Unit - I BASICSOF METROLOGY

161ME42 - ENGINEERING METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS

Prepared By
R.DINAGARAN B.E., M.Tech., (Ph.D)
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
P.S.R ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI
 DEFINITIONS
• The word metrology is derived from twoGreek words
Metro=measurement
Logy=science
Thus metrology is the science of measurement
Metrology is the field of knowledge concerned with measurement and
includes both theoretical and practical problems with reference to
measurement.

Metrology is the science ofweights and measures

Metrology is the process of making precise measurements of the relative

positions and orientations of different optical and mechanical components

Metrology is the science concerned with the establishment, reproduction,

conversion and transfer of units of measurement and theirstandards
 NEED OF INSPECTION
• Toensure the material, parts and components conform to the established
standards
• Tomeet the interchangeability ofmanufacture
• To provide the means of finding the problem area for meeting
the established standards
• To produce the parts having acceptable quality levels with
reduced scrap and wastage
• To purchase good quality of raw materials, tools and
equipment that govern the quality offinished products
• To take necessary efforts to measure and reduce the rejection
percentage
• Tojudge the possibility of rework of defectiveparts
 ELEMENTS OF METROLOGY
• Standard
• The most basic element of measurement is standard without which no
measurement ispossible.
• Standard is a physical representation of unit of measurement.
• Different standards have been developed for various units including
fundamental units as well as derived units.
• Workpiece
• Workpiece is the object tobe measured/measured part
• Variations in geometry and surface finish of the measured part directly affect
measuring system’srepeatability
• Compressible materials like plastic or nylons pose a different type of problem
that any gauge pressure will distort the material. This can be avoided by fixing
of gauging pressure as suggested by the industry so that everyone will get
uniform results
• Person
• There must be some person or mechanism to carryout the measurement
• Modern gauges are increasingly easy to use but the failure to adequately train
the operating personnel will lead apoor performance
• Instruments
• Instrument is adevice with the help of which the measurement can be done
• The instrument must be selected based on the tolerance of the parts to be measured,
the type of environment and the skill level of operators
• It should be remembered that what type of instruments the customer prefer to
measure.

• Standard
• The measurement should be performed under standard environment
• Temperature, dirt, humidity and vibration are the four environmental factors
that influence measurement.
• Vernier scale division of vernier caliper always changes when the
measurement process is carried for ‘n’ number of times for the same
dimension. The environment is indirectly related to temperature, humidity,
conditioning etc.,
ELEMENTS OF GENERALIZED MEASUREMENTSYSTEM
• Primary sensing element
• The primary sensing element receives signal of the physical quantity to
be measured as input.
• It converts the signal to a suitable form (electrical, mechanical or
other form), so that it becomes easier for other elements of the
measurement system, to either convert or manipulate it.
• Variable Conversion Element:
• Variable conversion element converts the output of the primary sensing
element to a more suitable form. It is used only if necessary.
• Variable Manipulation Element:
• Variable manipulation element manipulates and amplifies the output
of the variable conversion element. It also removes noise (if present) in
thesignal.
• Data Processing Element:
• It processes the data signal received from the variable
manipulation element and produces suitable output.
• Data processing element may also be used to compare the
measured value with a standard value to produce required
output.
Data Transmission System:
• Data Transmission System is simply used for transmitting data from
one element to another.
• It acts as a communication link between different elements of the
measurement system.
• Some of the data transmission elements used are cables, wireless
antennae, transducers, telemetry systemsetc.
• Data Presentation Element:
• It is used to present the measured physical quantity in a human readable
form to the observer.
• It receives processed signal from data processing element and
presents the data in a human readableform.
• LED displays are most commonly used as data presentation elements
in many measurement systems.
The liquid or gas filled temperature bulb acts as primary sensing
element and variable conversion element. It senses the input
quantity(temperature) and converts it into a pressure built up
within the bulb. This pressure is transmitted through the
capillary tube (which acts as data transmission element) to a
spiral bourdon type pressure gauge. Bourdon tube acts as a
variable conversion element which converts the pressure into
displacement. The displacement is manipulated as a variable
manipulation element. The pointer and scale indicate the
temperature,
Accuracy:
Accuracy may be defined as the ability of an instrument to respond to a
true value of measured variable under the reference conditions. It refers
how closely the measured value agrees with the true value. The difference
between the measured value and the true value is know as Error of
measurement.
Precision:
Precision may be defined as the degree of exactness for which an
instrument is designed or intended to perform. It refers the repeatability
or consistency of measurement when the measurements are carried out
under identical conditions
 EFFECTS OF ELEMENTS OF METROLOGY ON
PRECISION & ACCURACY
Factors affecting the standard of measurement
• Coefficient of thermal expansion
• Elastic properties of amaterial
• Stability with time
• Calibration interval
• Geometric compatibility
Factors affecting the workpiece to bemeasured
• Coefficient of thermal expansion of material
• Elastic properties of amaterial
• Cleanliness, surface finish, surface defects such as scratches, waviness
etc.,
• Adequate datum on the workpiece
• Thermal equalization
• Factors affecting the characteristics of aninstrument
• Scale error
• Repeatability and readability
• Calibration errors
• Effect of friction, zero drift, backlash etc.,
• Inadequate amplification
• Deformation when heavy workpieces are measured
• Constant geometry for both workpiece andstandard.
• Factors affecting person
• Training/skill
• Ability to select the measuring instruments and standard
• attitude towards accuracy
• Planning measurement techniques for minimum cost, consistent
with precision requirements etc.
• Factors affecting environment
• Temperature, humidity, atmosphere, pressure etc.,
• Clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance precision
• Temperature equalization between standard, work pieceand
instrument.
• Thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights,
heating elements, sunlight and people.
• Manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
 ERRORS INMEASUREMENT
An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value
and the actual value
• True value may be defined as the average value of an infinite number of
measuredvalues
• Measured value can be defined as the estimated value of true value that can
be found by taking several values during an experiment.
• Error in measurement=Measured value-True value
The Errors in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute or
relative error
• Absolute Error
Absolute error is the algebraic difference between the measured
value and the true value of the quantity measured. It is further sub
divided into
• True absolute error
The algebraic difference between the measured average value and
the conventional true value of the quantity measured is called true
absolute error
• Apparent Absolute error
While taking the series of measurement, the algebraic difference
between one of the measured values of the series of measurement and the
arithmetic mean of all measured values in the same series is called apparent
absolute error.
• Relative Error:
It results as the results of the absolute error and the value of
comparison used for the calculation of absolute error.
Absolute error=True value-Measured Value= 300-280 = 20units
Relative error = Absolute error/Measured value
=20/300 = 0.06 = 6%
• Gross Errors
Gross errors are caused by mistakes in using instruments, calculating
measurements and recording data results.
Example: The operator or person reads the pressure gauge reading as 1.10
N/m2 instead of 1.01 N/m2. This may be the reason for gross errors in the
reported data and such error may end up in calculation of the final results,
thus producing deviated results.
TYPES OF ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
• Blunders
Blunders are caused by faulty recording or due to a wrong value while
recording a measurement, or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit while
reading ascale.
• Measurement Error
• The measurement error is the result of the variation of a
measurement of the true value.
• The best example of the measurement error is, if electronic scales are
loaded with 1kg standard weight and the reading is 1002grams, then
• The measurement error is = (1002grams-1000grams) =2grams
• Measurement Errors are classified into two types
1)Systematic Error 2) Random Errors
• Instrumental Errors
• Instrumental errors occur due to wrong construction of the measuring
instruments.These errors may occur due to hysteresis or friction.
• In order to reduce these errors in measurement, different correction
factors must be applied and in the extreme condition instrument must
be recalibrated carefully.
 Systematic error
• The errors that occur due to fault in the measuring device are known
as systematic errors.
• These errors can be detached by correcting the measurement device.
• These errors may be classified into different categories.
1) Instrumental Errors 2) Environmental Errors 3) Observational
Errors 4) Theoretical Errors
 Environmental Errors
The environmental errors occur due to some
external conditions of the instrument. External conditions mainly
include pressure, temperature, humidity or due to magnetic
fields. To reduce the environmental errorsTry to maintain the humidity
and temperature constant in the laboratory by making some
arrangements. Ensure that there shall not be any
external electrostatic or magnetic field around the
instrument.
Observational Errors
• As the name suggests, these types of errors occurs due to wrong
observations or reading in the instruments particularly in case of
energy meter reading.
• The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX.
• In order to reduce the PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are
needed: meters provided with mirror scales.
Theoretical Errors
• Theoretical errors are caused by simplification of the model system.
For example, a theory states that the temperature of the system
surrounding will not change the readings taken when it actually
does, then this factor will begin a source of error in measurement.
Random Errors
• These are errors due to unknown causes and they occur even when all
systematic errors have been accounted.
• These are caused by any factors that randomly affect the measurement
of the variable across the sample.
• Such errors are the laws of probability.
 METHODS OFMEASUREMENT
• Direct method
• In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly compared with
the primary or secondary standard.
• This method is widely employed in productionfield.
• In this method, a very slight difference exists between the actual and the
measured values because of the limitation of the human being performing
the measurement.
• Indirect method
• In this method, the value of quantity is obtained by measuring other
quantities that are functionally related to the required value.
• Measurement of the quantity is carried out directly and then the
value isdetermined by usinga mathematical relationship.
• Eg: angle measurement using sine bar
• Fundamental or absolute method
In this method, measurementsof the measurement is
base quantities used based on to define the thThe quantity under
consideration is directly measured and is then linked with the definition of
that quantity.
• Comparative method
• The quantity to be measured is compared with the known value of the same
quantity or any other quantity practically related to it. The quantity is
compared with the master gauge and only the deviations from the master
gaugearerecordedafter comparison.
• Eg. Dial indicators
• Transposition method
• This method involves making the measurement by direct
comparison wherein the quantity to be measured(V) is initially
balanced by a known value (X) of the same quantity. Then, ‘X’ is
replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced again by another
known value (Y). If the quantity to be measured is equal to both X
and Y,then
V = XY Example: Determination of mass by balancing methods
• Coincidence methods
• In this method, a very minute difference between the quantity to be
measured and the reference is determined by careful observation of
certain lines and signals
• Eg: Vernier caliper
• Deflection method
• This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity to be
measured by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
• Eg. Pressure measurement
• Null measurement method
• In this method, the difference between the value of the quantity to be
measured and the known value of the same quantity with which
comparison isto be made isbrought to be zero.
• Substitution method
• This method involves the replacement of the value of the quantity to be
measured with a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the
effects produced in the indicating device by these two values are the
same.
• Contact method
• In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or
measuring tip of the instrument.
• Example: Micrometer, Vernier calliper and dial indicator
• Contactless method
• As the name indicates, there is no direct
contact with the surface to be measured
• Eg. Tool makers microscope, profile projector
• Composite method
• The actual contour of a component to be
checked is compared with its maximum and minimum tolerance limits.
• Cumulative errors of the interconnected elements of the component
which are controlled through a combined tolerance can be checked by
this method. This method is very reliable to ensure interchangeability and
is effected through the use of composite GO gauges.
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS IN METROLOGY
Sensitivity:
It is the ratio of the magnitude of output signal to the magnitude of
input signal. It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds.
Sensitivity=(Infinitesimal change of output signal)/(Infinitesimal change
of input signal)
If the input-output relation is linear, the sensitivity will be constant
for all values of input. If the instrument is having non-linear static
characteristics, the sensitivity of the instrument depends on the value
of the input quantity.
 Hysteresis:All the energy put into the stressed component when
loaded is not recovered upon unloading. Hence, the output of a
measurement system will partly depend on its previous input signals and
this is called ashysteresis.
Range: It is the minimum and maximum values of a quantity for
which an instrument is designed to measure/ The region between which
the instrument is to operate is called range.
Range = Lower Calibration Value – Higher Calibration Value = Lcto
Hc
Span: It is the algebraic difference between higher calibration
value and lower calibration value.
Span = Hc - Lc
Example: If the range of an instrument is 100̊ Cto 150̊ C,its span is
150̊ C– 100̊ C=50̊ C
Response Time: It is the time which elapses after a sudden change
in the measured quantity, until the instrument gives an
indication differing from the true value by an amount
less than a given permissible error.
 Speed of response of a measuring instrument is defined as the
quickness with which an instrument responds to a change in input signal.
Repeatability: It is the ability of the measuring instrument to give the
same value every time the measurement of a given quantity is repeated. It
is the closeness between successive measurements of the same quantity
with the same instrument by the same operator over a short span of time,
with same value of input under same operating conditions.
Stability: The ability of a measuring instrument to retain its
calibration over a long period of time is called stability. It determines
an instruments consistency over time.
Backlash: Maximum distance through which one part of an
instrument may be moved without disturbing the other part.
Accuracy: The degree of closeness of a measurement compared
to the expected value is known as accuracy.
Precision: A measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement. i.e. successive reading does not differ. The ability of an
instrument to reproduce its readings again and again in the same
manner for a constant input signal.
Magnification: Human limitations or incapability to read instruments
places limit on sensitiveness of instruments. Magnification of the
signal from measuring instrument can make it better readable.
Resolution: Minimum value of input signal required to cause an
appreciable change or an increment in the output is called resolution
/Minimum value that can be measured when the instrument is
gradually increased from non-zerovalue.
Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value is
called error.
Drift: The variation of change in output for a given input over a
period of time is known asdrift.
Threshold: Minimum value of input below which no output can
be appeared is known asthreshold.
Reliability: Reliability may be explicitly defined as the
probability that a system will perform satisfactory for at least a given
period of time when used under stated conditions. The reliability
function is thus same probability expressed as a function of the time
period.
StandardsTypesofstandards
• Line standard
• Standard yard
• Standard metre
• End standard
• End bar
• Slip gauges
• Wavelength standard
• Line standard
The measurement of distance may be made between two parallel lines or
two surfaces. When a length is measured between as the distance between
centres of two engraved lines, it is called line standard
Standard yard
• Yard is made of a one inch square cross section bronze bar and is 38 inches
long
• The bar has a round recess (gold plug) of 0.5 inches diameter and 0.5
inches deep. The gold plug is 1 inch away from both the ends
• The highly polished top surfaces of these plugs contain three transversely
and two longitudinally engraved lines lying on the neutral axis
• The yard is the distance between two central transverse lines on the plugs
when the temperature of the bar is constant at62OF
• To protect the gold plug from accidental damage, it is kept at the neutral
axis asthe neutral axis remains unaffected even if the barbends
Standardmetre
• The metre is the distance between the centreportions of two lines
engraved on the polished surface of bar made up of platinum (90%) and
iridium (10%) having a unique cross section
• The web section gives maximum rigidity and economy in the use of
costlymaterial
• The upper surface of the web is
inoxidizable and needs a good finish for
quality measurement
• the bar is kept at 0OC and under
normal atmospheric pressure.
 • Endstandard
The need of an end standard arises as the use of line standards
and their copies was difficult at various places in workshops
These are usually in the form ofend bars and slip gauges
• End bar
• End bars made of steel having cylindrical section of 22.2 mm
diameter with the faces lapped and hardened at the ends are
available in various lengths.
• Flat and parallel faced end bars are firmly used as the most
practical end standard used for measurement.
• These are used for measurement of larger sizes
• Slip gauges
• Slipgauges are rectangular blocks of hardened
and stabilized high grade cast steel
• The length of a slip gauge is strictly the dimension which it
measures
• The blocks after being manufactured are hardened to resist
wear and are allowed to stabilize to release internalstresses
• A combination of slip gauges enables the measurements to be
made in the range of 0.0025mm to 100mm but in
combinations with end bars, the measurement range upto
1200mm is possible.
• Wavelength standards
• Line and end standards are physical standards and are made up of materials
that can change their size with temperature and other environmental
conditions
• In search for such suitable unit of length,wave length source is
established
• Laser is used as primary level wavelength standard
• According to this standard, a metre is defined as equal to 1650763.73
wavelength of the redorange radiation of krypton isotope gas

1 metre =1650763.73 wavelengths

1 yard =0.9144m
=0.9144x1650763.73
=1509458.3 wavelength.