ABSTRACT

In today’s world, actual record of fuel filled and fuel consumption in

vehicles is not maintained. It results in a financial loss. To avoid this we are
implementing a microcontroller based fuel monitoring and vehicle tracking
system.

In this paper, the implementation of embedded control system based

on the microcontroller is presented.

The embedded control system can achieve many tasks of the effective
fleet management, such as fuel monitoring, vehicle tracking. Using GPS
vehicle tracking technology Fuel monitoring have been the major problem
that most of bus companies looking to solve.

This paper developed a bus tracking and monitoring the fuel and speed
system to provide a facility for the management requirements by the
administrator using GPS and GSM Technology.
INTRODUTION:

The challenges of successful fuel monitoring involve efficient and

specific design, and a commitment to implementation of the monitoring
project, from data collection to reporting and using results. tracking is the use
of GPS technology to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with one
or more fleet vehicles. Implementing real-time vehicle tracking as part of a
commercial company’s mobile resource management policy is essential for
comprehensive operational control driver security and fuel savings. Rising
fuel costs constantly challenge fleet operators to maintain movement of
vehicles and monitor driver behaviour to avoid delaying traffic conditions by
either, combining deliveries, reconfiguring routes or rescheduling timetables.

This aims to maximize the number of deliveries while minimizing time

and distance Fuel monitoring system help the administrator to know the exact
amount of fuel content of the bus, so fuel theft could be avoided and
administrator could maintain the fuel more efficiently. The design and
development of a vehicle tracking and fuel monitoring system especially
useful for mining in real-time has been reported in this paper. The system
principally monitors vehicle moving and tracking such as position, and speed.
GPS is increasingly being used in vehicle tracking and monitoring services.

To resolve the problems like avoid speed and collision, traffic jams
ARM processor based vehicle monitoring is implemented as well providing
information for the vehicle owner. The system has been designed for ARM
processor vehicle tracking and monitoring will provide effective and real time
vehicle location using GPS and WIFI.

A GPS based vehicle tracking will inform where you vehicle is and
where it has been and how long it has been. The system uses geographic
positions and time information from the global Positioning Satellites. The
system has on board which resides in the vehicle to be tracked and a Base
Station that monitor data from the various vehicles. This project ability is
accurately detected the vehicle and monitoring the speed for avoiding
collisions.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

GPS MODULE

POWER SUPPLY MICROCONTROLLER FUEL LEVEL

SUPPLY

ESP 8266

INTERNET

SMART PHONE
Circuit diagram
 POWER SUPPLY

+6V

4X1N 4007 1 3
IC 7 8 0 5 +5V

2
O N /O F F
+ +
- +
+ 1 0 0 0 M F D \5 0 V 0 .1 M D F 1 0 0 M F D \2 5 V
6V B A TTE R Y

CHARGER

4X1N 4007
+12V

560E

- +
+ TO
A C 220V B A T T ER Y
1 0 0 0 M F D \5 0 V
LED P

12V / 500m A

GPS TECHNOLOGY
 The GPS is a worldwide radio-navigation system formed from a
constellation of 24 satellites and their ground stations. A system of satellites,
computers, and receivers that is able to determine the latitude and longitude
of a receiver on Earth by calculating the time difference for signals from
different satellites to reach the receiver While there are millions of civilian
users of GPS world-wide, the system was originally designed for and is
operated by the U. S. Department of Defense (DOD). Nowadays, the GPS is
finding its usage into cars, airplanes, ships and could be applied to all other
moving facilities. There are five stations around the world (Hawaii,
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein, and Colorado Springs.)
monitoring the GPS satellites, checking both their operational functions and
their exact position in space. The ground station transmits corrections for the
satellite's ephemeris constants and clock offsets back to the satellites. The
satellites can then incorporate these updates in the signals they send to the
surface of the earth and can be read by GPS receivers.
GPS satellites provide coded signals that can be processed in a GPS
receiver, enabling the receiver to compute altitude, longitude, height, velocity
and time. Precise positioning could be achieved by using GPS receivers at
different locations providing corrections and reference positioning data for
remote receivers. Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise
clocks on board the satellites and controlled by the monitor stations, is
another use for GPS.

GPS receivers convert the satellite signals into position, velocity, and
time estimates. Four satellites are required to compute the four dimensions of
latitude, longitude, height and time. GPS receivers are used for navigation,
positioning, time dissemination, and other research. Navigation in three
dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers can be made
for all moving objects on earth such as vehicles, aircraft, ships.

Here's how GPS works in four logical steps:

The basis of GPS is " triangulation" from satellites.

1. To "triangulate," a GPS receiver measures distance using the travel

time of radio signals.

2. To measure travel time, GPS needs very accurate timing which it

achieves with some tricks.

3. Along with distance, you need to know exactly where the satellites are
in space. High orbits and careful monitoring are the secret.

4. Finally you must correct for any delays the signal experiences as it
travels through the atmosphere.

Illustration of GPS technology

The GPS receiver obtains the signal from at least four of the GPS
satellites via the GPS antenna. Using the principle of 3D trilateration, the
location of a place is determined in terms of its latitude, longitude and
altitude, which is illustrated in the above figure.

APPLICATIONS OF GPS TECHNOLOGY

Depending on your needs and the GPS technology, you can hope to
gain several benefits from using GPS technology in your environment. Some
of the benefits are:

 Offers precise location data for any point on the planet, in any weather

 Helps you find out where you are and how to get where you are going on
land or sea

 Surveys and maps precisely saving time and money with higher accuracy

 Currently being used in several different types of industries

 Reduced costs has made GPS technology more affordable for everyone
 The ability to track an object down to its precise location

PRINCIPLE OF TRILATERATION

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is actually a constellation of 27

Earth-orbiting satellites (24 in operation and three extras in case one fails).
The U.S. military developed and implemented this satellite network as a
military navigation system, but soon opened it up to everybody else.

Artist's concept of the GPS satellite constellation

Each of these 3,000- to 4,000-pound solar-powered satellites circles the
globe at about 12,000 miles (19,300 km), making two complete rotations
every day. The orbits are arranged so that at anytime, anywhere on Earth,
there are at least four satellites "visible" in the sky.

3-D Trilateration
Fundamentally, three-dimensional trilateration isn't much different
from two-dimensional trilateration, but it's a little trickier to visualize.
Imagine the radii from the examples in the last section going off in all
directions. So instead of a series of circles, you get a series of spheres.

If you know you are 10 miles from satellite A in the sky, you could be
anywhere on the surface of a huge, imaginary sphere with a 10-mile radius. If
you also know you are 15 miles from satellite B, you can overlap the first
sphere with another, larger sphere. The spheres intersect in a perfect circle. If
you know the distance to a third satellite, you get a third sphere, which
intersects with this circle at two points.

The Earth itself can act as a fourth sphere -- only one of the two
possible points will actually be on the surface of the planet, so you can
eliminate the one in space. Receivers generally look to four or more satellites,
however, to improve accuracy and provide precise altitude information. In
order to make this simple calculation, then, the GPS receiver has to know two
things:
  The location of at least three satellites above you

 The distance between you and each of those satellites

The GPS receiver figures both of these things out by analyzing high-
frequency, low-power radio signals from the GPS satellites. Better units have
multiple receivers, so they can pick up signals from several satellites
simultaneously. Radio waves are electromagnetic energy, which means they
travel at the speed of light (about 186,000 miles per second, 300,000 km per
second in a vacuum).

SYSTEM SPECIFICATION

OPERATING VOLTAGE 3.3V

FREQUENCY RANGE 1575 MHz

GPS RECEIVER
 Trimble's new Lassen SQ GPS receiver adds complete GPS
functionality to mobile products, in a postage-stamp-sized footprint with
ultra-low power consumption. Using Trimble's breakthrough First GPS
architecture, the module delivers complete position, velocity and time (PVT)
solutions for use in mobile, battery-powered applications such as cell phones,
pagers, PDAs, and digital cameras.

The Lassen SQ GPS module is packaged in a tiny form factor (26 mm

x 26 mm x 6 mm, including the metal shield). It typically requires only 100
mW of power (at 3.3 VDC). Total typical power usage, including the Trimble
3.3 VDC miniature antenna, is 133 mW. The module includes flash memory
for field upgrades and for storing the user configuration.

Cable Strip Mating Connector

A low profile, cable strip mating connector is the second I/O mating
method. A recommended cable strip part is Samtec's part number FFSD-04-?-
XX part. The user will need to substitute the following letters and numbers
into the part number when ordering this part where the '?' and 'XX' symbols
occur: for the '?' symbol substitute the letter S for single end or D for double
end; for the 'XX' symbol substitute the overall length in inches, ± 1/8 inch,
with a 2 inch minimum. Since the signals are CMOS TTL level signals,
Trimble does not recommend cable lengths of longer than six inches.

If the cable strip I/O connector scheme is used, the connector side of
the Lassen SQ module will be facing up and the mounting tabs will be on the
top of the module away from PCB. The RF connector is easily accessible,
using this interfacing methodology.

Digital IO/Power Connector Pin out information.

PIN NUMBER FUNCTION DESCRIPTION

1 TXD A Serial Port A transmit

2 GND Ground, Power and Signal

3 RXD A Serial Port A receive

4 PPS Pulse-Per-Second, CMOS/TTL

5 Reserve No connect

6 Reserve No connect

7 Prime Power (VCC) +3.3 VDC to ± 0.3 VDC

8 Battery Backup Power 3V

Power Requirements

The Lassen SQ GPS module requires +3.3 VDC ±0.3 VDC at 33

mA, typical excluding the antenna. The on-board capacitance is 10 μF. An
important design consideration for power is the module's internal clock
frequency at 12.504 MHz ± 3 KHz. Interference spurs on prime power in
this narrow frequency band should be kept to less than 1mV. The receiver
does not require any special power up or down sequencing. The receiver
power is supplied through pin 7 of the I/O connector. See Table 2.2 for the
+3.3 VDC power specifications.

Battery Back-up

The Lassen SQ GPS receiver provides an input for battery back-up

(BBU) power to keep the module's RAM memory alive and to power the
real-time clock when the receiver's prime power is turned off. RAM memory
is used to store the GPS almanac, ephemeris, and last position. User
configuration data, including port parameters and receiver processing options
can be stored in non-volatile Flash which does not require back-up power. By
using battery back-up, time to first fix is reduced to 20 seconds (typical).
Though not required, providing BBU power can reduce time to first fix. A 3.6
volt lithium battery used for back-up power can last up to five years.

SIGNAL VOLTAGE CURRENT PIN NO.

VCC 3.0 – 3.6 33mA 7
Battery Back-up 2.5 to 3.6 19μA 8
Ground 0 ---- 2

Serial Interface

As an embedded design, the Lassen SQ GPS module provides direct

CMOS compatible TTL level serial I/O. The RX and TX signals on the J2 I/O
connector are driven directly by the UART on the Lassen SQ GPS receiver.
Interfacing these signals directly to a UART in your application circuitry
provides direct serial communication without the complication of RS-232 or
RS-422 line drivers.
Pulse-Per-Second (PPS)

The Lassen SQ GPS receiver provides a four microsecond wide,

CMOS compatible TTL level Pulse-Per-Second (PPS). The PPS is a positive
pulse available on pin 4 of the power and I/O connector. The rising edge of
the PPS pulse is synchronized with respect to UTC. The timing accuracy is
±95 nanoseconds when valid position fixes are being reported. The rising
edge of the pulse is typically less than 20 nanoseconds. The distributed
impedance of the attached signal line and input circuit can affect the pulse
shape and rise time. The PPS can drive a load up to 5mA without damaging
the module. The falling edge of the pulse should not be used. The PPS is
always on (early PPS) and is driven by the Real Time Clock (RTC) until the
receiver acquires GPS time from the satellite and is getting fixes.

GPS Antennas

The antenna receives the GPS satellite signals and passes them to the
receiver. The GPS signals are spread spectrum signals in the 1575 MHz range
and do not penetrate conductive or opaque surfaces. Therefore, the antenna
must be located outdoors with a clear view of the sky. The Lassen SQ GPS
receiver requires an active antenna. The received GPS signals are very low
power, approximately -130 dBm, at the surface of the earth. Trimble's active
antennas include a preamplifier that filters and amplifies the GPS signals
before delivery to the receiver. A Compact Magnetic-Mount GPS Antenna
with a 5m cableand an MCX connector.

Start-up

Lassen SQ GPS module is a complete 8-channel parallel tracking GPS

receiver designed to operate with the L1 frequency, standard position service,
Coarse Acquisition code. When connected to an external GPS antenna, the
receiver contains all the circuitry necessary to automatically acquire GPS
satellite signals, track up to 8 GPS satellites, and compute location, speed,
heading, and time. The receiver will automatically begin to search for and
track GPS satellite signals at power-up.

The performance of a GPS receiver at power-on is determined largely

by the availability and accuracy of the satellite ephemeris data and the
availability of a GPS system almanac. The first time the receiver is powered-
up, it is searching for satellites from a cold start (no almanac). While the
receiver will begin to compute position solutions within the first two minutes,
the receiver must continuously track satellites for approximately 15 minutes
to download a complete almanac.

GPS Satellite Message

Every GPS satellite transmits the Coarse/Acquisition (C/A) code and

satellite data modulated onto the L1 carrier frequency (1575.42 MHz). The
satellite data transmitted by each satellite includes a satellite almanac for the
entire GPS system, its own satellite ephemeris and its own clock correction.
The satellite data is transmitted in 30-second frames. Each frame contains the
clock correction and ephemeris for that specific satellite, and two pages of the
50-page GPS system almanac. The almanac is
repeated every 12.5 minutes. The ephemeris is repeated every 30 seconds.
The system almanac contains information about each of the satellites in the
constellation, ionosphere data, and special system messages.
The GPS system almanac is updated weekly and is typically valid for
months. The ephemeris contains detailed orbital information for a specific
satellite. Ephemeris data changes hourly, but is valid for up to four hours. The
GPS control segment updates the system almanac weekly and the ephemeris
hourly through three ground-based control stations. During normal operation,
the Lassen SQ GPS receiver module updates its ephemeris and almanac as
needed. The performance of a GPS receiver at power-on is determined
largely by the availability and accuracy of the satellite ephemeris data and the
availability of a GPS system almanac.
Satellite Acquisition and Time to First Fix
Cold-Start
In a cold-start condition the receiver automatically selects a set of eight
satellites and dedicates an individual tracking channel to each satellite, to
search the Doppler range frequency for each satellite in the set. If none of the
eight selected satellites is acquired after a predetermined period of time
(time-out), the receiver will select a new search set of eight satellites and will
repeat the process, until the first satellite is acquired. As satellites are
acquired, the receiver automatically collects ephemeris and almanac data.
The Lassen SQ GPS receiver uses the knowledge gained from acquiring a
specific satellite to eliminate other satellites, those below the horizon, from
the search set. This strategy speeds the acquisition of additional satellites
required to achieve the first position fix.
The cold-start search sets are established to ensure that at least three
satellites are acquired within the first two time-out periods. As soon as three
satellites are found, the receiver will compute an initial position fix. The
typical time to first fix is less than 2 minutes. A complete system almanac is
not required to achieve a first position fix. However, the availability and
accuracy of the satellite ephemeris data and the availability of a GPS almanac
can substantially shorten the time to first fix.
Warm Start
In a warm-start condition the receiver has been powered down for at
least one hour but has stored a current almanac, an initial position, and time,
in memory. When connected to an external back-up power source (battery
back-up), the Lassen SQ GPS receiver retains the almanac, approximate
position, and time to aid in satellite acquisition and reduce the time to first
fix.
Hot Start
A hot start strategy applies when the Lassen SQ GPS receiver has been
powered down for less than 60 minutes, and the almanac, position,
ephemeris, and time are valid. The hot start search strategy is similar to a
warm start, but since the ephemeris data in memory is considered current and
valid, the acquisition time is typically less than 20 seconds.

Garage Search Strategy

During a warm start search, the Lassen SQ GPS receiver knows which
satellites to search for, based on the system almanac, the initial position (last
known position) and the current time. In some cases, the receiver may not be
able to acquire the expected satellite signals (e.g., a vehicle parked in a
garage or a vessel in a covered berth). Trimble's patented "garage search"
strategy, also known as a split search, is designed for such situations. If the
receiver does not acquire the expected set of satellites within 5 minutes of
power-on, some of the eight tracking channels will continue to search for the
expected satellites (warm search) while the remaining channels are directed
in a cold start search. This strategy minimizes the time to first fix in cases
where the stored almanac, position and time are invalid. The stored
information is flushed from memory, if the cold start search proves effective
and the warm search fails.

System Reset

The Lassen SQ GPS receiver can be reset with software commands or by

cycling power. A system reset will cause the receiver to restart and begin the
satellite acquisition and tracking process again. There are three types of
system resets: soft reset, hard reset, and factory reset. The TSIP protocol
supports all three resets using the 0x1E command. Power cycling can be used
for either the soft reset or the hard reset. A soft reset is a system restart. In a
soft reset, the system will attempt to acquire satellites using the satellite
information and last position data stored in RAM, and the time information
supplied by the real-time clock. There are two ways to initiate a soft reset:

 Cycling main power while keeping the memory and the real-time clock
alive with back-up power.
 Issuing Command Packet 0x25.
Issuing the 0x1E command with a value of 0x4B.

Cycling power without back-up power applied. Using this method,

power must be removed for at least 3 minutes to ensure any residual memory
storage is erased. If power is cycled rapidly, the 0x1E command with a value
of 0x4B must then be issued to the receiver 2.5 seconds after power is
restored to ensure a hard reset. A factory reset is used to restore all the factory
default settings into the receiver. Any user settings stored in Flash memory
will be erased. Issuing the 0x1E command with a value of 0x46 will initiate a
factory reset.

Satellite Mask Settings

Once the Lassen SQ GPS receiver has acquired and locked onto a set
of satellites, which pass the mask criteria listed in this section, and has
obtained a valid ephemeris for each satellite, it will output regular position,
velocity and time reports according to the protocol selected. These masks
serve as the screening criteria for satellites used in fix computations and
ensure that position solutions meet a minimum level of accuracy. The Lassen
SQ GPS receiver will only output position, course, speed and time when a
satellite set can be acquired which meets all of the mask criteria. The satellite
masks can be adjusted in GPS receivers accepting the TSIP protocol.

Satellite Mask Settings

Mask Setting
Elevation 5°
SNR 3
PDOP 12
PDOP Switch 6
Elevation Mask

Satellites below a 5° elevation are not used in the position solution.

Although low elevation satellites can contribute to a lower/better PDOP, the
signals from low elevation satellites are poorer quality, since they suffer
greater tropospheric and ionospheric distortion than the signals from higher
elevation satellites. These signals travel further through the ionospheric and
tropospheric layers. In addition, low elevation satellites can contribute to
frequent constellation switches, since the signals from these satellites are
more easily obscured by buildings and terrain. Constellation switches can
cause noticeable jumps in the position output.

SNR Mask
Although the Lassen SQ GPS receiver is capable of tracking signals
with SNRs as low as 0, the default SNR mask is set to 3 to eliminate poor
quality signals from the fix computation and minimize constellation
switching. Low SNR values may result from:

 Low Elevation Satellites

 Partially Obscured Signals ( e.g. Dense Foliage)
 Multi-Reflected Signals (Multi-Path)
The distortion of signals and the frequent constellation switches associated
with low-elevation satellites were discussed above . In mobile applications,
the attenuation of signals by foliage is typically a temporary condition. Since
the Lassen SQ GPS receiver can maintain lock on signals with SNRs as low
as 0, it offers excellent performance when traveling through heavy foliage.

DOP Mask
Position Dilution of Precision (DOP) is a measure of the error caused
by the geometric relationship of the satellites used in the position solution.
Satellite sets which are tightly clustered or aligned in the sky will have a high
DOP and will contribute to a lower position accuracy. For most applications,
a DOP mask of 12 offers a satisfactory trade-off between accuracy and GPS
coverage time. With world-wide GPS coverage now available, the DOP mask
can be lowered even further for many applications without sacrificing
coverage
PDOP Switch
The default positioning mode for the Lassen SQ GPS receiver is
Automatic. In this mode, the receiver attempts to generate a 3- dimensional
(3D) position solution, when four or more satellites meeting the mask criteria
are visible. If such a satellite set cannot be found, the receiver will
automatically switch to 2-dimensional (2D) mode. The PDOP switch
establishes the trade-off between 3D positioning and PDOP. With the PDOP
Switch set to 6, the receiver will compute a 2D position with a HDOP below
6 rather than a 3D position with a PDOP greater than 6, even when four or
more satellites are visible.
Standard Operating Modes
The tracking mode controls the allocation of the receiver's tracking
channels and the method used for computing position fixes.
Fix Modes
The Lassen SQ GPS receiver offers three positioning modes: 2D
Manual, 3D Manual, and Automatic 2D/3D.

WiFi SoC (System on Chip)

ESP8266 is the most popular and low cost WiFi SoC with TCP/IP stack and a
low power 32 bit microcontroller manufactured by Esp ressif, a Shanghai
based Chinese manufacturer. As you might already know, nowadays IoT
(Internet of Things) is an emerging field. This is the one of the most popular
and low cost solution for connecting ‘Things’ to internet via WiFi.
 ESP8266 – WiFi SoC

ESP8266 belongs to Espressif System’s Smart Connectivity Platform (ESCP)

which is a set of high performance, high integration wireless SoC (System on
Chip) intended for power and space constrained mobile platform designers. It
is a self contained WiFi networking solution, which means that we can store
and run the application in it without the aid of any external processors. We
can also integrate it with another application processor if required
by using SPI/SDIO or I2C/UART interface.
Features of ESP8266

 Supports 802.11 b/g/n

 Integrated low power 32 bit microcontroller
 Integrated 10 bit analog to digital converter
 Integrated full TCP/IP stack
 Supports Station, Soft Access Point, Station + Soft Access Point modes
 Built in TR switch, balun, LNA, power amplifier and matching
network
 Have internal PLL, regulators and power management units
 Supports space diversity / antenna diversity
 2.4 GHz WiFi with support for WPA/WPA2
 Supports WiFi Direct
 Smart Link function supports for both Android and iOS devices
 SDIO 2.0, (H) SPI, UART, I2C, I2S, IR Remote Control, PWM, GPIO
 STBC, 1×1 MIMO, 2×1 MIMO
 A-MPDU & A-MSDU aggregation and 0.4s guard interval
 Wake up and transmit packets in less than 2mS
 Up to +20 dBm output power in 802.11b mode
 Standby power consumption is less than 1mW.
 Deep sleep power is less than 10μA and power down leakage current is
less than 5μA
 Certified by FCC, CE, TELEC, WiFi Alliance and SRRC
Technical Specifications of ESP8266

 Operating Voltage : 3.0 ~ 3.6V

 Average Operating Current : 80mA
 Tensilica Xtensa LX106 32 bit RISC CPU running at 80 MHz
 16 GPIO Pins
 SPI
 I2C
 I2S
 UART – 2x TX and 1x RX
 1x 10bit ADC
 Operating Temperature : -40°C ~ 125°C
 Frequency Range : 2400 ~ 2483.5MHz
WHY WE ARE USING EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

 Cost of production is very low.

 It is an advanced and latest technology.
 Production time is very less.
 It improves the efficiency of the host machine tremendously.
.
WHAT IS EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

Embedded System is a small computer system that is generally hidden

inside equipment [machine, electrical appliances, or electronic gadget] to
increase the intelligence of the equipment for better or more efficient
functionality. This kind of system always involves both the software and the
hardware co-development.

Embedded Systems are often easier understood in terms of Smart

devices, intelligent or automated equipments. Embedded Systems do not need
a complete operating system, but only the basic functionalities of an
operating system. Hence Embedded System can be defined as follows:

 It is embedding or inserting human intelligence by means of a software

into a Microcontroller chip and designing a hardware for the purpose.
 It is a combination of software and hardware with automatic working
without user interface.
 It performs specific functions in host systems like satellites, remote
controllers, televisions, robotics, ATMs, pagers, laser printers, missile
launch systems, etc.
 It is a closed loop system i.e., change in the input will not affect the
output.
EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware, software

and additional mechanical parts, designed to perform a specific function .An
embedded system is designed to do a specific task within a given time frame,
repeatedly, without human interaction. Embedded system do not need a
complete operating system, but only the basic functionalities of an operating
system in a real-time environment, that is, a real time operating system.
(RTOS). Frequently, embedded system does not have a user interface.

Application Area of embedded system include aerospace/defense

systems, telecommunication equipments and switches, mobile computing,
broadcast, automotives, industrial process control and monitoring, medical
electronics, consumer electronics, etc. Main hardware components of an
embedded system are microprocessor or micro controller, and supporting ICs.
The combination of micro-controller and ICs are application specific.
Commonly used microprocessors include the following. Motorola 680XX
series, IBM PowerPC series processors, MIPS processors, Intel 386 and
compatible CPUs, ARM processors, Sun SPARC series, etc. Embedded
systems need memory for storing programs and data, and usually programs
are stored in ROM or EPROM. Often these systems have a serial port
network interface, I/O interface for interacting with sensors and actuators in
the case of process controlling systems.
 MICROPROCESSOR Vs MICROCONTROLLER

Microcontroller is a general-purpose device which has an in-built

CPU, Memory and peripherals, which make it function as a mini computer.

Both Microcontroller and microprocessor can be employed for

designing products or applications in Embedded System. But Microcontroller
has its own advantages over microprocessor. They are as follows:

 For transfer of data from external memory to the CPU, microprocessor

needs many operational codes. But in Microcontroller, one or two
codes are enough.
 Microcontroller have many bit-handling instructions, but
microprocessor have only one or two.
 Microcontroller have built-in peripherals whereas microprocessor lack
in-built peripherals.
 Microcontroller work faster than microprocessor because of rapid
movement of bits within the chip.
 Microcontroller have simple circuit structure compared to
microprocessor.
 Microcontroller have only 35 instructions whereas microprocessor
have 75.
 Microcontroller are costly when compared with microprocessor.
 Microcontroller can function as a mini computer without any
additional parts.
 Microcontroller instructions are simple, single word instructions.
NODEMCU

The ESP8266 is the name of a micro controller designed by Espressif

Systems. The ESP8266 itself is a self-contained WiFi networking solution
offering as a bridge from existing micro controller to WiFi and is also capable
of running self-contained applications. This module comes with a built in
USB connector and a rich assortment of pin-outs. With a micro USB cable,
you can connect NodeMCU devkit to your laptop and flash it without any
trouble, just like Arduino. It is also immediately breadboard friendly.
Specification:
• Voltage:3.3V.

• Wi-Fi Direct (P2P), soft-AP.

• Current consumption: 10uA~170mA.

• Flash memory attachable: 16MB max (512K normal).

• Integrated TCP/IP protocol stack.

• Processor: Tensilica L106 32-bit.

• Processor speed: 80~160MHz.

• RAM: 32K + 80K.

• GPIOs: 17 (multiplexed with other functions).

• Analog to Digital: 1 input with 1024 step resolution.

• +19.5dBm output power in 802.11b mode

• 802.11 support: b/g/n.

• Maximum concurrent TCP connections: 5.

ARDUINO DEVELOPMENT "IDE"

The Arduino integrated development environment (IDE) is a cross-

platform application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for the
Processing programming language and the Wiring projects. It is designed to
introduce programming to artists and other newcomers unfamiliar with
software development. It includes a code editor with features such as syntax
highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation, and is also capable
of compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. There
is typically no need to edit make files or run programs on a command-line
interface
Developer(s) Arduino Software
Stable release 1.0.3 / December 10, 2012; 3months ago
Written in Java, C and C++
Operating system Cross-platform
Type Integrated development environment
Website arduino.cc

Arduino programs are written in C or C++ The Arduino IDE comes

with a software library called "Wiring" from the original Wiring project,
which makes many common input/output.

Operations much easier. Users only need define two functions.

To make a run able cyclic executive program:

 Setup (): a function run once at the start of a program that can
initialize settings.

 Loop (): a function called repeatedly until the board powers off
PIN DIAGRAM OF NODEMCU

31
POWER SYSTEM

Every electronic system we need low voltage DC power supply in

different electronic circuits operated in different power supplies, the ratings
depending upon load current and voltage. The load current depending on load
resistance i.e load current is inversely proportional to load resistance. So the
matched designation of power supply is very important to every electronic
circuit.

In this circuits we need two power supplies .All ICs are worked on
regulated DC power 5v with GND. Relay derive worked on dc 12v with
GND .This unit consist of battery, rectifier, filter & regulator. Battery voltage
typically 12v RMS is connected to a Diode rectifier then provides a bridge
rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a
DC voltage. This resulting DC voltage usually has some ripple or Ac voltage
variations. A regulator circuit can use this DC input to provide DC voltage that
not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same DC value even
the DC voltage varies somewhat,. OR the load connected to the output DC
voltages changes.

BLOCKDIAGRM:

Battery Rectifier Filter Regulator

BATTERY:
A battery is a static power source Robots electric system. It works
with the principle of charging and discharging. In our project we are using
maintenance free dry battery for providing a necessary supply for the electronic
circuits .In our project we are using a 6V.
32
RECTIFIER

The reverse protector obtained from a battery input can be improved

100% using a process called full wave rectification. It uses 4 diodes in a bridge
configuration. From the basic bridge configuration. we see that two diodes
(say D2 &D3) are conducting while the other two diodes (D1&D4) are in “off”
state during the period t = 0 to T/2.Accordingly for the negative of the input the
conducting diodes are D1&D4.Thus the polarity across the load is the same.

FILTER

The filter circuit used here is the capacitor filter circuit where a capacitor
is connected at the rectifier output, and a DC is obtained across it .The filtered
wave form is essentially a dc voltage with negligible ripples, which is ultimately
fed to the load.
REGULATOR

The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered and finally
regulated. The voltage regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage
constant irrespective of the changes in supply variations, load variation and
temperature changes. Here we use one fixed voltage regulator namely
LM7805.The IC 7805 is a+5 voltage regulator.

3-Terminal Positive Voltage Regulators

33
 The LM341 and LM78MXX series of three-terminal positive voltage
regulators employ built-in current limiting, thermal shutdown, and safe-
operating area protection which make them virtually immune to damage from
output overloads. With adequate heat sinking, they can deliver in excess of 0.5A
output current. Typical applications would include local (on-card) regulators
which can eliminate the noise and degraded performance associated with single-
point regulation.

 Internal thermal overload protection

 Internal short circuit current-limiting
 Output transistor safe
 ea compensation
 Available in TO-220, TO-39, and TO-252 D-PAK packages
 Output voltages of 5V, 12V, and 15V
 Output current in excess of 0.5A

ULTRASONIC SENSOR ACT LIKE A LEVEL SENSOR

34
 The ultrasonic sensor is a device you can use with the microcontroller to
measure how far away an object is. With a range of 3 centimeters to 3.3 meters,
it's a shoe-in for any number of Robots and automation projects. It's also
remarkably accurate, easily detecting an object's distance down to the half
centimeter.

HOW DOES THE SENSOR WORK?

Figure shows how the sensor sends a brief chirp with its ultrasonic
speaker and makes it possible for the microcontroller to measure the time it
takes the echo to return to its ultrasonic microphone. The microcontroller starts
by sending the ultrasonic sensor a pulse to start the measurement. Then, the
ultrasonic sensor waits long enough for the embedded c program to start logic 1
command. At the same time the ultrasonic sensor chirps its 40 kHz tone, it sends
a high signal to the microcontroller. When the ultrasonic sensor detects the echo
with its ultrasonic microphone, it changes that high signal back to low. The
embedded c logic high command stores how long the high signal from the
sensor lasted in a variable. The time measurement is how long it took sound to
travel to the object and back. With this measurement, you can then use the speed
of sound in air to make your program calculate the object's distance in
centimeters, inches, feet, etc...

The sensor's chirps are not audible because 40 kHz is ultrasonic. What we
consider sound is our inner ear's ability to detect the variations in air pressure
caused by vibration. The rate of these variations determines the pitch of the
tone. Higher frequency tones result in higher pitch sounds and lower frequency
tones result in lower pitch tones. Most people can hear tones that range from 20
Hz, which is very low pitch, to 20 kHz, which is very high pitch. Subsonic is
35
sound with frequencies below 20 Hz, and ultrasonic is sound with frequencies
above 20 kHz. Since the sensor's chirps are at 40 kHz, they are definitely
ultrasonic, and not audible.

In this activity, you will test the sensor and verify that it gives you echo
time measurements that correspond to an object's distance. You will also modify
the program to convert these times into centimeter or inch measurements.

Specification

Voltage – 5 only required

Current - 30mA Typ. 50mA Max.
Frequency - 40KHz
Max Range – 3.3 m
Min Range - 3 cm
Sensitivity - Detect 3cm diameter broom handle at > 2 m
Input Trigger - TTL level pulse
Echo Pulse - Positive TTL level signal
Small Size - 43mm x 20mm x 17mm height

MAX232 SERIAL DRIVER

DESCRIPTION
36
 A standard serial interfacing for PC, RS232 requires negative logic, i.e.,
logic '1' is -3V to -12V and logic '0' is +3V to +12V. To convert TTL logic, say,
TxD and RxD pins of the mcu chip, we use a converter chip. A MAX232 chip
has long been using in many mcu boards. It provides 2-channel RS232 C port
and requires external 10µF capacitors. Carefully check the polarity of capacitor
when soldering the board.

The MAX220–MAX249 contain four sections: dual charge-pump DC-

DC voltage converters, RS-232 drivers, RS-232 receivers, and receiver and
transmitter enable control inputs.

Dual Charge-Pump Voltage Converter

37
 The MAX220–MAX249 have two internal charge-pumps that convert
+5V to ±10V (unloaded) for RS-232 driver operation. The first converter uses
capacitor C1 to double the +5V input to +10V on C3 at the V+ output. The
second converter uses capacitor C2 to invert +10V to -10V on C4 at the V-
output. A small amount of power may be drawn from the +10V (V+) and -10V
(V-) outputs to power external circuitry (see the Typical Operating
Characteristics section), except on the MAX225 and MAX245–MAX247,
where these pins are not available. V+ and V- are not regulated, so the output
voltage drops with increasing load current. Do not load V+ and V- to a point
that violates the minimum ±5V EIA/TIA-232E driver output voltage when
sourcing current from V+ and V- to external circuitry. When using the shutdown
feature in the MAX222, MAX225, MAX230, AX235, MAX236, MAX240,
MAX241, and MAX245–MAX249, avoid using V+ and V to power external
circuitry. When these parts are shut down, V- falls to 0V, and V+ falls to +5V.
For applications where a +10V external supply is applied to the V+ pin (instead
of using the internal charge pump to generate +10V), the C1 capacitor must not
be installed and the SHDN pin must be tied to VCC. This is because V+ is
internally connected to VCC in shutdown mode.

The typical driver output voltage swing is ±8V when loaded with a
nominal 5kΩ RS-232 receiver and VCC = +5V. Output swing is guaranteed to
meet the EIA/TIA- 232E and V.28 specification, which calls for ±5V minimum
driver output levels under worst-case conditions. These include a minimum 3kΩ
load, VCC = +4.5V, and maximum operating temperature. Unloaded driver
output voltage ranges from (V+ -1.3V) to (V- +0.5V). Input thresholds are both
TTL and CMOS compatible. The inputs of unused drivers can be left
unconnected since 400kΩ input pull-up resistors to VCC are built in (except for

38
the MAX220). The pull-up resistors force the outputs of unused drivers low
because all drivers invert.

The MAX239 has a receiver three-state control line, and the MAX223,
MAX225, MAX235, MAX236, MAX240, and MAX241 have both a receiver
three-state control line and a low-power shutdown control. Table 2 shows the
effects of the shutdown control and receiver three state control on the receiver
outputs.

RS-232 Receivers
EIA/TIA-232E and V.28 specifications define a voltage level greater than
3V as a logic 0, so all receivers invert. Input thresholds are set at 0.8V and 2.4V,
so receivers respond to TTL level inputs as well as EIA/TIA-232E andV.28
levels. The receiver inputs withstand an input over voltage up to ±25V and
provide input terminating resistors with nominal 5kΩ values. The receivers
implement Type 1 interpretation of the fault conditions of V.28 and EIA/TIA-
232E. The receiver input hysteresis is typically 0.5V with a guaranteed
minimum of 0.2V. This produces clear output transitions with slow-moving
input signals, even with moderate amounts of noise and ringing. The receiver
propagation delay is typically 600ns and is independent of input swing
direction.

BIBILIOGRAPHY

WEBSITE REFERENCE

www.datasheetarchive.com
39
 www.microchip.com

www.google.com

REFERENCE

[1] J. C. Williams, “2012 Sleep in America poll: Transportation workers

‘sleep,” Nat. Sleep Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA, Tech. Rep., 2012.

[2] T. A. Ranney, E. Mazzae, R. Garrot, and M. J. Goodman, “NHTSA driver

distraction research: Past, present, and future,” Nat. Highway Traffic Safety
Admin., East Liberty, OH, USA, Tech. Rep., 2000.

[3] R. N. Khushaba, S. Kodagoda, S. Lal, and G. Dissanayake, “Driver

drowsiness classification using fuzzy wavelet-packet-based feature extraction
algorithm,” IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 121–131, Jan. 2011.

CONCLUSION

This paper offers a smart design of tracking and monitoring and fuel
monitoring system which helps the bus companies to provide high quality of
service. This design can provide the location of the busses etc. of the service

40
with an error less than 10m in the case of slow speed and clear environment and
the system give the accurate arrival time of the bus and provide the location of
the bus in Google map for both user and administrator. This system reduces the
waiting time of remote users for bus and provides bus tracking at any location,
management and fuel monitoring.

ENTREPRENEURSHIP
Basics of Entrepreneurship

It is a well-known fact that the scope of for absorbing the ever increasing
number of unemployment in government departments is very much restricted on
account of various factors. Absorption of unemployment people government

41
service takes place either on account of retirement of the existing staff or due to
launching of development programs. The employment so generated covers only
a segment of the unemployed. The private sector is also offering very little
opportunity to the young unemployed people due to various reasons. In such
adverse situation the Indian youth has to wage a bitter fight to solve the problem
of unemployment.

The plan document of our country lays emphasis on self-employment to

reduce unemployment in the country. We are a developing country and there is a
wider scope for the development of self employment to all types of job.
Industrial development in a country depends greatly upon the type of human
resources the country possesses. A country may be rich in material resources
and capital, but if entrepreneurship is lacking, the utilization of resources would
not be as expected. The developing economics of resources would not be as
expected.

Concept
Entrepreneurship prevails environment in a country. Entrepreneurship
being an innovator who introduces something new into the economy, a method
of protection not yet tested by experience in the branch of manufactured
concerned, a product with which the consumes are not familiar, a new source or
raw materials, or a new market higher exploited and similar other innovations.
Entrepreneur
An entrepreneur is said to be a person who organizes, manages and issue
the risk for a business or enterprise. Commonly entrepreneur is understood to be
those persons who start build their own enterprise rather than taking up a job.
Entrepreneurship is the trait taking up own enterprises.

42
Role of entrepreneurship
An entrepreneur is a part of industrial society. He is responsible for not
only making his own source of live hood but also for creating avenues of
employment for others and making additions to the gross national product. If a
larger number of entrepreneurs set up enterprise of their own, there is a great
deal of transformation of an area. The industrial entrepreneurs are thus the
agents of charge in removing back wardens and disparities of an area. An
entrepreneur has a great social responsibility.
An enterprise consists of not only those who manage it but a host other
segments of society, workers, consumers, the state and the surrounding
community.
Some of the qualities are inherent but the others are mostly acquired.
Broody speaking four qualities are the most important one, e.g. intelligence,
motivation, knowledge and opportunity. While the first one is inherent, a
continuous process generally gains the knowledge, the qualities of entrepreneurs
further be sub-divided as under
 Capacity to take risk
 Capacity to work hard
 Desire for deferred consumption
 Capacity to take advantage of an external situation
 Imagination
 Emulation
Expectation

 Increase number of industries is expected from the

entrepreneurs that they will help to.
 Increase production
 Earn foreign exchange through exports
43
  Develop the underdeveloped parts of the country.
 Develop economy

Small – scale industries facilitate production of consumer goods locally

and help reduction of prices. Some of the important measures of assistance now
available are briefly noted below:

1. Technical assistance: complete technical, economic and managerial

consultancy services are provided to SSO through Small Industries
Services Institute (SISI) and Industrial Extension centers.
2. Assistance for obtaining raw materials: small – scale units are
helped to obtain controlled indigenous raw materials through state
director of industries and imported raw materials through State
Trading Corporation of India (STC).
3. Supply of machinery Hire Purchase: The National Small Industries
Corporation (NSIC) is giving assistance to small scale units by
supplying machinery to them on deferred credit basis.
4. Marketing assistance: SS units are helped to market their products
through Trade centers and by participating in government’s Stores
Purchase Programme.
5. Assistance to small entrepreneurs: Entrepreneurial Development
programmer is conducted by SSI and Small Industries
Self-employment schemes

The following are the four important government schemes for prompting
self-employment.

i. District Manpower Planning and Employment Generation Council

44
 The Council prepares a list of investment opportunities in the self-
employment in the district. The major objective of the council is to remove the
handicaps and difficult faced by the youth in entering self-employment project.

ii. Employment Exchange

A special Vocational Guidance Unit functioning in every
Employment Exchange with the object of giving guidance and motivation to
unemployed persons to take up self employment ventures. In addition to
furnishing information on self-employment projects, until also helps in
obtaining loans from the banks.

iii. The Prime Minister Scheme for providing self-employment to

educated Unemployed youth.
The objective of the scheme is to encourage the educated
unemployed youth to undertake self-employment ventures in industry, service
and business through provision of a package of assistance.
The scheme covers all unemployed youth who are matriculates and above, and
in the age group of 18 to 35 years. District Industries Centers (DIC) are
assigned the operational responsibility of the scheme.

Product Selection

A prospective entrepreneur should first prepare a shore list of product

lines that he wants to establish. Then, he should select the product to be
manufactured based upon market survey and demand survey, financial
implementations involved, technical know-how available, and his own
experience in the line.

45
Market survey involves the following:

 Study similar product available in the market that can be probable

Competitors.
 Analyze them in regards to their utility, quality and cost.
 Check whether it is a seasonal product or needed throughout the
year.
 Find the probable extend of the market.
 Find whether the product can be exported.
 Explore the possibility of manufacturing in collaboration with a
foreign company.
 A demand survey is made to determine
 Whether survey demand for the product is or inelastic.
 The trend of the demand.
 The composition and pattern of the potential users.
Site Selection
The important factors to be considered in selecting the site for an industry
are given below.
 Nearness to raw material: It will reduce the cost of transportation
of raw materials to the factory.
 Nearness to market: It will reduce transportation cost of the
finished products and also help to catch the share of the market.
 Easy availability of labor: If highly skilled workmen are required,
it is better to locate the plant near a large town.
 Availability of power and fuel: Electrical power and fuel required
for the plant should be easily obtainable in the area, Reliability of
power supply must be ensured.

46
  Availability of water: Water for drinking and for other purposes
should be easily available. If the process requires large quantity of
water, then the plant should be located near a major water source.

Plant Layout
Plant layout means the disposition of the various (equipments, material,
manpower, etc) and services of the plant within the area of the site selected.
Plant layout begins with the design of the factory building and goes up lathe
location and movement of a worktable. All the facilities like equipments, raw
material, machinery, tools fixtures,
Workers, etc, are given a proper place. In deciding the place for equipment, the
supervisors and workers who nave to operate them should be consulted.

There are three types of plant layout:

1. Process Layout (functional layout) in which all machines or
process of the same types is grouped together in the same area.
2. Product Layout (line layout) in which equipments regardless of
process is arranged as per the sequence of operations in which a
given product will be manufactured.
These are:
1. Placement of facilities in a logical and balanced manner.
2. Minimum movements for workers and materials
3. Smooth and continuous flow of operations
4. Optimum space utilization.
5. Flexibility
i. Private Limited Company
ii. Public Limited Company

47
Registration
The prospective entrepreneur in the small – scale sector need not obtain
any Industrial Licenses, provided the item of manufacture is not governed by
special regulations. However, to facilitate identification, the Directorate of
Industries (through District Industries Center - DIC) issues certificates
registering a unit as a Small Scale / Ancillary / Tiny Unit.
Registration is done is two stages, Via, provisional and permanent. The
issue of Provisional certificate almost automatic, with Unit / ail validity of 6
months and with a further extension for another 6 months.

Financial Assistance
With a view to ensure adequate of funds, the small scale Industrial frame
work for the flow of Financial Assistance to small
scale sector comprises of banks (Commercial Banks, Co-Operative banks,
Regional rural banks). State Financial Corporation, National Small Industries
Corporation INSIC and State Small Industries Corporations (SSIDCS).
Commercial Banks
The Reserve Bank of India issued instructions that no worth wile
proposals of the Small scale unit should be rejected merely on the ground that
these are not supported by adequate security. The commercial Banks have been
advised by the Reserve Bank of India to give special Attention to the needs of
the priority sector borrowers, particularly of the weaker section.
Small scale Industrial units also being charged lower rates of interest on
their borrowings from commercial Banks.

48
State Financial Corporations
Provide medium and long-term Loans to Small Scale Industries, granting
Loans raised by Industrial undertakings and differed payments and subscribing
to stocks, Shares and bonds of an Industrial Concern.

Lead Banks
The Scheme is designed to enable the bank to work effectively as an
Instrument of development. Under the scheme, the district in the country have
allocated to different commercial banks each of whom is expected to act as a
consortium and as a leader of the financial institutions operating in allotted
districts in matters relating to deposit mobilization, identifying of prospective
avenues for financial assistance and ensuring adequate credit flow for the
various development programs of the districts.

Institutional support
The success of Small Scale industries depends solely on the well –
established institutional setup. In order to accelerate the small industries
development, government at the central and state levels has setup a number of
development agencies / institutions. Functions of some these are mentioned.
1. District Industries Center (DIC)
Each district has a DIC at its headquarters. The main responsibility of DIG is to
act as the chief coordinator or multi functional agency in; respect of various
governments can get all assistance from DIC for setting up and running the
industry in rural areas. Each DIC has one General Manager in the rank of Joint
Director of industries as the head and seven managers each looking after
separate functional area.
 Identification of Entrepreneurs.

49
  Selection of Projects
 Provisional registration under SSI
 Purchase of fixed Assets
 Clearances from Various Departments.

Functions
The main functions of the SIDCD are co-ordination, industrial
development and industrial extension service. Some important functions are:
a. To assess the requirements of indigenous and imported raw materials and
components for the small-scale sector and to arrange their supplies.
b. To collect data on consumer items, which are imported and encourage the
setting up of new units giving them coordinate assistance.
c. To prepare model schemes, projects reports and other Technical literature
for prospective entrepreneurs.

2. National Small Industries Corporation Limited (NSIC)

The NSIC was setup in 1955 with the objective of supplying machinery and
equipment to small enterprise on a hire-purchase basis and assisting them in
procuring government orders for various items of stores. The corporation’s head
office is at Delhi and it has four regional officers at Delhi, Bombay, Madras.
3. The main functions of NSIC are
 To develop small scale units as ancillary units to large scale industries.
 To provide SSIS with machine on hire-purchase basis
 To assist small enterprises to participate in the stores purchase
Programme of the Central Government.
 To assist small industries with marketing facilities.
 To distribute basic raw materials through their depots

50
Forms of Business Enterprise Topics
 Sale Proprietorship
 Partnership
 Private Limited
 Public Limited
 Co-operatives
 State enterprise
Sole Proprietorship
 Ownership when applied to an industrial enterprise means title to and
possessions of the assets of the enterprise, the power to determine the
policies of operation, and the right to receive and dispose of the proceeds.
 It is called a single ownership when an individual exercise and enjoys
these rights in his own interest.
 A business owned by one man is called single ownership.
 Single ownership does well for those enterprises, which require little
capital and lend themselves readily to control by one person.
 Examples of enterprise run by single owner are printing press, auto retail
trades, service industries and small engine forms.

Partnership
 A single owner becomes inadequate as the size of the business enterprise
grouse. He may not be in a position to do away with a1 the duty and
responsibilities of the grown business.
 At this stage the individual owner may associate with him more persons
who have either capital to invest or possess special skill and knowledge
to make the existing business still more profitable.
51
  Such a combination of individual traders is called partnership.
 Partnership may be defined as the relation between persons who have
agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them
acting for all. Individuals with common purposes join and partners and
they put together their property, ability, skill, knowledge, etc, for the
purpose of making profits.
Private Limited
 The capital is collected from the private partners; some of them may be
active while others are sleeping.
 Private limited restrict the right to transfer shares, avoids public to take
up shares or debentures.
 The number of members is between two and 50, excluding employee and
ex-employee, share holders.
 The company need not file document such consent of directors, list of
directors, etc. the register of joint stock companies.
 The company need not obtain from the register, a certificate of
commencement of business.

Public Limited

 In public limited company, the capital is collected from public by issuing

shares having small face value (Rs. 50,20,10).
 The number of share holders should not be less than 7, but there is no
limit to their maximum number.

52
Co-operatives
 The main aim of the co-operative is to eliminate profit and provide goods
an services to the members of the co-operative cost.
 Members pay fees or buy shares the co-operative, and profits are
periodically redistributed to them.
 Since each member has only one (unlike in joint stock companies), this
avoid the concentration of control in few hand.

53