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Optical encoder calibration using lattice spacing and optical fringe derived from a scanning
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1. Introduction 2. Instrumentation
Since nanotechnology has progressed rapidly, new methods Figure 1 illustrates the side view of the proposed instrument.
of length measurement applicable to the millimetre range Figure 2 shows the experimental system and optical layout
with a resolution of sub-nanometre or less are required. of the PMHI. The basic concept of the instrument is same as
Currently, the standard method of length measurement is laser the one shown in [7]. The instruments consist of a precise
interferometry. A heterodyne interferometer with a Zeeman linear X-axis sample stage, a head of the STM with a YZ tip
laser1 or a homodyne interferometer using the bifringes scanner and a PMHI. To calibrate the optical encoder, the scale
counting method [1] is widely used in the industry. However, it of the encoder and the reference graphite crystal3 are set on
is difficult to determine an arbitrary length with sub-nanometre the X-axis sample stage at positions which are just beneath
accuracy using commercial interferometers because they have the STM head and the reading detector of the optical encoder,
a nonlinearity problem in the fringe interpolation [2]. A phase respectively. The X-axis sample stage is driven by a stacked-
modulation homodyne interferometer (PMHI) that can be used type piezo actuator4 . The pitch and yaw motions of the X-axis
to determine the optical path difference of an integer multiple sample stage are both less than 0.1 arc s. A tube-type piezo
of the wavelength (n × λ) with picometre resolution was actuator is used for the YZ tip scanner. Figure 3 shows an
proposed by Basile et al [3]. outline photograph of the calibration instrument. In order
The lattice spacing of approximately 0.2 nm for some to eliminate any thermal deformation effects, the instrument
regular crystalline lattices is uniform and stable over a long is made from low-thermal-expansion cast iron5 , whose
range, when the crystals are stress free. These crystals can thermal expansion coefficient is less than 0.8 × 10−6 K−1
be used as reference (or standard) scales with a resolution of and the instrument is set in a thermostabilized cell with a
sub-nanometre or less order instead of laser interferometry. temperature stability of 0.05 K or less [9] in experiments.
X-ray interferometry (XRI) using a silicon crystal has been The X-axis displacement of the sample stage is measured
developed to determine the lattice spacing of silicon at National with the PMHI and the optical encoder. At the same time,
Metrological Laboratories2 . The combined optical and x-ray a three-dimensional scan of the STM tip over the graphite
interferometer (COXI) [4] has been developed for absolute crystalline surface is performed using the X-axis sample stage
length measurement with sub-nanometre accuracy at European and the YZ tip scanner; therefore, the atomic image of the
metrological laboratories. However, the XRI is very delicate graphite is obtained using the STM. Z-servo control and raster
for an adjustment to obtain a high-contrast x-ray interference signals input to the YZ tip scanner are obtained from a STM
fringe. It is not commonly used in industry due to the difficulty controller6 . A driving signal to the X-axis sample stage is
(= high cost) of machining pure and precise silicon lamellas generated by a 16-bit digital-to-analogue converter (D/A)7
and the danger of x-ray radiation. On the other hand, the with a digital signal processor (DSP) (see footnote 7). A
scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) [5] is becoming a high-voltage amplifier8 is employed for driving the stacked-
powerful and popular tool in surface engineering fields. It type piezo actuator. The 16-bit analogue-to-digital converter
can obtain ‘images of atoms’ on a regular crystalline surface (A/D) (see footnote 7) and 32-bit digital input–output (DIO)
with a relatively low cost. Therefore, such a crystalline board9 are used for collecting the three signals.
surface can be used as a ‘crystalline lattice scale’ with a The linear polarized beam (polarization angle: 45◦ )
resolution of sub-nanometre or less order by combining it emitted from the frequency-stabilized He–Ne laser10 passes
with STM. We have shown the feasibility of the crystalline through the Faraday rotator11 , the single-mode polarization
lattice scale using a graphite crystal (highly oriented pyrolytic preserving fibre12 and the Pockels cell13 . The Pockels cell
graphite: HOPG) as the reference scale and a dual-tunnelling- is used to supply phase modulation and a phase bias shift
unit scanning tunnelling microscope as the detector [6], and we between the two polarization components p and s. Removing
have measured the lattice constant of the graphite crystalline the instability of beam pointing and the heat source of the
surface using the PMHI and STM [7]. He–Ne laser can be attained using the fibre. The beam passes
Optical encoders are becoming popular in semiconductor through nonpolarizing beam splitter 1 (NPBS1), and a part of
equipment because of their fine resolution. Some optical en- the beam is split into photodiode 1 (PD1) through polarizer 1
coders that use phase interpolation have a resolution of 10 pm (P1: 45◦ ) for reference phase detection with lock-in amplifier 1
order. However, they suffer periodic error problems, such (LIA1)14 . The output signal of LIA1 is used to control the bias
as laser interferometry. A periodic error of an optical linear phase shift of the Pockels cell so that the amplitudes of the s and
encoder was investigated with a measurement uncertainty of p components at polarized beam splitter 1 (PBS1) should be the
several 10 pm by XRI [8]. In this paper, an instrument for same. The beam incident on PBS1 is divided into two beams: s
calibrating optical encoders with sub-nanometre accuracy is and p components. The two beams go along the two arms of the
3
developed by combining ‘the crystalline lattice scale’ as a fine Advanced Ceramics Corporation, ZYA-S, OH, USA.
4 PI Instrumente GmbH, Waldbronn, Germany.
scale and the PMHI as a coarse scale. The instrument could 5 Nippon Chuzo: LEX-SF1, Kawasaki, Japan.
be another candidate for calibrating the optical encoders with 6 Digital Instruments: Nanoscope III, CA, USA.
a resolution of 10 pm order instead of the XRI because of 7 System Design Service, Tokyo, Japan.
low cost and no danger of x-ray radiation. In the experiment, 8 Echo Electric Co. Ltd, Saitama, Japan.
9 Interface Co. Ltd, Hiroshima, Japan.
the nonlinear (periodic) error of the optical encoder, whose
10 Spectra-Physics: SP117A, CA, USA.
minimum resolution is less than a nanometre, is measured and 11 Optics for Research Ltd, NJ, USA.
discussed. 12 OZ Optics Ltd, Ontario, Canada.
1 For example, Agilent Technologies, 2001, Model 10897B. 13 Chuo Trading Ltd, Tokyo, Japan.
2 For example, NIST, PTB, NPL, IMGC, NRLM. 14 NF Corporation: LI5640, Yokohama, Japan.
504
Optical encoder calibration using lattice spacing and optical fringe
HO PG Scale
Preload bolt
Spring
Coupling
X stack piezo
Y X
Figure 1. Schematic side view of a calibration instrument for optical encoders realized by combining regular crystalline surface, STM and
PMHI.
Figure 2. Experimental system and optical path layout for the calibration instrument. PBS: polarizing beam splitter, NPBS: nonpolarizing
beam splitter, P(45◦ ): 45◦ polarizer, PD: photodetector, RP: right-angle prism, TP: trapezoid prism, MP: movable prism, AM: adjustment
mirror and LIA: lock-in amplifier.
505
M Aketagawa et al
506
Optical encoder calibration using lattice spacing and optical fringe
m 1 m 1+1 m 2 m 2+1
a1
(a) A B
a2
Y
X | L|
5
Amplitude V
(b) 0 A B
-5
0 Sampling time s 0.25 X
600
B
Displacement nm
(c) | L|
A
0
0 Sampling time s 0.25 X
Figure 4. Comparison between (a) graphite atomic STM image, (b) output of the PMHI and (c) output of the optical encoder. The X-axis is
selected as the direction to be measured and the fast scanning axis. The data capacities are 25 600 pixels (X) × 128 lines (Y). (b) and (c) are
output signals of the 97th Y-line.
be made into one of the most useful reference crystals by Table 2. Calibration of the lattice spacing of graphite.
combining it with the STM. However, there is some possibility Number of unit lattice vectors a1 948.1
of changing the lattice spacing due to its rod manufacturing Number of unit lattice vectors a2 1269.5
process and differences in the environment. Therefore, the Number of lattice spacings along the 1927.2
lattice spacing of the graphite is calibrated using the PMHI X-direction
before the calibration of the optical encoder. In figure 4(b), Number of optical fringes in the 12 fringes
PMHI (= 474.646 nm)
the interval L between points A and B (both zero crossing
Lattice spacing 0.2463 nm
points) is equal to 12 × λ/16. In this case, the wavelength λ Expanded uncertainty (k = 2) 0.1 pm
of the He–Ne laser is calibrated using the Edlen equation [10]
under the environmental conditions shown in table 1. In figure
4(a), because of the high quality of the atomic image, two unit
lattice vectors a1 and a2 can be easily recognized. In the case 3.2. Comparison between crystalline lattice and optical
of the graphite crystal, a1 = a2 = d (= lattice spacing which encoder
is the distance between α sites) and the intersectional angle
between a1 and a2 is 60◦ [11]. Therefore, the lattice spacing d Comparisons are made using the following procedure.
can be written using the following equation [7] (1) Divide the atomic image and the output signal of the
L optical encoder every 25 pixels along the X-axis.
d= , (1)
(2) Count the numbers m1 and m2 of unit lattice vectors a1
m21 + m22 + 2m1 m2 cos 60◦
and a2 that fit every 25 pixels along the X-axis, manually.
where m1 and m2 are the numbers of unit lattice vectors a1 At the same time, read the output signal Le of the optical
and a2 within that fit within the interval AB, respectively. In encoder.
figure 4, the relationship between a1, a2, m1, m2 and the (3) Calculate the displacement L of every 25 pixels of the
measurement direction of A–B is shown. The counting method STM image using
for the lattice spacing shown in [7] is employed here. From
the relationship, the lattice constant is determined as shown in L = d m21 + m22 + 2m1 m2 cos 60◦ . (2)
table 2. The measurement uncertainty is estimated using the
method in [7], and its result is also shown in table 2. In the Integrate the above quantities every 25 pixels and
literature, the lattice spacing is reported to be 0.246 nm [7]. determine displacement L using
Another of our results using the same method verifies that the
lattice spacing is 0.246 nm with an expanded measurement L = L. (3)
uncertainty of 7 pm (k = 2) [7]. All results coincide with
Calculate the difference De between L and Le:
each other. Due to the extension of the measurement length
and the improvement of the SNR for the PMHI signal, the De = L − Le . (4)
measurement uncertainty was reduced by comparing with the
In this case, d is from table 2, i.e. d = 0.2463 nm.
result in [7].
507
M Aketagawa et al
200 3
150
2.5
100
Nonlinear error De pm
50
2
0
Power a.u.
-50 1.5
- 100
- 150 1
- 200
0.5
- 250
- 300
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Regular crystalline lattice scale Ll nm Frequency to reciprocal of signal period (1/138 nm)
Figure 5. Periodic error of the optical encoder. Lateral and vertical Figure 7. Fourier transform of figure 6. The lateral axis is space
axes are the displacement L from the crystalline lattice and the frequency normalized to the inverse of the basic period of the optical
difference De , respectively. The result is from the 97th Y-line. encoder.
-200
508
Optical encoder calibration using lattice spacing and optical fringe
509