For dipping bed

Dipping reflector

(a) Geometry of reflected ray paths and

(b) time–distance curve for reflected rays from a dipping reflector. ΔTd = dip
moveout.
The interval velocity that’s derived from the
RMS velocities of the reflections from the
top and base of a layer is referred to as the
Dix interval velocity.
However, keep in mind that we really don’t
know what the RMS velocity is.
The NMO velocity is estimated from the t2-
x2 regression line for each reflection event
and that NMO velocity is assumed to
“represent” an RMS velocity.
Difference between NMO and RMS velocity: The latter is proper
when NMO fails at larger distance due to inclusion of higher
Binomial expansion term (3rd). Otherwise, they are close!

Stacking Velocity (Vstack)is the velocity required to best stack the data using
the best-fit hyperbola over the available offset range.
The choice of Vstack can be rather subjective. However, it turns out that an
appropriate choice can cover up for a multitude of assumptions made in the
CMP stacking process. For horizontal layers and small offsets Vstack should
equal Vrms.

For dipping layers a higher velocity is required since Vstack =

Vrms/cos(dip). The application of DMO mostly removes the effects of dip
from Vstack such that Vstack approximates Vrms and interval velocities computed
from the DIX equation should be stable.
 Seismic Noise

INCOHERENT COHERENT
 Multiples
• These are events which have undergone more than one reflection.

• Since the reflection coeff is very small for interfaces only the strongest
impedance contrast will generate multiples strong enough to recognize a
event.

• Multiples may look like primary reflection and as such the Geophysicist
may not able to identify them.

• Most common and the simplest is the surface multiple which

arrives at twice the time of primary reflection from the same bed.

• There are two types of multiples:

• 1-Short path multiples : They are almost arrived with useful signals and
form a tail to them, such as

A- Ghost; B- Near-surface multiples and C- Peg-leg Multiples

2- Long path Multiples : They are arrived at a later time than primary reflections, they
appear as a separate signals. Such as
A- Simple multiples.
B- Interformational multiples.

Primary Near Simple Surface

Reflection Ghost Surface Peg-Leg Multiple Interformational

Short path Multiples Long path Multiples

Diffraction
A structural model of the The resultant reflection event
subsurface
 Positioning problem

On unmigrated stacked section reflections are always plotted below the midpoint , which
is only correct for horizontal layers.
Seismic Migration

Unmigrated Image

Positioning
Problems 䇺Blur䇻 the
Image

Migrated Image

Migration Reduces
Positioning
Problems, which
Improves the Image
 Migration
• Reflection seismic records must be corrected for non-vertical
reflections. This correctional process is called migration.

• It is an essential part of a reflection seismic study.

• When the reflection events on seismic cross-sections are plotted
vertically below control points on the surface (e.g. as the two-way
vertical travel-time to a reflector below the shot-point.), the section is
said to be unmigrated.

• A migrated section is one which has been corrected for non-vertical

reflections. It gives a true picture of the positions of subsurface
reflectors.

• The process is complex and requires prior knowledge of the seismic

velocity distributions, which in an unexplored or tectonically
complicated region is often inadequately known.
 Migration

“The goal of migration is to make the stacked section

appear similar to the geologic cross-section”
Oz Yilmaz

Migration is an inversion operation involving rearrangement of

seismic information elements so that reflections and diffractions
are plotted at their true lo ations.
R.E Sheriff
In practice it is not known a priori whether a reflector is horizontal or
inclined. If reflection records are not corrected for the effect of layer-
dip, an error results in plotting the positions of dipping beds. The shot
point travel-time gives the direct distance to a reflector, but the path
along which the echo has travelled in not known.

For e.g the figure will lead to a

distorted picture of the
underground picture.

Figure: when the reflector is inclined

and depths are plotted vertically
under the geophones, the true
reflecting points A, B and C are
mapped at A’, B’ and C’, falsifying
the position of the reflector.
Figure: Paths of reflected rays over an anticline and syncline, showing the false
apparent depth to the reflecting surface.

True reflection points A-G are wrongly mapped at locations a-g beneath the
corresponding shot-points.
• Synclines within which the reflector curvature exceeds the curvature
of the incident wave front are represented on non-migrated seismic
sections by a ‘bow-tie’ event resulting from the existence of three
discrete reflection points for any surface location
Before migration

After migration
 Migration

• Collapses diffractions
• Corrects for dip
– Moves dipping events in the updip direction
• Removes effects of surface curvature
– unties the owties
 Time-migration
• The goal of migration is to make the stacked section
appear similar to the geologic cross-section in depth
along a seismic transverse. The migrated section,
however commonly displayed in time. One reason for
this is that velocity estimation based on seismic and
other data always is limited in accuracy. Therefore,
depth conversion is not completely accurate. Another
reason is that interpreters prefer to evaluate the validity
of migrated sections by comparing them to the
unmigrated data. Therefore, it is preferable to have both
sections displayed in time. The migration process that
produces a migrated time section is called time
migration.
 Migration Methods
Some popularly used time migration algorithms are:
Stolt migration, Gazdag and Finite-difference migration.

Some of the popularly used depth migration algorithms are

Kirchhoff depth migration, Reverse Time Migration (RTM),

Gaussian Beam Migration and Wave-equation migration.
 MIGRATION
1. Pre-stack Migration

2. Post-stack Migration

Pre-stack Migration

•Migrate data before stacking sequence occurs.

•Pre-stack Depth Migration require more knowledge about subsurface
velocity structure.
•Better results.
Pre-stack Migration
Applications: 1. Complex subsurface structure.
2. Complex subsurface velocity structure.

Problems: 1. Expensive
2. Time consuming.

Post-stack Migration
Seismic data is migrated after stacking sequence occurs.

Applications: 1. Low dip non-interfering events.

2. Faster data processing.

Problems: Although it is low cost technique but resolution is less than the
pre-stack migration.
Seismic Refraction
• Refraction surveys study the critical refracted ray.
• Such a ray can only exist if, at an interface, the lower
layer has a higher impedance than the overlying layer,
which usually implies a higher velocity.
• In practice this is often the case, for example if
unconsolidated sediment overlies bedrock.
• If it is not true, then there is no critical ray and any
layer beneath the interface is hidden. It can then only
be revealed by a reflection survey.
 Some Uses of Seismic Refraction
• Mapping bedrock topography .
• Determining the depth of gravel, sand or clay
deposits.
• Determining the depth to the water table.
• Detecting subsurface caverns.
• Detecting shallow faults and fracture zones.
• Detecting large boulders.
 Refraction Vs. Reflection

• Seismic Refraction: the signal returns to the surface by

refraction at subsurface interfaces, and is recorded at
distances much greater than depth of investigation.
• Seismic Reflection: the seismic signal is reflected back
to the surface at layer interfaces, and is recorded at
distances less than depth of investigation.
 Potential Paths in a Refraction Survey
• When doing a seismic refraction survey, a recorded ray can come from three
main paths
– The direct ray
– The reflected ray
– The refracted ray
• Because these rays travel different distances and at different speeds, they arrive
at different times

• The direct ray and the refracted ray arrive in different order depending on
distance from source and the velocity structure

Shot Point (i.e. the Source) Receiver

Direct Ray

ic ic
v1
Layer 1
Layer 2
v2
Refraction Lay Out
7
 Survey Types
• The simplest (and cheapest) type of survey is called a
hammer seismic survey
– A sledgehammer is whacked into a steel plate
– Impact switch tells time=0
– First arrivals are read digitally or inferred from seismogram
– Because swinging a hammer is free, only one geophone is
needed
• More can be used, but single geophones must be along a linear transect
 Survey Types
• The maximum workable distance depends on:
– The sensitivity of the system
– The strength of the sledgehammer whacks
– The amount of noise
• Wind shakes trees, etc…
• Cars, footsteps, traffic, etc…
• Surveys may be done at night to minimize noise
 Survey Types
• Often the signal to noise ratio is very poor:
– Stacking is often used to help delineate first arrivals
• General rule of thumb:
– Geophone array should be about 10x the depth to interface
– 100 meters is the typical upper limit on length of hammer
seismic transect
• So hammer seismics are best for shallow interfaces (< 10
m)
 Other Survey Types
• Explosion seismics
– Offers a much stronger signal
• Can detect deeper features
• Geophones / Seismometers are often linked wirelessly (RF / radio
waves)
• Marine Surveys
– Sometimes use explosives, compressed air, high voltage
charges, or many other types.
– Usually use hydrophones
• Respond to pressure changes (p-waves)
• Surveying is often done while the ship is moving, so very long
transects can be done at a lower cost
 Seismic Refraction

Advantages
– Simple layout
– Low manpower requirements
– Limited Equipment Requirements
– Rapid data reduction and analysis (computer not
needed)
– Easy interpretation
 Seismic Refraction

Disadvantages
– Relatively large energy input required
– Relatively long layout (10 times depth)
– Limited number of model layers
– Limited velocity differences
– Limited interface geometry (assume smooth)
 Refraction…What is it Good For?
• Seismic refraction surveys
reveal two main pieces of
information
– Velocity structure
• Used to infer rock type
– Depth to interface
• Lithology change
• Water table
Seismic Refraction
Interpretation
• The interpretation of underground structure from refraction results
relies on ray-path analysis.

• The ray path is identified from a travel-time graph of arrival times vs

distance from source. This sometimes called a T-X diagram.

• The technique is basically to inspect the T-X diagram and identify the
most likely underground structure from which it arises.

• Values are then picked off the T-X diagram and converted into
structure parameters such as depth, etc using the assumed geometry
of the ray path.

• Thus we need to know how T-X diagrams arise.

• A refraction T-X diagram is based on the first arrival at each

geophone.
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface
 Using Seismic Refraction to Map the
Subsurface

Xc V 2  V 1
Depth  (5)
2 V 2 V1

Depth {
Using Seismic Refraction to Map the Subsurface

Xc V 2  V 1 TiV 1
Depth   (6)
2 V 2 V1 V1
2 cos(sin 1 )
For layer parallel to
V2
surface

Depth {
24
 Refraction at a horizontal
interface
• Horizontal interfaces provide a simple introduction to the
construction of T-X diagrams.

• Close to the source, the first arrival is due to the direct ray
travelling in layer 1.

• This plots as a straight line on the T-X diagram.

• The slope of the line is the reciprocal of the layer 1 velocity

(assuming distance is on the X-axis).

• The intercept is zero.

Using Seismic Refraction to
Map the Subsurface

Critical Refraction Plays a Key

Role
 T 1  x /V 1

ac cd df
T2   
V1 V 2 V1

h
ac  df 
cos(ic)

cd  x  bc  de  x  2h tan(ic)

bc  de  h tan(ic)

2h x  2h tan(ic)
T2  
V 1 cos(ic ) V2

2h 2h tan(ic) x
T2   
V 1 cos(ic ) V2 V2

 1 sin(ic)  x

T 2  2h   
 V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 cos(ic)  V 2
  1 sin(ic)  x
T 2  2h     V2 V 1 sin(ic)  x
 V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 cos(ic)  V 2 T 2  2h   
 V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic)  V 2

 V 2  V 1 sin(ic)  x
T 2  2h  
 V 1V 2 cos(ic)  V 2

 V2 
  sin(ic ) 
x
T 2  2hV 1 V 1 
 V 1V 2 cos(ic )  V 2
 
 

V1
sin ic  S ell’s Law
V2

 1 
  sin(ic ) 
T 2  2hV 1
sin(ic )  x
 V 1V 2 cos(ic)  V 2
 
 
  1 
  sin(ic ) 
 x  1  sin 2 (ic)  x
T 2  2hV 1
sin(ic )

T 2  2hV 1  
 V 1V 2 cos(ic)  V 2  V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic)  V 2
 
 
 cos 2 (ic)  x
T 2  2hV 1  
 V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic)  V 2

 cos(ic)  x
T 2  2h  
 V 2 sin(ic)  V 2

Fro S ell’s Law,

V 1  V 2 sin(ic)

2h cos(ic) x
T2  
V1 V2
2h V2  V12
2
x
T2  
V 1V 2 V2
 x 2h
t  (V22  V12 )
v2 V1V 2

critical
distance
Time (t)

2h
V1V2
V 2
2
 V12 
Distance (x)
 Making a t-x Diagram
Refracted Ray Arrival Time, t x 2h
t  (V22  V12 )
v2 V1V 2

Y-intercept to find thickness, h1

v2 = 1/slope

v1 = 1/slope
 Multiple Layers
• Seismic
refraction can
detect multiple
layers
• The velocities
are easily found
from the slopes
on the t-x
diagram
Q. What is a seismic wavefront?
The speed at which a wavefront travels is the
seismic velocity of the material, and depends on
the material’s elastic properties. In a
homogenious medium, a wavefront is spherical,
and its shape is distorted by changes in the
seismic velocity.
Seismic wavefront
Q. What is a ray?
Q. What is a ray?

A. Also referred to as a “wavefront

normal” a ray is an arrow
perpendicular to the wave front,
indicating the direction of travel at
that point on the wavefront. There
are an infinite number of rays on a
wave front.
Ray
 Huygens' Principle
Every point on a wave front can be
thought of as a new point source for
waves generated in the direction the
wave is traveling or being propagated.
Q. What causes
refraction?
Q. What causes
refraction?
A. Different portions of the
wave front reach the velocity
boundary earlier than other
portions, speeding up or
slowing down on contact,
causing distortion of wave
front.
(a)
(B)
If V2>V1, then as i increases, r
increases faster

(C)
Dipping Interfaces

12
 Principal of
Reciprocity
The travel time of seismic energy between
two points is independent of the direction
traveled, i.e., interchanging the source and
the geophone will not affect the seismic
travel time between the two.
 Dipping Interfaces
• The presence of a dipping interface is recognised if the
reversed profile is not the mirror image of the forward
profile
• The analysis of a dipping interface introduces three new
issues:
– There is an additional unknown (the dip angle)
– The T-X diagram is no longer symmetrical and so the
updip and downdip intercepts are not equal
– The updip and downdip velocities in layer 2 are not equal
Updip shot – apparent velocity
> true velocity

Downdip shot – apparent

velocity < true velocity
16
• The asymmetry arises because the return ray has a
successively shorter (updip) or longer (downdip)
path as the distance from the shot point increases.

• This is expressed by saying that the apparent

velocity in layer 2 (the reciprocal slope of the upper
branch) is greater (flatter slope) in the updip than
than in the downdip directions.

• It is necessary to analyse both the forward and the

reverse profiles to solve for V1, V2, Z and  (dip
angle)
• Since it is not known in advance whether or not an
interface is dipping - and most usually are! - the
procedure is always to shoot a profile in both
forward and reverse directions (i.e. interchange the
shot position with the last geophone and leave the
rest in place).
• The dip will very probably be an apparent dip in
the geological sense, since the profile is unlikely
to follow the line of true dip. Thus a second,
perpendicular, profile is required to allow the true
dip to be found.
 Caveats of Refraction

• Only works if each successive layer has increasing

velocity
– Cannot detect a low velocity layer
• May not detect thin layers
• Requires multiple (survey) lines
– Make certain interfaces are horizontal
– Determine actual dip direction not just apparent dip
 limitations
• There are two cases where a seismic interface
will not be revealed by a refraction survey.

– The Hidden Layer

– The Low Velocity Layer
 The Low Velocity Layer
• If a layer has a lower
velocity than the one
above…
– There can be no critical
refraction
• The refracted rays are
bent towards the normal
– There will be no
refracted segment on the
t-x diagram
– The t-x diagram to the
right will be interpreted
as
• Two layers
• Depth to layer 3 and
Thickness of layer1 will
be exaggerated
 The Low Velocity Layer
• Causes:
– Sand below clay
– Sedimentary rock
below igneous rock
– (sometimes) sandstone
below limestone

• How Can you Know?

– Consult geologic data!
• Boreholes / Logs
• Geologic sections
• Geologic maps
 The Hidden Layer
• Recall that the refracted ray eventually overtakes the direct ray (cross
over distance).
• The second refracted ray may overtake the direct ray first if:
– The second layer is thin
– The third layer has a much faster velocity
The Hidden Layer
 Undulating Interfaces
• Undulating interfaces produce non-linear t-x diagrams
• There are techniques that can deal with this
– delay times & plus minus method
– We won’t cover these techniques…