case.
Therefore, the strategy chosen here is to assume that economy can be
achieved by the elimination of the web stiffeners in the columns. For the
chosen structure, it is shown that the joint detailing can be simplified
without any modification in the member sizes being required and without
violating the initial assumption about the rigid nature of the joints. To
achieve this end, the methods provided in Eurocode 3 for the design of the
moment resistant joints are used.
ENV 1993-1-
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1
Design assumptions and requirements

Structural bracing
The structure is unbraced in its plane.
In the longitudinal direction of the building, i.e. normal to the plane of the
portals, bracing is provided so that the purlins act as out-of-plane support
points to the frame. It is therefore assumed that the top of each column is
held in place against out-of-plane displacement and that the lateral
support provided for the rafter is adequate to prevent lateral torsional
buckling in it.
Structural analysis and design of the members and joints
A widely used elastic linear elastic analysis was adopted for the ultimate
and serviceability limit states. Elastic analysis is particularly suited since
plastic hinge behaviour in the members or the joints is not considered.
At the final stage of the design, an allowance was made in the analysis for
the increased section properties of the rafter over the length of the
haunches.
In accordance with the principle that elastic analysis is valid up to the
formation of the first plastic hinge in the structure, the plastic design
resistances of the member cross-sections and of the joints can be used for
the verification of the ultimate limit states.
The traditional assumption that joints are rigid is adopted. This assumption EN 10025
is verified. EN 20898-1
Materials EN 20898-2.
Hot-rolled standard sections are used for the members.
For the members, the haunches, the end-plates, the base-plates and any
stiffeners, an S275 steel to EN 10025, with a yield strength of 275N/mm²
and an ultimate strength of 430N/mm², is adopted. The bolts are Class
10.
Partial safety factors on resistance
The values of the partial safety factors on resistance are as follows :
γM0 = 1,1 for the resistance of cross-sections;
γM1 = 1,1 for the buckling resistance of members;
γM2 = 1,25 for the resistance of net sections;
γMb = 1,25 for the resistance of bolts;
γMw = 1,25 for the resistance of welds.
Loading
Basic loading
While the loads given are typical for a building of this type, they should be
taken as indicative since the values currently required at the present time
in different countries vary. These differences concern wind and snow
l di i l
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loading mainly. ENV 1991-1-
Rather than apply the relevant parts of Eurocode 1-Basis of Design, which 1
either are recently available or are still under discussion, the French
loading standards were used to determine the design load intensities and
their distribution on the structure. The building is situated in a rather
exposed location for wind.
For simplicity, the self-weight of the cladding plus that of its supporting
purlins is considered to act as a uniformly distributed load on the frame
perimeter.
Permanent actions Variable action

Permanent and variable
actions
Roofing Purlins: 0,15 Wind load Wind pressure of
self- kN/m 0,965 kN/m² at 10
weight Cladding with metres from the
insulation: 0,2 ground level.
kN/m2
Wall self- Cladding with Snow load Roof under 0,44
weight insulation: 0,2 kN/m²
kN/m2
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Table 1 Permanent and variable actions
Basic load cases
The basic load cases are schematised in

Table 2 Basic load cases
Eurocode 3 -
Frame imperfections Chapter 2
The sway imperfections are derived from the following formula:

φ = k c k s φ0
where :
1
k c = 0.5 + ≤1
nc 4.2.2(1) &
1 Table 4.1
k s = 0.2 + ≤1
ns
For the present structure we have:
nc = 3 ( number of full height columns per plane);
ns = 1 ( number of the story in the frame);
wherefrom :
1
φ0 =
200
1
k c = 0.5 + = 0,913
3
k s = 0.2 + 1 = 1,095 > 1,0 therefore take 1,0
1 1
φ = (0,913)x (1,0). =
200 219
All the columns are assumed to have an inclination of φ so that the eaves
and the ridges are initially displaced laterally, as shown in Figure 2, by an
horizontal distance of :
8000 9500
φ.h = = 36,5mm at the eaves and φ.h = = 43,4mm at the ridge.
219 219
36.5 mm Eaves displacement for imperfections
=1/219
Figure 2 Global frame imperfections

Preliminary design
Member selection
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It was decided to use standard hot-rolled sections.
When resistance is the only determining factor, it is usually possible in a
two bay portal frame of this kind to have a smaller column section size for
the central column than for the eaves columns. However, in this case the
use of similar columns throughout was justified since the wind loads are
quite high and serviceability requirements on horizontal deflections are an
important consideration in the choice of the member sections. Doing this
provided a column-rafter combination with adequate overall structural
stiffness and strength and furthermore insured that, despite the fact that
the columns are unstiffened, the assumption of rigid joints is not violated.
Taking these considerations into account, the following member section
sizes were chosen:
Columns : IPE 550
Beams (rafters) : IPE 400
Joint selection
A flush end-plate bolted haunch joint is used for the rafter-to-column joints.
The haunch is obtained by welding a part of an IPE 400 section to the
bottom flange at the ends of each IPE 400 rafter. The height of the section
is increased from 403,6mm (flange-to-flange allowing for the beam slope
of 7,7°) to 782,6mm. The haunch extends 1,5 m along the length of the
rafter.
An extended end-plate bolted joint is used at the mid-span of the rafters,
i.e. at the ridge joints.
Classification of the frame as non-sway
The global analysis was conducted using a first-order elastic analysis and
assuming rigid joints. Only the results for the two more critical load
combination cases are given (see Table 3).
Load combination cases
Ultimate load limit state combinations

The simplified load combination cases of Eurocode 3 -Chapter 2 are
adopted.
Thus, the following ultimate load limit state combination cases have been
examined :
1,35 G + 1,5 W (2 combinations)
1,35 G + 1,5 S (4 combinations)
1,35 G + 1,35 W + 1,35 S (8 possible combinations).
where G is the permanent loading, W is the wind loading and S is the
snow loading.
Serviceability limit state requirements and load combinations
According to Eurocode 3-4.2.2(1) and Table 4.1, the limit for the maximum
vertical deflection of the roof is:
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L
δ max ≤ where L is the span of a rafter
200
According to Eurocode 3 - 4.2.2(4), the limit for the horizontal
displacement of a portal frame without a gantry crane is :
h
δ horiz ≤ where h is the height of the column at the eaves.
150
The following serviceability limit state combination cases have been
examined:
• Maximum vertical deflection at the ridge (mid-span of each bay):
1,0 G + 1,0 S1
1,0 G + 1,0 S4
• Maximum horizontal deflection at the eaves:
1,0 G + 1,0 W1
1,0 G + 1,0 W2
Dead load --1.60kN/m -1.60kN/m -1.60kN/m -1.60kN/m

other than
portal self-
weight -1.20kN/m -1.20kN/m
(G1)∗
Internal Wind 2.22kN/m 4.15kN/m

Pressure
(W1) 4.44kN/m 3.47kN/m 3.96kN/m 3.86kN/m
1.8kN/m 3.12kN/m
Internal Wind --0.483kN/m

Suction 5.7kN/m 0.676kN/m
0.483kN/m
(W2) 0.965kN/m
4.28kN/m 0.515kN/m
Snow -2.64kN/m -2.64kN/m -2.64kN/m -2.64kN/m

(S1)
Snow -1.32kN/m
-2.64kN/m -2.64kN/m
-1.32kN/m
(S2)
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-5.40kN/m
Snow
-1.32kN/m -1.32kN/m
(S3)
-5.40kN/m
Snow -5.40kN/m -5.40kN/m
(S4)
∗ The self-weight of the frame structural members(G2) is added to the

self-weight from the cladding and purlins (G1) to give the total dead
load (G).
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Table 2 Basic load cases
Frame imperfections
The sway imperfections are derived from the following formula: 5.2.4.3(1)
φ = k c k s φ0
where :
1
k c = 0. 5 + ≤1
nc
1
k s = 0.2 + ≤1
ns
For the present structure we have:
nc = 3 ( number of full height columns per plane);
ns = 1 ( number of the story in the frame);
wherefrom :
1
φ0 =
200
1
k c = 0.5 + = 0,913
3
k s = 0.2 + 1 = 1,095 > 1,0 therefore take 1,0
1 1
φ = (0,913)x (1,0). =
200 219
All the columns are assumed to have an inclination of φ so that the eaves
and the ridges are initially displaced laterally, as shown in Figure 2, by an
horizontal distance of :
8000 9500
φ.h = = 36,5mm at the eaves and φ.h = = 43,4mm at the ridge.
219 219
36.5 mm Eaves displacement for imperfections
=1/219
Figure 2 Global frame imperfections

Preliminary design
Member selection
It was decided to use standard hot-rolled sections.
When resistance is the only determining factor, it is usually possible in a
two bay portal frame of this kind to have a smaller column section size for
the central column than for the eaves columns. However, in this case the
use of similar columns throughout was justified since the wind loads are
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quite high and serviceability requirements on horizontal deflections are an
important consideration in the choice of the member sections. Doing this
provided a column-rafter combination with adequate overall structural
stiffness and strength and furthermore insured that, despite the fact that
the columns are unstiffened, the assumption of rigid joints is not violated.
Taking these considerations into account, the following member section
sizes were chosen:
Columns : IPE 550
Beams (rafters) : IPE 400
Joint selection
A flush end-plate bolted haunch joint is used for the rafter-to-column joints.
The haunch is obtained by welding a part of an IPE 400 section to the
bottom flange at the ends of each IPE 400 rafter. The height of the section
is increased from 403,6mm (flange-to-flange allowing for the beam slope
of 7,7°) to 782,6mm. The haunch extends 1,5 m along the length of the
rafter.
An extended end-plate bolted joint is used at the mid-span of the rafters,
i.e. at the ridge joints.
Classification of the frame as non-sway
The global analysis was conducted using a first-order elastic analysis and
assuming rigid joints. Only the results for the two more critical load
combination cases are given (see Table 3).
U.L.S. Load Load Eave Eaves Centr Centr Haunc Beam Beam Haunc
combination effect s Colum al al h at at at h
case colu n (top) colu Colum eaves haunch mid- at
mn mn n column span central
(base (base (top) column
) )
M 0,0 291,8 0,0 6,44 291,8 220,80 +121,7 326,45
(kNm)
1,35G+1,5 N 105,1 80,87 179,7 168,5 45,96 45,14 35,5 46,3
S1 (kN) 3
V 36,53 36,42 0,83 0,78 75,87 68,85 6,63 78,79
(kN)
M 0,0 328,5 0,0 91,99 328,57 237,99 +111,9 344,58
(kN/m 7
)
1,35G+1,3 N 101,2 77,16 171,4 160,2 47,00 55,12 35,41 56,28
5S1 (kN) 6 2 4
+ 1,35W2
V 44,49 37,95 11,53 11,47 71,99 65,50 11,75 75,42
(kN)
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Table 3 Internal efforts for the most critical load combination cases
at ULS
5.2.5.2(4)
According to Eurocode 3, an unbraced frame can be classified as non-
sway for a given load if the following criterion is satisfied :
δ V
. ≤ 0.1
h H
where :
δ horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, relative to the
bottom of the storey;
h storey height;
H total horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey;
V total vertical reaction at the bottom of the storey.
In the following, only the most critical load combination case was
considered : dead load + snow.
Note :
The method of Eurocode 3 is not strictly valid for single storey pitched
portal frames. The reason is that the compression in the beams (rafters) is
not properly accounted for when the beams are at a pitch. Furthermore,
since the eaves columns are subject to quite large, but opposing, lateral
displacements, there is a difficulty of correct interpretation.
Either some adaptation of the method is needed or a more sophisticated
method is required.
A number of more suited approaches are therefore presented to examine
the sway stability of the structure.
a) Method using the lateral stiffness of the frame
It can be observed that the criterion can be reorganised as follows :
δ V δ V  1  V
. = . = . ≤ 0.1
h H  H  mean  h   Stiffness   h 
The method given here involves the mean lateral stiffness of the structure
corresponding to a horizontal load at the eaves level. The technique
introduces the effect of the axial load in the rafters. The horizontal load
has been shared between the columns as shown in Figure 3.
Eaves displacements for H=10kN
14.9 mm 15.16 mm 14.9 mm
2.5kN 5.0kN 2.5kN
Figure 3 Frame lateral stiffness
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The value of V corresponds to the ultimate limit state load combination
case involving the maximum vertical load in the columns, which is easy to
estimate prior to any analysis.
In the first-order elastic analysis for the vertical loads and the lateral
displacement, the initial sway imperfections have been included.
The average lateral displacement at the eaves (see Figure 3) for a total
horizontal load H of 10 kN is 15,0 mm (δmean).
The examination of the ultimate load cases indicates that the maximum
value of the sum V of the axial loads in the three columns is 389,5 kN,
which is for the gravity loading plus snow loading combination case.
The storey height being 8 m, we obtain :
δ mean V 15,0 389,5
. = . = 0,073 < 0,1
H h 10 8000
According to this approach, the structure can be classified as non-sway.
b) Method of weighted average column chord rotation
In this approach, which is the subject of a forthcoming publication by Y.
Galea of CTICM, the individual loading cases can be examined by using
an average value of the column chord rotation, which is weighted to
account for the axial load in each column. Since an average weighted
column chord rotation must be considered, the algebraic sum of the
weighted chord rotations is calculated.
δ ∑ ϕi .N i
ϕ mean =   = ,
 h  mean ∑ Ni
where the sum is over all columns in a storey, the axial load in each being
Ni.
For the load case 1, the horizontal load is that for the imperfections only.
This load is taken as :
H = V/Φ = V/219 so that V/H = 219.
We obtain for load combination case 1 :
 −19,21  + 2,57   + 24,27 
  x104,77 +   x179,72 +   x105,01
δ V δ V 8000   8000   8000 
. =  . = x 219
h H  h  mean H 104,77 + 179,72 + 105,01
= 0,07
The structure can be classified as non-sway according to this method.
c) Method using a specialised analysis to determine the critical load
Another approach to evaluate the sensitivity of the structure to second-
order effects is to obtain the value of Vcr for each ultimate limit state. The
value of Vcr can be obtained by an analysis using specially developed
computer programs, a number of which are commercially available. From
such an analysis for the load combination case 1, we obtain :
Vsd /Vcr = 1/13,202= 0,076.
d) Method using a special formula to determine the critical load
(Horne and Davies)
For hand calculations, use can be made of formulae relevant to this type
of structure proposed by Horne and Davies (see Plastic design of single
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of structure proposed by Horne and Davies (see Plastic design of single-
storey pitched roof portal frames to Eurocode 3, by King C.M., Technical
report 147, The Steel Construction Institute).
Two separate cases need to be examined:
• Eaves column plus rafter;
• Central column plus one rafter on each side.
The formula for truly pinned bases is as follows for the eaves column-
rafter case :
V 3EI r
α cr = cr =
VSd   1,2  
s 0,3Pr .s + 1 + Pc .h  4.2.2(1) &
  R  Table 4.1
3x 210x 231,3.
= = 11,06
  1, 2  
11,86x 0,3x 45x11,86 + 1 +  x92,9x8
  4,3  
where :
Pc and Pr axial compression loads in the column and in the rafter 4.2.2(4)
respectively;
R ratio of the column flexural stiffness to the rafter flexural
stiffness;
s length of the rafter along the slope (eaves to ridge-apex = 11,86
m);
h height of the column (base to eaves = 8 m);
E Young modulus (210000 N/mm²);
Ir second moment of area of the rafter in the frame plane (Iy =
231,3x106 mm4).
For the eaves column-rafter case we obtain :
Ic
I .s 67116,5x11,86
R= h = c = = 4,3
I r I r .h 23128,4x8
s
The values of the average axial loads for the load combination case
concerned are 92,9kN and 45kN for the external column and rafter
respectively.
For the internal column-rafter case, the values are 174kN(column) and Annex J
45kN(rafter). A similar but slightly modified formula gives the following
result :
αcr = 9,8
The inverse of the result is to be compared to the values given by the
other methods:
1/αcr = 1/11,06 = 0,09 for the eaves column-rafter case;
1/αcr = 1/9,8 = 0,10 for the central column-rafter case.
This method appears to be conservative, probably because it does not
account for the stabilising effect of the haunches. It indicates that the
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structure cannot be strictly considered as non-sway; however since the
result is close to the required criteria and because the method is
conservative, it can be accepted to allow a non-sway classification.
e) Second-order elastic analysis to integrate the second-order effects
The last approach possible is to carry out a second-order elastic analysis.
The structure has been thus analysed and the results show that second-
order effects are negligible, thus confirming the validity of the methods of
assessment used above.
Design checks of members
According to Eurocode 3, the limit for the maximum vertical deflection of
the roof under the service loads is:
L 23500
δ max ≤ = = 117,5mm
200 200
Since the vertical deflection of 61,25 mm < 117,5 mm, the condition is
satisfied.
According to Eurocode 3, the limit for the horizontal displacement, under
the service loads, of a portal frame without a gantry crane is :
h 8000
δ horiz ≤ = = 53,3mm
150 150
Since the maximum lateral displacement is 42,35 mm < 53,3 mm, the
condition is satisfied.
Detailed verifications at the ultimate limit state (sections and lateral
stability of rafters, sections and stability of columns) have been carried out
using the Eurocode 3-TOOLS suite of programs. These calculations show
that the design is fully satisfactory. In order to reduce the volume of this
worked example and not to duplicate checks that have yet been illustrated
in the two previous examples, the detailed results are not reproduced
here.
Joint design and joint classification

The joints are designed according to Eurocode 3-(revised) Annex J.
Joint at the mid-span of the beam
The joint at the ridge is subjected to the following extreme design loading
situation:
Load Load effects

combination
case
Positive moment MSd (kNm) :
121,77
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1 Axial force (compression) NSd (kN)
-46,3
Shear force VSd (kN)
6,63
Table 4 Load effects at mid-span of the beam
The axial load plastic resistance of the IPE 400 beam is :

A xf y 46.5x10 2 x 275
N pl = = = 1162,5kN
γ M0 1.1x103
Since the axial loads are always smaller than 10% of axial load plastic
resistance Npl of the IPE 400 beam section, it can be assumed that the
design resistances of the joints are unaffected by them. Shear forces at
this location are also small.
The extended end-plate joint of Figure 4 has been designed according to
Eurocode 3-(revised) Annex J, with the aid of the DESIMAN program.
180
10
IPE 400 403.65

500 300
90
90
50
Welds: 7mm on flange, 4mm on web Double fillet

40 40
Bolts: 3x2 M20 pc 10.9 End plate: 500x180x20
Figure 4 Beam ridge end-plate joint
a) Resistance to positive moments and associated shear forces

The characteristics of the mid-span end-plate joint and joint to positive
moments are as follows:
Moment resistance : Mj.Rd = 235,6 kNm.
Shear resistance : Vj.Rd = 107,7kN.
Initial joint stiffness : Sj.ini = 273219 kNm/radian.
Nominal joint stiffness : Sj = 91073 kNm/radian.
Since MSd < Mj.Rd , the joint has adequate resistance in bending.
Since VSd < Vj.Rd , the joint has adequate shear resistance.
b) Joint classification
This joint can be classified as rigid if the following criterion of Eurocode-
(revised) Annex J for an unbraced frame is met :
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S j.ini L b
≥ 25
EI b
In the present case, the length Lb has to be taken as the developed length
of the rafter, i.e. 23,71 m. The rigidity of the IPE 400 beam over a span of
23,71 m is :
EI b 210000x 23128.4x10 4
= = 204910 6 Nmm = 2049kNm
Lb 23710
Thus, for the mid-span ridge joint we obtain for the positive moment:
S j.ini L b
273219
= = 133,4
EI b 2049
which meets the criterion for a rigid joint classification.
The bending resistance of the IPE 400 beam is :
Wpl f y 1307,1x103 x 275
M pl = = = 326,7810 6 Nmm = 326,78kNm
γ M0 1,1x10 6
M j.Rd
121,77
Since = = 0,37 < 1,0 , the joint has a partial-strength
M pl 326,78
classification.
Haunch joint at the beam-to-column joint
The beam-to-column joint is subjected to the two following extreme design loading situations :
Load combination case Load effects

Negative moment MSd (kNm)
2 (at eaves column) 328,57
Axial force (tension) NSd (kN)
77,16
37,95
Negative moment MSd (kNm)
344,58
2 (at central column)
Axial force (compression) NSd (kN)
56,28
75,42
Table 5 Load effects at the beam-to-column joint
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Since the axial loads are always smaller than 10% of the axial load plastic
resistance Npl of the IPE 400 beam section, it can be assumed that the
design resistance of the joints is unaffected by them.
The joint of Figure 5 was designed with the aid of the DESIMAN program.
180
SLOPE 7.7°
65 10
60
RAFTER
IPE 400
790
770
600
COLUMN Cut from IPE 400

IPE 550
65
10
20 Haunch length: 1500mm 40 40
Welds: 7mm on flange, 4mm on web double fillet

Bolts: 3x2 M20 pc 10.9 End-plate: 790x180x20
Figure 5 Beam-to-column end-plate haunch joint
a) Resistance to negative moments and associated shear forces at

the eaves column
The characteristics of the haunch joint at the beam to eaves column joint
under negative moments are :
Moment resistance : Mj.Rd = 335,8 kNm.
Shear resistance : Vj.Rd = 308 kN.
Initial joint stiffness : Sj.ini = 108640 kNm/radian.
Nominal joint stiffness : Sj = 54320 kNm/radian.
The resistance of the joint at the central column joint is similar, the failure
mode being column web compression failure. The joint stiffness at this
location could be considered as greater for symmetric loading about the
central column; it is simpler to consider the joint to have the same stiffness
as that of the eaves joint without any significant loss of accuracy.
b) Resistance to negative moment and associated shear forces at the
central column
The characteristics of the joint at this location are as follows :
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Moment resistance: Mj.Rd = 360 kNm.
Shear resistance: Vj.Rd = 308 kN.
Initial joint stiffness: Sj.ini = 150537 kN.m/radian.
Nominal Rigidity: Sj = 75268 kN.m/radian.
c) Joint classification
This joint can be classified as rigid since :
S j,ini L b 108640
= = 53>25
EI b 2049
S j,ini L b
150537
and = = 73,5 > 25
EI b 2049
M j.Rd
335,8
Since for negative moments = = 1,03 > 1.0 , the joint is a full-
M pl 326,8
strength joint.
Conclusions
An analysis of the structure accounting for the semi-rigid characteristics of
the beam-to-column joints was also been carried out. It shows only a slight
reduction in the moments at the beam-to-column joints with a
corresponding slight increase in the mid-span moments. The small change
in the moments obtained reflects the fact that the joints are quite rigid
despite the absence of lateral stiffeners in the columns.
If horizontal web stiffeners were used, a smaller central column could be
adopted and the eaves columns could be reduced to an IPE 500. However
IPE 450 rafters are needed to avoid excessive loading in the column. As a
result, this solution is not necessarily more economical in steel weight than
the IPE 550 column/IPE 400 rafter solution; in addition it involves extra
fabrication costs due to the use of column web stiffeners.
The other commonly used strategy for obtaining global economy is to use
plastic design, but designs so obtained will usually require the more costly
stiffened joints and, probably, a greater design effort. Which approach
leads to the most economical solution can be determined only by the
fabricator and/or designer.
It was decided to omit shear and horizontal web stiffeners in the column so
as to provide the potential of economy in fabrication and in erection by
simplification of the joint detailing. The possibility that the joints can be
semi-rigid is therefore permitted, a priori. However it is demonstrated that
by a judicious choice of members of sufficient strength and rigidity, the
joints can be considered as rigid. The central column member size has
been dictated in part by the absence of column web stiffeners, but the
rafter and the eaves columns have not been affected by this option in joint
detailing.
23/02/07 91
92
RAKENNUSTEKNIIKKA
23/02/07 92

Section Data For Steel Profiles

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Section Data For Steel Profiles

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Structural Steelwork Eurocodes

1. Simple Braced Frame

2. Floor Beam - Fully Restrained

3. Roof Beam – Restrained at Load Points

4.3 Classification of Cross-Section

6.4 Design of Tension Member

1. Simple Braced Frame

Roof: Gd = γG Gk. At ultimate limit state γG = 1,35 (unfavourable) 2.2.2.4(2)

c 2.1.1 Flange buckling Table

2.1.2 Web buckling Table

1,04ht w fy 1,04 x 550 x 11,1 x 235

This is greater than the shear on the section (292 kN).

11,1 x 300 x 235

A further check is sometimes required, especially when there are 5.4.7(3)

δ0 is the pre-camber (if present),

For permanent actions, Fk = 5 x 8,11 x 7,2 = 292 kN.

For variable actions, Fk = 5 x 3,5 x 7,2 = 126 kN.

The maximum deflection, δ max = δ 1 + δ 2 = 10,1 + 4,3 = 14,4 mm

2.4 Additional Checks if Section is on Seating Cleats

2.5 Crushing Resistance 5.7.3

2 x 17,2 x (210 / 11,1) 0,5

2.6 Crippling Resistance

where tw is the thickness of the web = 11,1 mm, 3.2.5

This is greater than the reaction (292 kN).

2.7 Buckling Resistance

3. Roof Beam - Restrained at Load Points

1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m

1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m 1,8 m

262,4 kNm 262,4 kNm

3.1 Initial Section Selection

Try IPE O 450 5.4.5.1

3.2 Classification of Cross-Section

3.2.2 Web buckling Table

3.3 Design Buckling Resistance Moment

where L is the length between B and C = 1800 mm,

Note: These properties will probably be tabulated in handbooks.

The design buckling resistance moment for segment B - C is:

3.4 Shear on Web 5.4.6(1)

where h is the height of the section = 456 mm, Table 3.1

1,04 x 456 x 11 x 235

• Variable actions, and

64,5x103 x 1800  72002 18002 

For a central point load:

Total deflection due to permanent loading, δ1 = 5,8 + (2 x 4,0) = 13,8

For a point load, distance a from the end of the beam:

For a central point load:

Total deflection due to variable loading, δ2 = 0,6 + (2 x 0,4) = 1,4 mm

Figure 7 Internal Column

4.3 Classification of Cross Section 5.3

4.5 Buckling Resistance of Member

The magnitude of the reduction factor, χ depends on the reduced

4.7 Determination of Reduction Factor, χz

Figure 8 External Column

5.3 Classification of Cross Section 5.3

5.5 Buckling Resistance of Member

5.7 Determination of Reduction Factor, χz

Characteristic wind load, Qk = 1,6 kN/m2.

At ultimate limit state, γQ = 1,5 (unfavourable), Qd = 1,5 x 1,6 = 2,4

Top load = (24 x 2,1) = 50,4 kN.

Assume that all horizontal load is resisted by the bracing only.

Design the bottom brace, as this carries the greater load.

Try a CHS 175 x 5,0

Figure 11 Typical CHS Cross-Section