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 ISSN 0157-9711
ISBN 0 643 05321 2

Tropical Agronomy Technical Memorandum

Number 78 1992

BOTANAL - A comprehensive sampling

and computing procedure for estimating
pasture yield and composition.
1. Field Sampling

J.C. Tothill, J.N.G. Hargreaves,

R.M. Jones, & C.K. McDonald

This memorandum is an updated and expanded revision

of Technical Memorandum No.8, published in 1978.

CSIRO Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
1992
 1

BOTANAL - A comprehensive sampling and computing procedure for estimating pasture yield
and composition. 1. Field Sampling

J.C.Tothill, J.N.G.Hargreaves, R.M.Jones, & C.K.McDonald

Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures, CSIRO, St.Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4067,
Australia

ABSTRACT

This paper outlines a field sampling procedure combining estimates of species composition and
pasture yield. Composition can be estimated by the dry-weight-rank method or direct
estimation of percentages. Yield is usually estimated using the comparative yield technique, or
by direct estimation of herbage dry weight, although estimates from mechanical harvesting or
other indirect procedures can also be incorporated. In addition, data for other attributes such as
ground cover and frequency can be collected and analysed. There is scope within BOTANAL
for examining variation in pasture yield and composition as it is related to on-site factors such as
soil type and aspect. Since all attributes are estimated on the same samples, a considerable
advantage is gained in sampling and computational efficiency, particularly for large scale
studies.

Details of the computational procedure for BOTANAL are dealt with in the second paper in this
series, and electronic data collection with a hand-held computer in the third.

CITATION

Tothill,J.C., Hargreaves,J.N.G., Jones,R.M., and McDonald,C.K. (1992) BOTANAL - A

comprehensive sampling and computing procedure for estimating pasture yield and
composition. 1. Field Sampling. CSIRO Aust. Div. of Trop. Crops & Past., Trop. Agron. Tech.
Mem. No.78

KEYWORDS

Botanal, Pasture Composition, Pasture Yield, Frequency, Visual Estimation, Dry-Weight-Rank,

Percentage Rank
 2

CONTENTS

1. Introduction 3

2. The Botanal Package 3

3. Estimating Pasture Composition by weight 4

3.1 - the dry-weight-rank method 4
3.1.1 - applicability of the dry-weight rank method 4
3.1.2 - tying 6
3.1.3 - bulking 6
3.1.4 - partitioning 7
3.2 - direct estimation of percentage composition 7
3.2.1 - estimating all species in a quadrat 7
3.2.2 - estimating highest ranking species only 8

4. Estimating Total Dry Matter Yield 8

4.1 - the comparative yield estimate method 9
4.1.1 - standardising 9
4.1.2 - calibration 9
4.2 - direct estimation of yield 10
4.3 - other yield estimates 10

5. Additional Pasture Attributes 11

5.1 - frequency 11
5.2 - cover 11
5.3 - counts and ratings 11
5.4 - selective grazing 12
5.5 - animal behaviour factors 12

6. Variability in Pastures 12

7. Sampling Procedures 13
7.1 - sampling layout 13
7.2 - number of samples 14
7.3 - quadrat size 14
7.4 - observer training 15
7.5 - coding 15
7.6 - computation of the data 15

8. Ackowledgements 16

9. References 16

Appendix A - partitioning of species 18

Appendix B - details of some experimental
applications of Botanal 19
 3

1. INTRODUCTION

BOTANAL is a modern technique for measuring yield, botanical composition, and other
important attributes of pastures. BOTANAL was first published in 1978 (Tothill et.al). Since
then, with use, it has been expanded to accept a wider range of attributes and to take advantage
of modern computerised methods of data collection. This technical memorandum is an updated
description of BOTANAL.

Grazing experiments generally involve large areas of land. This is particularly so with beef
cattle grazing in extensive pastoral systems. The main problems of achieving adequate pasture
sampling are the number of samples required, the increased variability which is encompassed by
the experimental area, and physical problems limiting mechanised yield sampling.
Consequently, we and others have used several existing methods, found some more useful than
others, and developed some new approaches. Digital computers have removed much of the
bottleneck of data processing, and hand-held computers suitable for field use have greatly
reduced the time required for data entry. Thus, we have developed a combined package for
field sampling, data recording and computation of results. It is particularly useful in large
grazing experiments, as well as in small plots (Waite, 1992). This memorandum describes the
field sampling procedure, while data recording and computation have been described in
memoranda by Hargreaves and Kerr (1992) and McDonald et al (1992).

2. THE BOTANAL PACKAGE

Pasture sampling in grazing experiments generally involves obtaining estimates of the quantity
of herbage dry matter present and the composition of the herbage, expressed as the proportions
of different components (individual species, grouped categories such as grasses, weeds, etc., or
green and non-green material, litter etc.). Several reviews have dealt fully with these two
parameters, viz. 't Mannetje (1978) and Catchpole and Wheeler (1992) on measuring herbage
yield, and Tothill (1978) on measuring pasture composition. It is therefore not necessary to
discuss the basis for pasture sampling. Readers are recommended to acquaint themselves with
the theoretical background before application of the package we describe here.

BOTANAL was developed to compute pasture composition on a dry weight basis using the dry-
weight-rank method of 't Mannetje and Haydock (1963). The method provided a rapid and
accurate means of estimating the proportional contribution of species to pasture dry matter, but a
separate estimate of total yield was required to compute the yield of individual species. The
comparative yield method for estimating the dry matter yield of pasture (Haydock and Shaw,
1975), or the direct estimation of herbage dry weight (Morley, Bennett, and Clark, 1964;
Campbell and Arnold, 1973), have provided ways of obtaining such estimates in a manner
compatible with dry-weight-ranking, since they can be carried out on the same sampling
quadrats. The package also provides for a wide range of options in pasture yield estimates
including hand clipping of quadrats or forage harvester cuts.

Not only does BOTANAL allow for estimation of yield and composition by weight but other
attributes, such as frequency, cover and density can be recorded and analysed. Adequate
numbers of field samples can be taken to allow for analysis of relationships between these
different attributes.
 4

The package allows more extensive low-cost sampling which opens up opportunities to
investigate variations in attributes within treatment areas. Examples of this would be :
determining the species composition of naturally occurring areas of low yield; determining the
yield, or composition of the other species, in areas dominated by a particular species;
determining composition in relation to soil type.

3. ESTIMATING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT

The most accurate method, and the one used as a reference base for most other methods, is that
of hand separating the pasture components from an adequate sample of quadrat cuts. This is
generally a laborious procedure and is not readily applicable on a very large scale or on complex
pastures. Indeed the accuracy of cutting is negated if an inadequate number of samples are
taken. Non-destructive visual estimation procedures, such as the dry-weight-rank (DWR)
method of 't Mannetje and Haydock (1963), are a more rapid and effective way of estimating
pasture composition.

N.B. It is important that all users of visual estimation procedures periodically check their
estimations by cutting and sorting samples, to remove bias from their estimates.

Bias arises when pastures are composed of grasses and legumes, and perhaps other broad-leaf
weeds, which have considerable contrast in their morphology and growth habit. Broad-leaf
species tend to display their leaves horizontally while grass leaves are largely vertically oriented.
This presents a visual contrast which may give a misleading impression of the respective
amounts of herbage. Added to this there are usually differences in the water content of grasses
and broad-leaf plants. Making allowances for these potential biases comes only from
experience of estimating then cutting, drying and weighing the respective components.

3.1 The dry-weight-rank method

In each of a number of quadrats the observer records the species which take first, second and
third place, estimated in terms of dry weight.

A set of multipliers derived from the empirical relation between the actual and ranked dry
weight composition of pasture, are used to convert the rank scores to percentage species
composition. These multipliers apply to a wide range of pasture types and compositions.

The species occupying rank 1 is given a value of 8.04, rank 2, 2.41, and rank 3, 1.0. The values
for each species are summed over quadrats within each treatment area and expressed as a
percentage of the total scores of all species. (See Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992). These
percentages can be converted to actual component weights by multiplying by the total dry
weight estimate for each plot.

3.1.1 Applicability of the dry-weight-rank method

The method has been used in regular sampling of a wide range of pasture types by many
Australian workers (e.g. Bryan and Evans, 1973; Rees, Jones, and Roe, 1976) as well as by
overseas workers (e.g. Bedell, 1973; Walker, 1976). The pastures likely to be investigated will
 5

vary from simple mixtures of species to very complex ones, though in general sown pastures
contain fewer species than natural or native pastures.

It is generally easier to rank species in order of first, second and third, in terms of their
contributions to total dry weight, than to make direct estimates of the weights of the pasture
components or to estimate percentage composition values directly. These latter estimates are
useful in situations as discussed in sections 3.2 and 3.3.

There are four basic assumptions made in the DWR method:

(a) At least three species are present in the majority of sample quadrats.

While pastures generally contain three or more species, at times certain components disappear
from the system, particularly when annuals form part of the pasture. If fewer than three species
or components are regularly present in the sample quadrats then the estimate of their relative
proportions will be biased. The problem may be overcome by using a larger quadrat size if it
can be seen that three or more species would be regularly present. Alternatively, directly
estimating the proportions of components will solve the problem (see sections 3.2 and 3.3).

(b) The order in which species are ranked, varies between quadrats.

Obviously if all quadrats in a treatment had species ranked in an identical order, then the
percentages would be fixed at 70, 21 and 9 percent for the first three species. Even if only one
species has a consistent ranking, say of third place, then DWR could only allocate a fixed
percentage to this species even though the other species could vary. In our experience this is an
infrequent event in grazed pastures, with the exception discussed in the next paragraph.

Generally, any one species does not exceed 70 percent of the total dry weight of herbage.
However, with some tall-growing tropical grasses one species can become particularly dominant
late in the season. If this situation is ignored, the maximum level for that species remains at 70
percent because of the multiplier value used, and hence it is underestimated. Jones and
Hargreaves (1979) used an empirical adjustment they call 'cumulative ranking' to deal with this
situation. Where a species consistently contributes more than 85 percent of the dry weight then
this bias can be largely overcome by ranking the species in both first and second places.

(c) No consistent relationship exists between quadrat yield and the dominance of any one
species.

In some pastures there is a consistent association between yield and the dominance of a
particular species, e.g. Verano stylo (Stylosanthes hamata) may dominate low yielding quadrats
in the same pasture where high yielding quadrats are dominated by speargrass (Heteropogon
contortus). Jones and Hargreaves (1979) have described an adjustment which weights the
values calculated from the ranks in a quadrat by the yield of the quadrat, so providing a better
approximation of the actual composition for these situations. This adjustment is used as a
default option in the BOTANAL package of Hargreaves and Kerr (1992), as estimates of
quadrat yield are almost always taken in conjunction with estimates of dry-weight-rank.

(d) The multipliers of 8.04, 2.41, and 1.0 for the first three species are valid when used in
 6

different pastures.

Although different sets of multipliers can be derived from different pasture data, the
conventional multipliers gave acceptable results when used in a wide range of tropical, sub-
tropical, temperate, rangeland, and semi-arid rangeland pastures (Jones and Hargreaves, 1979).
The multipliers gave good results in grassland measurements in arid rangeland (Freidel et.al,
1988), and desert shrub habitats (Mazaika and Krausman, 1991). Scott (1986) found them to
closely follow a geometric series relationship between species abundance and rank order of
species.

3.1.2 Tying

When two or more species contribute similar amounts of dry matter they are given equal rank.
If these species contribute most of the dry matter in the quadrat they are tied in first place, and
receive equal shares of the combined multiplier value for the first and second places. Likewise,
two or more species tied in second place share equally the combined multiplier value of second
and third place. Two or more species tied in third place receive an equal share of the multiplier
value for third place species. Consistency between operators is improved by tying species if
there are any doubts about allocating ranks.

In the following examples the first line has species 5 first, 6 second, and 9 third, whereas the
second line has species 5 and 6 tied for first place, with species 9 third. The third line shows
species 5 first, with species 6 and 9 equal second, and the fourth line has species 6 first, species
4 second, and species 5 and 9 equal third.

Species Rank
5 6 9 111
5 6 9 201
5 6 9 120
6 4 5 9 112

3.1.3 Bulking

Bulking species into multi-species groups can be useful, particularly when some species have
common attributes. For example weed species can be bulked into such categories as weeds
(species other than those planted), or more specifically grassy weeds, broad-leaved weeds, and
woody weeds. Bulking is best restricted to minor components as bulking of major components
leads to difficulties. Firstly, if all or the main grasses are bulked together they may frequently
exceed 70 percent of the total dry weight of the quadrat, leading to excessive dominance by one
component as discussed previously. Secondly, bulking of major species may lead to too many
quadrats having less than three ranked components. Thirdly, bulking of major species leads to a
loss of information about their individual behaviour.

When working with native pastures it is often desirable to group species into categories because
of the large number of species likely to occur, of which a few are common but others are very
sporadic in occurrence. Thus we might consider the following: common species A, common
species B, other grasses, native legumes, sedges, broad-leaf herbaceous weeds. Although rarely
used, it may be useful to rank every quadrat in two ways separately but simultaneously, i.e. on
 7

the basis of the floristic units (species) and on agronomic units (collected species bulked
according to common agronomic attributes).

3.1.4 Partitioning

Some operators have used the DWR procedure to partition material of each species into classes
such as 'green' and 'dry', or 'leaf' and 'stem'. Agronomic understanding can be improved by
doing this, however, the standard DWR multipliers do not apply to this situation. We
recommend caution in partitioning species. Further details of the problems involved in
partitioning are given in Appendix A.

3.2 Direct estimation of percentage composition

The species composition of herbage can also be estimated directly for each quadrat e.g. species
A is 60%, species B is 20% etc. This differs from the DWR method where the fixed multipliers
allocate the same percentage to each similarly ranked species, in every quadrat. viz. 70% to first
place, 21% to second place, and 9% to third. Also, estimating percent composition directly is
not limited to the first 3 or 4 species.

Direct estimation of percentages should be used in preference to DWR when there are usually
no more than three species present, where there is little variation in species composition
between different quadrats in the one treatment, or where one species is consistently 80 percent
or more of yield.

In pastures with many species, such as some native pastures, there may be a large number of
lesser species over all quadrats, but only a few species in individual quadrats. This situation
often results in these lesser species being over-rated by the DWR method. These minor species
can be indicator species and greatest possible accuracy is required.

Also, in native pastures, there may be several species in each quadrat with similar percentage
contribution, but where species A is nearly always first, and species D is nearly always third or
fourth. Using the DWR method, this will result in species A being over estimated and species
D being underestimated. Direct estimation of percentages largely overcomes these problems.

N.B. Operators should regularly estimate, cut, and sort quadrats to check their accuracy in
estimating percent composition.

3.2.1 Estimating all species in a quadrat

An estimate of percent composition is given for each species in every quadrat. Usually the
species are done in the same order at each quadrat, thus eliminating the need to repeatedly
record a species number, as in the following examples.

Percentage for Species

A B C D E F

Quadrat 1 50 0 5 20 10 15
Quadrat 2 35 5 0 45 13 2
 8

When there are six or more species present in a quadrat it is more difficult and time consuming
to allocate percentage composition, than to dry-weight-rank the first three or four most
important species. Other options are to reduce the number of species by bulking species into
groups as discussed previously (section 3.1.3), or to use the percentage ranks method (section
3.2.2). Estimated percentages can be computed by using the COMPEST algorithm in the
BOTANAL package (Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992).

3.2.2 Percentage Rank Method - direct estimation of higher ranking species in each quadrat

This technique involves direct estimation of percentages, but only of the higher ranking species
in each quadrat. Similarly to DWR, the first three or four species, in terms of dry weight, are
rated in each quadrat. However, rather than just rank them in order of dry weight, the estimated
percentage of each of these species is recorded. The estimate for each species can be expressed
as a percentage of the 3 or 4 species recorded in that quadrat, or of all species in the quadrat.
Ideally it should be the former. The recording program of McDonald et.al.(1992) automatically
adjusts the estimates to sum to 100.

By way of example (1 and 2 below), a quadrat may have 3 prominent species, 1 less prominent
species, and a number of minor species. Then, if recording only the first four species, these
could be recorded as species 5 - 35%, 6 - 30%, 9 - 25%, 4 - 10% (example 1 below), with the
minor species ignored. If these minor species were important, then the first five or six species
could be estimated as in example 2 below.

Species Percentages

Example 1 5 6 9 4 35 30 25 10

Example 2 5 6 9 4 11 15 33 28 24 10 3 2

The decision whether to use direct estimation of all species or percentage ranks, and how many
species to record in each quadrat, must be decided prior to commencement of sampling. The
choice will largely depend on the complexity of the pasture and the importance attached to the
correct estimation of the proportion of minor species. Percentage ranks will be easier than
direct estimation of all species in complex pastures.

Percentage ranks is almost always used in conjunction with the yield adjustment of Jones and
Hargreaves (1979), and estimating the first four species is the optimum for efficiency while still
maintaining a high level of accuracy (C.K.McDonald, unpublished data). The data is computed
in the BOTANAL package using the COMPEST algorithm.

4. ESTIMATING TOTAL DRY MATTER YIELD OF PASTURE

In order to estimate the actual yield of species it is necessary to obtain a separate estimate of the
total dry matter yield for each pasture treatment. This value, when multiplied by the percent
composition estimate, provides an estimate of dry weight composition.

We have adopted the visual estimation of yield as the standard procedure in BOTANAL.
 9

Visual estimation is non-destructive, and can be carried out on the quadrats being ranked for
DWR, thus eliminating additional sampling error, and making a one pass operation.
Furthermore, both yield and composition can be estimated to ground level, or the same cutting
height; this is harder to achieve when yield is measured by mechanical methods on separate
quadrats. Combining the estimates of DWR and yield simultaneously on the one sample leads
to considerable economies in sampling procedure, data recording and processing and also to
more accurate calculation of composition by use of the weight adjustment (section 3.1.1 (c)). In
comparison to the pasture disc or rising plate meter (Earle and McGowan, 1979) and the
electronic capacitance meter (Jones and Haydock, 1970), visual estimation has the added
advantage of the observer not having to carry the equipment around the pasture. This has
particular advantages in difficult terrain such as stony or steep slopes, areas with fallen timber,
many fences etc.

4.1 The comparative yield estimate method

The method is essentially a double sampling procedure whereby the quantity of herbage dry
matter in sample quadrats is estimated against a set of standard reference quadrats which have
been pre-selected in the field. These standards provide a scale over the range of yields likely to
be encountered and are available for reference throughout the sampling. The selection of
reference standards must be carried out carefully, not only to give accurate results, but also to
provide training for the observers. The method assumes that it is easier to rate samples against a
set of standards than it is to estimate their actual weight.

4.1.1 Standardisation

Most estimation methods employ some means of standardising the estimates between observers,
over the duration of the sampling period and over the range of biomass being sampled. The
most practical in our situation is the use of pegged standard quadrats in the field which, under
intensive grazing conditions, may need to be protected by cages during the sampling period if
they are required for several days. In our application of the Haydock and Shaw (1975) method,
five quadrats are jointly selected by the sampling team to cover the range of herbage yields
likely to be encountered. During the selection process quadrats may be cut and weighed in the
field, and although measured in green weight, they provide a valuable guide in selecting the
standards and in training for sampling. The five quadrats are rated 1 - 5 in a linear scale so that
standard 3 is half way between standards 1 and 5, 4 is half way between 3 and 5 and so on.
Subsequently, when doing actual estimations, the sampling scale is conceptually divided into
smaller divisions, such as quarters or tenths.

4.1.2 Calibration

In any double sampling procedure, the method is only as good as the calibration of the estimate.
While Haydock and Shaw (1975) have enumerated three calibration procedures we consider
their "Type 3" calibration is the best. This involves each observer evaluating a single set of
about 12 quadrats, selected to cover the range of the standard quadrats. This is usually done at,
or near, the end of sampling the experiment. They are then cut, dried and weighed; individual
observer regression equations can be established for actual weight against estimated dry weight.
We have found that a highly significant regression coefficient can be provided by 10-15
quadrats. If the sampling period covers several days then some quadrats may be estimated and
 10

cut at the end of each day to determine whether estimations are seriously changing during
sampling. Such changes must be documented and can then be allowed for in computation
(Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992). The five standards may be inspected each day before
commencing sampling. Separate calibrations may be needed if two or more different kinds of
pastures (e.g. native pasture and improved pasture) are under study in the one experiment.

Haydock and Shaw (1975) emphasise the need to handle the herbage within each quadrat to get
a better idea of its bulk and the distribution of mass. Campbell and Arnold (1973) emphasise
the tendency to overestimate tall herbage in relation to short, and the problem of different
structural forms of the plants comprising the vegetation. Many of these problems can be
overcome by training. Consistent bias by individual observers can be overcome by using
individual calibration regressions. In view of this it is essential that the calibration estimates of
each observer reflect the estimates each gave during the course of the sampling. In mixed
swards, particularly native pastures, it is extremely important for observers to practise
estimating the different structural forms, then cutting and weighing.

One problem in calibrating the yield estimate is the nature of the regression of the actual against
estimated yields. In most cases the relationship is close to linear, but it can be quadratic.
Haydock and Shaw (1975) gave correlations of r = 0.98 to 1.00 over 17 sampling occasions and
we have found r values are invariably > 0.90 in regular sampling. Visual estimation on sub-
tropical pastures has given r values equal to or greater than those obtained from a rising plate
meter on the same sets of quadrats.

Sometimes the relationship is quadratic, and this function can be used provided it doesn't unduly
bias the predicted values at the extremes, particularly the lower end of the scale where the
majority of the observations usually occur. Where a linear function predicts a negative fitted
value for any of the lower yield estimates, a quadratic function can be tried. If this is also
unsatisfactory a suitable small positive value may be inserted in place of any negative fitted
value. This can be achieved by setting the MINVAL 'codeword pair' in association with the
BOTANAL/COMPEST algorithms (Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992). This must be decided
following inspection of the regressions. Because it is not possible to predict whether it will be
appropriate to use a linear or a quadratic regression, it is not advisable to build the automatic
derivation of a regression into routine computation.

4.2 Direct estimation of yield

The yield within each quadrat can be estimated directly as grams/quadrat, or preferably, as kg/ha
(Campbell and Arnold, 1973). One advantage of this method is that the operator gains expertise
in directly estimating pasture yield, and this thinking in terms of yield per unit area rather than a
1-5 scale, can enable operators to adjust more easily to estimating yields in different pasture
types. A disadvantage is that it is more daunting to new operators to think in terms of yield per
unit area rather than a 1-5 scale. The procedures previously described for standardising and
calibrating in the comparative yield estimate method also apply to direct estimation.

4.3 Other yield estimates

BOTANAL can accept yield estimate data derived either from destructive sampling methods,
such as clipped quadrats or mown strips, or non destructive sampling methods, such as direct
 11

visual estimates, capacitance meters, or rising plate meters.

Mechanical sampling for yield by mowing or forage harvesting can be unsatisfactory on a year-
round basis. This is because samples contain variable amounts of inert contaminants such as
dung, soil and surface litter in different seasons and because sampling may be prevented by wet
ground conditions at the most important time. Consequently it may be difficult to relate yield to
botanical composition as estimated by dry-weight-rank. Mechanical sampling is also costly,
time consuming, and may create artificial micro-patches in a pasture.

5. ADDITIONAL PASTURE ATTRIBUTES

The field sampling procedure for BOTANAL allows for simultaneous estimates of other pasture
attributes such as frequency (presence/absence), cover, number, percent green, litter, defoliation
ratings, leaf blade yields, morphological state, etc. The measurement and use of these
vegetation attributes, including weight, have been reviewed by Tothill (1978).

5.1 Frequency

Frequency is the percentage of quadrats where the species (or other attribute) is present.
Records of species for estimating composition on a dry weight basis by DWR provide
incomplete data for frequency since the records are only of the three most important species or
components in each quadrat. The same problem arises where direct estimation of percentages is
used on only the higher ranking species in each quadrat, or is based on species groups. Minor
species are mostly excluded and minor occurrences of major species. However, frequency data
can be obtained by completely listing all species occurrences, of which, only the first three or
four species are ranked or estimated for their dry weight. Alternatively, and rather more rapidly,
a set of relevant species are listed when they occur outside the ranked set.

In the BOTANAL processing package the algorithm FREQPERC processes the data for species
frequency percentages. Where complete enumeration of species' presence/absence has been
carried out the data can be used for a variety of cluster analysis procedures, as outlined by
Williams (1976) and Belbin (1991).

5.2 Cover

Estimation of cover or bare ground can be used to rank the vulnerability of pastures to soil
erosion and compare the effect of different treatments.

Visual estimates of percentage ground cover or of bare ground are made in each quadrat, and
can be calibrated by taking measurements and visual estimates on a set of 10 or 20 quadrats. An
estimate of ground cover is derived by the algorithms CELLFILL and COMPEST (Hargreaves
and Kerr, 1992).

5.3 Counts and Ratings

Attributes such as the number of plants, the number of seed heads, number of seedlings, number
of ant holes, can be recorded. Ratings can be given to certain attributes e.g. phenological state
(from early flowering to late seeding), leaf and stem ratings, disease ratings, and colour.
 12

Preliminary tests have shown that white clover can be rated on a 1-5 scale for density of stolons.
A calibration curve is then derived at the end of experimental sampling from estimating and
measuring stolon density in standard quadrats.

The results can be derived with either the CELLFILL or COMPEST algorithm.

5.4 Selective Grazing

Species selection by grazing animals has an important influence on the botanical composition of
mixed pastures. Defoliation ratings, as a proportion of the current seasons forage, can be given
to individual species and to the total quadrat, and from these a selectivity index for each species
can be derived (Andrew, 1986b). These ratings can be collected at the same time as
composition and yield data.

5.5 Animal Behaviour Factors

In large scale experiments, the movement of animals can influence which areas receive heavier
grazing pressure than others. The number of dung pats, cattle pads, hoof prints, or areas of
heavy grazing, in between quadrat sites, can be used to relate animal movement or concentration
to pasture composition or spatial attributes (Andrew, 1986a). These counts can be summed or
meaned using the CELLFILL algorithm, or used as factor levels for the
BOTANAL/COMPEST/FREQPERC algorithms by use of the CATS codeword pair. The
collection of such counts in between quadrat sites, is included as an option in the data collection
program described in Part 3 (McDonald et al., 1992).

6. VARIABILTY IN PASTURES

Many pastures are not uniform, but contain a wide range of yield levels often associated with
variation in pasture composition. As BOTANAL involves taking many samples within a
treatment area, there is opportunity to explore factors associated with pasture variability. This
variability can be studied in two ways.

Firstly, yield and/or composition can be related to pre-determined factors eg. slope, soil type,
presence of trees, northern versus southern aspect. If sampling is on a fixed grid with numbered
quadrats, data at each point can be related to spatial factors eg. soil type. This gives an insight
into the relative importance of the spatial factor and/or treatment in determining composition.
With the aid of computers, the spatial distribution of the composition can be mapped for visual
comparisons.

Secondly, variation in composition can be studied in relation to spatial factors such as pasture
yield, percent green, number of dung pats, etc., after the sampling. For example, a 5 ha pasture
of Townsville stylo in the dry-tropics of Queensland had a mean composition of 32%
Stylosanthes humilis, 58% Heteropogon contortus, and 10% other species (R.L.McCown,
unpublished data). However, if all the quadrats were ranked in order of yield, the lowest third
had a composition of 74% Stylosanthes, 9% Heteropogon, and 17% other species, whereas the
highest third comprised 15% Stylosanthes, 79% Heteropogon, and 6% other species.

For predetermined factors, or variables which can be scored 1,2,...n, the data can be analysed
 13

according to these factors using the BOTANAL/COMPEST/FREQPERC algorithms in the

usual manner, by specifying the appropriate data columns to be read as factors. Analysis of the
data across variables with an infinite range, such as yield or slope, can be achieved by use of the
codeword CATS in conjunction with the BOTANAL/COMPEST/ FREQPERC algorthms.
This codeword will divide the complete range of values for the nominated variable into user
specified range classes, which can then be used as factor levels.

7. SAMPLING PROCEDURES

7.1 Sampling Layout

The decision to use a completely random, stratified random or systematic layout of quadrats
depends on the size of the experimental area, the pattern and nature of the variability within the
treatment areas, and whether the interest is centred on changes over sequential periods of time in
one area or actual composition at one time over several years. In practice, sampling with
BOTANAL has been carried out using all such strategies.

However, where cluster analysis is required a regular grid layout of samples is preferable
(Williams 1971). A grid layout is particularly useful where changes in pasture composition
related to soil type, occur within each paddock (Bryan and Evans 1973).

The main disadvantage of systematic sampling is that standard errors of the plot means cannot
be calculated (Greig-Smith, 1964) as the sampling points are not considered to be independent
of each other. However, this statistic is not necessarily required as analyses are usually carried
out on between plot means, and provided there is replication of plots, a standard error of the
mean over plots can be calculated. The only disadvantage arises when it is necessary to
calculate a standard error of this mean for guidance in arriving at minimum numbers of samples
to be taken or in situations of no replication. In this latter case it can be overcome by taking two
sets of systematic samples, with random starting points, in the one plot and deriving an estimate
of standard error from them.

Potentially the most serious problem during systematic sampling arises when variation is regular
and/or periodic. e.g. a gilgai topography. The periodicity of the sampling may coincide with
only one aspect of the environmental variation and the overall variability is grossly
underestimated. Generally the periodic variation is obvious, but even when not so the adequacy
of the sampling scheme can be determined (Cochran, 1963). Smartt and Grainger (1974) have
compared various sampling strategies in vegetation surveys and conclude a stratified random
strategy to be generally the most effective, though systematic sampling was only slightly less
effective. Random sampling is difficult in practice unless some restrictions are placed on it to
arrange the sampling positions into a progressive sampling path.

Major discontinuities or patterns in a pasture can be separated out after sampling has been
concluded by using one of the attributes of the sample as a basis for stratification. An example
of this is that of a closely grazed pasture, over which there are numerous dung patches with rank
ungrazed herbage. The habitat differences between these two situations often result in
considerable differences in botanical composition. In these situations it is very difficult to
stratify the sampling layout beforehand whereas some attribute of the sample, such as estimated
mass, can be used to distinguish between samples from dung patches and those from interzones.
 14

Alternatively each sample may be coded.

Sampling is most conveniently carried out progressively along a distinct path or transect. In
short pastures an exact path can easily be followed and the quadrat can be placed precisely at the
toe of the observer's boot. However, in tall rank pastures, particularly on areas of uneven
ground, it may be difficult to maintain an exact path. It is not always possible to place the
quadrat directly at the toe of the boot, especially where there is a heavy growth of twining
legume. In this situation the quadrat may be dropped in front, without looking, and then
manoeuvred into a horizontal position on that exact spot. An open sided (3-sided) quadrat is
useful as it can be slid into place in long herbage.

7.2 Number of Samples

In most situations 30-100 quadrats per plot will be adequate when using BOTANAL, while
Williams (1971) suggests a minimum number per area of about 50 for presence/absence
sampling. The number of samples required for a particular level of precision can be calculated
from a preliminary sample set (Cochran, 1963; Greig-Smith, 1964) or from the experience of
the investigator in consultation with a statistician. The number used will be a compromise
between the number required to sample both the abundant and rarer species. Also, where
treatment areas vary, the number of samples per treatment will usually vary, particularly in
regular grid sampling. Acceptable results in small plot work have been achieved using only 12
quadrats per treatment area (Waite, 1992). However, with so few samples, there was a tendency
for over estimation of the lower values and under estimation of the higher values. It is normally
preferable to to use a minimum of 30.

C.K.McDonald (unpublished data), using data collected in a native pasture, found that the
variation within paddocks was independent of sampling intensity and was related solely to the
number of samples in each sampling area. These tests also indicated that, for this pasture, any
more than 100 quadrats in a sampling area gave little improvement to the reliability of results,
irrespective of the size of the paddock. However, at least 30 quadrats were required in order to
detect significant differences of less than 25% between paddocks.

Sample number and sample size are correlated to the extent that, as the size increases, the
number of samples required decreases.

7.3 Quadrat Size

The size of sampling quadrat used depends on the degree of openness of the vegetation, the
pattern associated with the growth form of the species being measured, and meeting the
assumptions of the dry-weight-rank method for the inclusion of at least three species in the
quadrat. The minimum size is that required to obtain a satisfactory estimate of the values being
measured and the maximum is that which still allows ready assessment by the observer.

The sparser the plants are in a pasture the larger will the quadrat need to be to avoid being
empty. Williams (1971) considers the larger the better because this ensures each sample is
endowed with a reasonable amount of information. He suggests 1 m2 for sampling by
presence/absence on most herbaceous vegetations. 't Mannetje and Haydock (1963) compared
quadrat sizes of 0.01, 0.04, 0.09 and 0.25 m2 and the mean composition calculated from the
 15

various quadrat sizes did not differ. The main consideration is that at least three species or
species components are usually present in each quadrat. Haydock and Shaw (1975) used 0.25
m2 quadrats for estimating yield and this was the largest quadrat that could be viewed without
the need to scan. Where the optimal sample size differs for estimating different pasture
attributes the experimenter can choose either to compromise at one size or use different sizes
nested within one another.

7.4 Observer Training

Observer training is essential when using estimating techniques. Uniform criteria should be
established for all decision processes and a certain amount of joint sampling carried out. There
are problems such as how to deal with seedlings, particularly when some are identifiable and
others not. Identification problems in the field can be helped, particularly in the early stages of a
study when the flora may not be completely known, by carrying a field herbarium of specimens
mounted on 20 x 12 cm cards in clear plastic envelopes. As far as possible the sampling should
be carried out more or less equally by the same set of observers over each treatment. It may
require several days of training for a completely new observer to take part in the sampling
procedure, depending on the complexity of the vegetation.

Experienced observers can estimate between 200 - 500 quadrats per day depending on the type
of pasture, the intensity of sampling and the amount of additional information being gathered.

7.5 Coding

Numerical coding is used for recording the species or component ranks, since this is the form
required for data input for computation. Preferably, data entry should be in the field, directly
onto hand-held computers (see Part 3, McDonald et al., 1992) which can be downloaded to a
desktop/laptop computer on a daily basis, or where hand-held computers are not available, onto
data sheets - see data layout in Part 2 (Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992). Recording directly to a
hand-held computer avoids transcription and the errors that inevitably occur. Also, the
computer is able to check for invalid species numbers, illegal ranks or percentages, and 'out of
range' checks on other variables while the operator is at the quadrat site. Where a large number
of species is likely to be encountered (as in studies on native pastures), the species names and
code numbers are listed above and below the data recording pad on an oversized clipboard, or
when using hand-held computers, listed on a small card which can be carried in a clothes-
pocket.

Where observers are working over a range of locations a master list of species known to occur
should be compiled. The species are then arranged in family groups or alphabetically for ease of
finding. In this way problems of using the same number for different species in different
locations are overcome. Our experience has been that even several years after changing code
numbers an observer may occasionally use the old number. Where species are being partitioned
or bulked a separate numerical code is used.

7.6 Computation of the data

Computational aspects of handling the field data are fully outlined in Part 2 of this series
(Hargreaves and Kerr, 1992). While it is feasible to incorporate a formal analysis of variance
 16

procedure into the computational package, we consider it unwise at this stage of processing.
Rather, we suggest that the computer data be presented in tabular form in its various
permutations for observation prior to the use of statistical techniques.

The relative ease with which large sets of data can be processed, computed and analysed has led
to advances in field recording. The streamlining of data recording allows collection of much
larger data sets than before so that both larger areas and more samples per area can be taken
efficiently. We feel that this sampling/computational package offers a versatile and efficient
system for many pasture studies.

8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge the help given by Messrs. J.D. Kerr of CSIRO Biometrics Unit,
K.P. Haydock, formerly of CSIRO Division of Mathematical Statistics, and Mr. N.H. Shaw,
formerly of CSIRO Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures.

9. REFERENCES

Andrew, M.H. (1986a) Use of fire for spelling monsoon tallgrass pasture grazed by cattle.
Trop. Grasslds. 20(2): 69-78
Andrew, M.H. (1986b) Selection of plant species by cattle grazing native monsoon tallgrass
pasture at Katherine, N.T. Trop. Grasslds. 20(3): 120-127
Bedell, T.E. (1973) Botanical composition of subclover-grass pastures as affected by single and
dual grazing by cattle and sheep. Agron. J. 65: 502-4.
Belbin, L. (1991) PATN Technical Reference Manual. CSIRO Division of Wildlife and
Ecology. Canberra, Australia.
Bryan, W.W., and Evans, T.R. (1973) Effects of soils, fertilizers and stocking rates on pastures
and beef production on the Wallum of south-eastern Queensland. 1. Botanical composition
and chemical effects on plants and soils. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 13: 516-29.
Campbell, N.A., and Arnold, G.W. (1973) The visual assessment of pasture yield. Aust. J. Exp.
Agric. Anim. Husb. 13: 263-7.
Catchpole, W.R. and Wheeler, C.J. (1992) Estimating plant biomass: A review of techniques.
Aust.J.Ecol. 17: 121-131
Cochran, W.G. (1963) "Sampling Techniques". John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. 2nd Ed.
Earle, D.F. and McGowan, A.A. (1979) Evaluation and calibration of an automated rising plate
meter for estimating dry matter yield of pasture. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 19: 337-
343
Friedel, M.H., Chewings, V.H., and Bastin, G.N. (1988) The use of comparative yield and dry-
weight rank techniques for monitoring arid rangeland. J.Range Man. 41(5): 430-434
Greig-Smith, P. (1964) "Quantitative Plant Ecology". Butterworths Sci. Publ., London. 2nd
Ed.
Hargreaves, J.N.G., and Kerr, J.D. (1992) BOTANAL - a comprehensive sampling and
computing procedure for estimating pasture yield and composition. 2. Computational
package. CSIRO Aust. Div. Trop. Crops & Past. Trop. Agron. Tech. Mem. No. 79
Haydock, K.P., and Shaw, H.H. (1975) The comparative yield method for estimating dry matter
yield of pasture. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. Anim. Husb. 15: 663-70.
Jones, R.J., and Haydock, K.P. (1970) Yield estimation of temperate and tropical pasture
species using an electronic capacitance meter. J. Agric. Sci.,Camb. 75: 27-36
 17

Jones, R.M., and Hargreaves, J.N.G. (1979) Improvements to the dry-weight-rank method for
measuring botanical composition. Grass and Forage Sci. 34: 181-89.
Mannetje, L.'t (1974) Relations between pasture attributes and liveweight gains on a subtropical
pasture. Proc. XII Int. Grassld. Cong., Moscow, 3: 299-304.
Mannetje, L.'t (1978) Measuring quantity of grassland vegetation. In "Measurement of
Grassland Vegetation and Animal Production". Ed. L.'t Mannetje. Commonw. Bur. Past.
Fld. Crops, Hurley, Berks, England, Bull. 52.
Mannetje, L.'t, and Haydock, K.P. (1963) The dry-weight-rank method for the botanical analysis
of pasture. J. Br. Grassld Soc. 18: 268-75.
Mazaika, R. and Krausman, P.R. (1991) Use of dry-weight-rank multipliers for desert
vegetation. J.Range Man. 44(4): 409-411
McDonald,C.K., Hargreaves, J.N.G., O'Toole, J.G., and Corfield, J.P. (1992) BOTANAL - a
comprehensive sampling and computing procedure for estimating pasture yield and
composition. 3. Field recording direct to computer. CSIRO Aust. Div. Trop. Crops & Past.
Trop. Agron. Tech. Mem. No. 80
Morley, F.H.W., Bennett, D., and Clark, K.W. (1964) The estimation of pasture yield in large
grazing experiments. CSIRO Aust. Div. Pl. Ind., Fld Stn Rec. 3: 43-47.
Scott, D (1986) Coefficients for the dry-weight-rank method of botanical analysis of pasture.
Grass and Forage Sci. 41: 319-321
Smartt, P.F.M., and Grainger, J.E.A. (1974) Sampling for vegetation survey: some aspects of
the behaviour of unrestricted, restricted and stratified techniques. J. Biogeog. 1: 193-206.
Rees, M.C., Jones, R.M., and Roe, R. (1976) Evaluation of pasture grasses and legumes grown
in mixtures in south-east Queensland. Trop. Grasslds. 10: 65-78.
Sandland, R.L., Alexander, J.C., and Haydock, K.P. (1982) A statistical assessment of the dry-
weight-rank method of pasture sampling. Grass and Forage Sci. 37: 263-72.
Tothill, J.C. (1978) Measuring botanical composition of grasslands. In "Measurement of
Grassland Vegetation and Animal Production". Ed. L. 't Mannetje. Commonw. Bur. Past.
Fld Crops, Hurley, Berks, England, Bull. 52.
Tothill, J.C., Jones, R.M., and Hargreaves, J.N.G., (1978) BOTANAL - a comprehensive
sampling and computing procedure for estimating pasture yield and composition. 1. Field
Sampling. CSIRO Aust. Div. Trop. Crops & Past. Trop. Agron. Tech. Mem. No. 8
Walker, B.H. (1976) An approach to the monitoring of changes in the composition and
utilization of woodland and savanna vegetation. S. Afr. J. Wild. Res. 6: 1-32.
Waite, R.B. (1992) The application of visual estimation procedures for monitoring pasture yield
and composition in exclosures and small plots. Trop. Grasslds (in press)
Williams, W.T. (1971) Strategy and tactics in the acquisition of ecological data. Proc. Ecol.
Soc. Aust. 6: 57-62.
Williams, W.T. (1976) (Ed.) "Pattern Analysis in Agricultural Research". CSIRO, Elsevier,
Melbourne.
 18

APPENDIX A - partitioning of species

In the same way that species may be bulked so it would seem that species may be partitioned
into components of, say, green and attached dry herbage, or leaf and stem. Partitioning in this
manner can have considerable relevance to animal production studies where the animal's
performance is related more to the amount of green leaf/herbage present than to the total amount
of herbage ('t Mannetje, 1974). Many people have used partitioning but there are some
problems. While it provides a useful guide to the change in proportions of green to mature
herbage with the passage of the growing and non-growing seasons, at certain times and in
certain situations the total of the green and dry components differs considerably from the
estimates obtained when the same species is not partitioned.

It is not exactly clear where the errors arise, however it appears that it partly relates to a situation
analogous to "cumulative ranking" (see section 3.1.1 (b)) when the partitioned components are
recombined. For instance, the problem is most pronounced when the proportions of green and
dry in the dominant species are each marginally more than the otherwise second species, which
leads to the likelihood of the dominant species getting both ranks 1 and 2.

In the absence of any detailed study and testing of this procedure, the use of partitioned
components should be considered a separate estimate of composition to that obtained from non-
partitioned components, as in the second example in the Appendix B. Where partitioning is
being carried out the data should not be recombined to get an estimate of non-partitioned
components, which must be obtained separately but concurrently. Unless this is clearly
recognised the information may be severely biased.

In some situations it may be useful to consider litter or inert material as a component. In this
case it is necessary to define carefully what litter really is. If it includes attached but dead plant
material then clearly the species to which it belongs cannot also be partitioned into green and
dry. If it includes only detached material the individual species may still be partitioned.
However we feel that using detached litter as a component does not introduce the same problem
as partitioning individual species.

If it is desired to estimate the yield of a pasture component such as 'edible green leaf' or 'litter',
this can be derived by treating this component separately on a yield basis and directly estimating
its yield relative to a set of standards, using the same procedures described earlier for estimating
total dry matter yield. R.B.Waite (pers. comm.) has found this technique to be more reliable
than partitioning each species into two components such as 'edible green leaf' and 'other'.
 19

APPENDIX B

Details of some different experimental applications of BOTANAL

Site Beerwah Research Station, Beerwah, Queensland

Personnel R.M. Jones

Experimental Evaluation of four lines of Desmodium at two stocking rates in small

plots grazed for three days every four weeks.

Randomised block design with 3 replicates

Period 1980 - 1986

Values measured Botanical composition by dry weight (Direct estimation of percentages

and Comparative Yield estimate). Up to 6 species per quadrat but most
quadrats with only three species.

Sampling layout Systematic

Sample number 720 (30 per plot)

Sample size 0.1 m2.

Sampling Frequency Once per year at end of growing season

Man days/sampling 2

Total area 2 ha.

 20

APPENDIX B (continued)

Site Narayen Research Station, near Mundubbera,

Queensland

Personnel J.C. Tothill; J.N.G. Hargreaves

Experimental Land development levels and stocking rate effects on pasture

composition and animal production. Randomized complete block in 2
replications.

Period 1971 - 1986.

Values measured Pattern by presence/absence sampling of all species (350).

Botanical composition by dry weight (DWR + Comparative Yield
estimate).

Composition by -

a. species units only,

b. main species units (Siratro, spear grass, buffel grass, green panic),
bulked agronomic units (other grasses, forbs, other legumes, sedges)
with each partitioned into green and dry.

Frequency of nominated species.

Total ground cover.

Sampling layout Systematic

Sample number 2,300 (28m x 28m grid layout)

Sample size 1.0 m2 for presence/absence

0.25 m2 for DWR, yield, frequency and cover

Sampling Pattern analysis biennially in late summer

frequency DWR, yield, frequency and cover 8 times per year.

Man days/sampling 13 man days for DWR, frequency and cover. 21 man days for above
plus presence/absence on all species.

Other Photographs of each fence-line between treatments at each sampling to

provide a visual record.

Total area 270 ha.

 21

APPENDIX B (continued)

Site "Glenwood" Research Site, near Mundubbera,

Queensland

Personnel J.A.Taylor, J.J.Hodgkinson, C.K.McDonald

Experimental Effect of stocking rate and Land class on Native pasture and Native
pasture band-sown with Legume.

Randomized block with 2 replications.

Period 1989 - present.

Values measured Botanical composition by dry weight (Percentage rank technique, plus
Comparative yield, percent cover, and percent green).

Sampling layout Systematic along fixed transects. In legume plots, samples taken On and
Off the sown row at each quadrat site.

Sample number approx. 7000 (25m x 25m grid layout, approx. 4200 sites)

Sample size 50 x 50 cm.

Sampling frequency 2 yearly

Man days/sampling 32

Total area 400 ha.

 22

APPENDIX B (continued)

Site Gigoomgan, near Biggenden

Personnel J.C. Tothill

Experimental Effects of presence/absence of grazing, fertilizing and burning on native

pasture.

Factorial split plot design with 2 replications.

Period 1964 - 1978

Values measured Relative and actual botanical composition by dry weight. (DWR with
occasional yield estimates by cutting four quadrats, each of 100 cm x 40
cm per treatment).

Presence/absence of all species (approx. total 220).

Sampling layout Systematic

Sample number 1920

Sample size 20 cm x 20 cm.

Sampling frequency 1964 - 1968 annually in autumn,

1969 - 1978 biennially in autumn.

Man days 8

Total area 5 ha.

(Yield sampling was commenced before the development of estimation

techniques; they would have been used if this experiment had been
commenced ten years later).

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