Session 7/5
A General Earth Pressure Theory
Une théorie générale de la poussée de terre
by J. B r i n c h H an sen , C hief Engineer, Christiani & N ielsen, Copenhagen, D enm ark
Summary
In this paper the author describes the main principles o f a new
method for calculation of the earth pressure, which is based on
Kotter's equation and on a special boundary condition developed
by himself. This renders it possible to deal with more or less com­
plicated “ rupture-figures” involving curved rupture-lines. As ex­
amples of the application o f the new method to practical design
problems the author finally presents the calculations for an anchored
sheet wall and a cellular cofferdam.
Introduction
The author has recently developed a new earth pressure
theory, which he has applied to the majority o f plane earth
pressure problem s ( Brinch Hansen, 1953). The main features
o f this m ethod are described as follow s:—
Known Methods o f Calculation
The author divides the know n m ethods in the follow ing
grou ps:
(1) Extrem e-m ethods ( Coulomb , Fellenius, Rendulic );
(2) Theories o f plasticity ( Rankine , Prandtl, Kotter, v. Karman,
Frontard, Ohde) ;
(3) Theories o f elasticity ( Boussinesq , Rifaat, Bretting );
(4) Empirical m ethods ( Danish Rules, Tschebotarioff, Rowe,
etc.).
After a survey o f these m ethods the author com es to the
conclusions that none o f them satisfies the requirements for
a general earth pressure theory. H e finds, however, that the
solution lies in a com bination o f the extrem e-m ethod ( Rendulic )
and the so-called equilibrium -m ethod (Ohde).
The Extreme-Method
In the extrem e-method the earth pressure is determined
using one condition o f equilibrium in com bination with an
extrem e-condition.
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Sommaire
Dans cet article l’auteur décrit les principes fondamentaux d’une
nouvelle méthode de calcul de la pression des terres basée sur l’équa­
tion de Kôtter et sur une condition à la limite spéciale, développée
par l’auteur. Cette méthode permet de traiter des « figures de rupture »
plus ou moins compliquées, comprenant des lignes de glissement
courbes. A titre d’exemple d’application de la nouvelle méthode à
la solution de problèmes pratiques, l’auteur présente les calculs d’un
rideau de palplanches ancrées et d’un bâtardeau cellulaire.
The equilibrium -condition (for an earth wedge bounded by
the surface, the wall and a rupture-line) m ust be one in which
the unknown stresses in the rupture-line do not enter. In
general, this requirement is satisfied by choosing, as rtipture-
line, a logarithm ic spiral and taking the m om ents about the
pole (Rendulic, 1940). From this m om ent equation, the earth
pressure can be found (as a function o f the geometrical para­
meters o f the spiral), provided that the location o f the pressure
centre and the direction o f the pressure are known.
The extrem e-condition requires that the earth pressure
should be a maximum (active pressure) or a minimum (passive
pressure) respectively. This condition makes possible the
determination o f the geom etrical parameters o f the critical
spiral.
Generally the location o f the centre o f rotation for a rigid wall
cannot be determined by this m ethod. For kinem atical reasons
this w ould require the rupture-line to be a circle, in which case
the centre o f rotation w ould be located on the norm al to the wall
passing through the centre o f the circle. H ow ever, for statical
reasons, a circular rupture-line cannot be used in the extreme-
m ethod, except in the special case o f frictionless earth (Fel­
lenius).
The calculation m ethod m ost com m only used viz. Cou­
lomb's, is also a special case o f the extrem e-m ethod. A s it con­
siders straight rupture-lines only, its useful application is, how ­
ever, limited to such structures for which the actual rupture-
lines are approxim ately straight, e.g. retaining walls.
The Equilibrium-Method (3) Composite ruptures, which consist o f more than one rup-
ture-zone or -line. T w o rupture-lines m ay either meet each
In the equilibrium -m ethod, the earth pressure is determined other flush ( / ) or at an angle (a) o f 90° ± q>, or at the wall (w),
by m eans o f all three conditions o f equilibrium in com bination or they may be com pletely separated (s). The m ost im portant
with K ö tter's equation (K ö tter, 1903) and a boundary co n ­ com posite ruptures are shown in Fig. 1, together with the simple
dition. zone- and line-ruptures.
K ötter's equation determines the internal stresses at any M ost theories o f plasticity deal exclusively with zone-rup-
point o f a given rupture-line, provided that the stresses are tures, and proper line-ruptures are considered only in a few
know n at one point, for instance at the soil surface. T he latter cases (e. g. Ohde). C om posite ruptures have practically never
condition, however, is fulfilled only when the rupture-line been dealt with before.
m akes a certain angle with the surface, or in the special case
o f cohesionless earth with an unloaded surface.
In the special cases m entioned above, the three equilibrium
conditions for the earth wedge suffice to determine tw o geo­
metrical parameters o f the rupture-line and the m agnitude o f
[ 7 F
the earth pressure, provided that its direction and the location
o f the pressure centre, is known (Ohde, 1938).
If a circle is chosen as the rupture-line, the calculation de­
scribed determines also the centre o f rotation for the wall.
Conversely, if the rotation centre is given, the location o f the AaP PfA
pressure centre can be determined.

The A uthor’s M ethod f

RsA
A n essential requirement for a general earth pressure theory
is that it should render possible the determ ination o f the earth Fig. 1 M ost Important “ Figures o f Rupture’
pressure and its pressure centre, corresponding to any given Principales «Figures de rupture»
rotation centre for a rigid wall. A s we have seen, neither the
extrem e-m ethod nor the equilibrium -m ethod satisfies this re­
quirem ent except in special cases. T he author, however, has
Internai Forces in Rupture-Circle
succeeded in developing a generally applicable m ethod by com ­ Fig. 2 show s a circular rupture-line with radius r and central
bining the tw o m ethods in the follow ing way: angle 2 a. Its chord has a length k and m akes an angle P with
L et us consider a problem which can be solved with the the horizon. A t a point, to which the radius makes an angle v
extrem e-m ethod, using a spiral rupture-line. The sam e problem with the vertical, the stresses in the circle are a and t . A ccording
m ight be solved using the equilibrium -m ethod, if the boundary to Coulomb's failure-condition we have:
stress at one end o f the spiral were known. N o w the author
has show n that both m ethods w ill lead to the sam e results, if T = c + pio = c + o tan <p (1)
the boundary stress is determined by a special boundary con ­ W hen this is com bined with the conditions o f equilibrium
dition. Through the aid o f this condition the equilibrium- for a sm all earth elem ent, the so-called K ôtter's equation can
m ethod can be used, if the rupture-line is a spiral. be derived in the follow ing form:
Further the sam e boundary condition can be used as an
approxim ation, when the spiral rupture-line is substituted by dt . . .

a circular one. This gives very nearly the sam e result, and in
------ 1- 2[it + yr sin <p sin (v + <p) = 0 (2)
dv
this w ay a general application o f the equilibrium -m ethod is
m ade possible. For r = constant (circle) the solution is:
M oreover, as this m ethod gives practically the sam e results
r = C e -2''1’ + y r sin <p cos y cos (v + <p + y>) (3)
as the extrem e-m ethod, it m ust be just as reliable, and the
reliability o f the extrem e-m ethods (notably the so-called where :
“ <P = 0 ” -analysis) has been repeatedly demonstrated (S kem p-
ton, 1948).
yi = arc tan 2 /i .. (4)
and C is a constant which can be determined when a set o f
Figures of Rupture corresponding values (vt and rt) are known.
Instead o f t and a it is more convenient to introduce the
W ith regard to the state o f rupture in the soil the author stresses c and t, o f which the latter m akes an angle <p with the
distinguishes between the follow ing different types o f rupture
(see Fig. 1):
(1) Zone-ruptures, in w hich the stresses at any point within
a certain area satisfy the condition o f failure. Z ones w ithout
any singular points are termed Rankine-zones (R), and zones
w ith at least one singular point, Prandtl-zones (P ).
(2) Line-ruptures, in which only the stresses at points on a
Fig. 2 Stresses and Forces in Circular
certain curve satisfy the condition o f failure. For kinem atical Rupture-Line
reasons this curve must be a circle, either concave (A ) or con ­ Contraintes et efforts dans une
vex (X ). ligne de rupture circulaire

171
normal. (3) leads then to the follow ing relation between the For the surcharge P on the earth wedge, and for the self­
stresses ^ and t 2 at the ends o f the rupture-circle: weight G o f this wedge the follow ing equations are valid. The
m om ents are taken about the middle point o f the chord:
12 = y k ( t YX sin /9 + t yv cos p) + ( t1 + — ) t ‘ 4 - —A — (5)
\ sin ip / sin q> P = p k cos j MP= 0

where t yx, t 7» and t l are functions o f <p and a only.

By integration the resultant R o f the internal forces in the
w hole rupture-circle can be found or, rather, its vertical com ­
ponent V, horizontal com ponent H and m om ent M n about the
m iddle point o f the chord. The follow ing expressions are ob­
tained :
V = y k 2[V yz + Vyx sin (2 ß + 2<p)] — c k cot <p cos ß
Earth Pressure for Circular
c Rupture-Line
h + — k i V ^ s i n ß + V iy cos ß) (6) Pression de sol pour une ligne
sin <p t
de rupture circulaire
H = y k 2[H vz 4- H vv cos (2 ß + 2<p)\ — c k cot <p sin /
c
(7)
sin 7) k ( H ^ sin/3 + H ty cos ß) G = y k ‘ (<3VZ + j s i n 2/sj .. (13)

m r = y k 3(M R s in ß + M V
r cos ß) + +
sin <p M a = y k 3\ M q sin ß + (14)
where M lR and all the quantities with double superscripts are
functions o f <p and a alone. For q> = 0° and <p = ± 30° the where G yz and M g* are functions o f a only.
author has tabulated all these functions (Brinch Hansen, 1953). The 3 equations o f equilibrium for the earth wedge are ob ­
tained by vertical projection, by horizontal projection, and by
The Special Boundary Condition taking the mom ents about the m iddle point o f the ch ord :

The previously m entioned boundary condition, with which G + P E = H .. (15M 16)

an equilibrium -calculation gives the sam e results as an extreme-
E ( \h — z) = M r + M g .. (17)
calculation, is obtained in the follow ing way:
Let us consider the forces acting upon a sm all earth elem ent W hen x is given, the procedure is to estim ate the value o f a,
between the boundary (e. g. the ground surface), the rup- find the corresponding /S from ( 10 ) as well as k = h : sin (i,
and investigate whether (15) is satisfied. W hen this is obtained
(by changing a), E is found from (16) and, finally, z from (17).
E xam ple: In the case o f p = c = 0, <p = — 30° (active pres­
sure) and x = h (rotation about the top o f the wall) the ou t­
Earth Element Between lined calculation gives a = 21.0°, /i = 69.0°, E = 0.355 • \ y h 2
Ground Surface and and z = 0.48 h.
Rupture-Lines
In principle the pressure distribution is indeterminable, but
Elément de sol entre
la surface du sol et les the author has tentatively suggested approxim ate earth pres­
lignes de rupture sure diagrams o f the types show n in Fig. 7. The upper part
corresponds to ordinary passive (right) or active (left) pressure.
ture-line and a pseudo-rupture-line (Fig. 3), project these forces
on a line perpendicular to the pseudo-rupture-line and put the Earth Pressure Graphs
resultant equal to zero. This gives:
Calculations similar to that described for rupture A can be
p sin (Vj + <p) + c cos O'! + <p — /) m ade for other ruptures such as R , P , A a R , A a P , A w R , PfA
(9)
sin (vj — 0 and X /P , thereby permitting the determ ination o f E and z for
any location o f the rotation centre (*). T he follow ing general
where vx = /? + a (see Fig. 2).
equations apply:

Calculation for a Line-Rupture E = i y h 2h + p h g + c h x (18)

U sing the above m ethod the author was able to calculate the E z = \ y h 3Xr) + p h 2g8 + (19)
earth pressures corresponding to zone-ruptures, line-ruptures
For the case o f a vertical wall and a horizontal ground sur­
and the simpler com posite ruptures. The calculation o f a line-
face the author has worked out graphs indicating the values
rupture is described as an example. Here, the ground is as­
o f the different constants in (18)—(19) as functions o f £ = * : h.
sumed as horizontal and the wall as vertical and perfectly
Figs. 5 -6 show the graphs for X a n d »?, corresponding to cp = 30°.
sm ooth, but actually any inclinations o f the wall and the sur­
Curves are indicated for sm ooth and rough walls (in the latter
face can be considered, as well as any relative roughness o f
case with no vertical m ovem ent) and for rotations in both
the wall.
directions. A positive rotation is defined as a m ovem ent (o f
The height o f the rotation centre above the toe o f the wall is
a rigid wall), by which the angle between the original ground
(Fig. 4):
surface and the wall (below the surface) is increased. By a
x = \ h (1 + cot a co t f)) . . ( 10 ) negative rotation this angle is decreased.

172
 CO 3.3 1.0 1.3 tes It IO 0.3 OS 0.1 O.S 03 at 03 0.2 at 0 -0.1-O.IS-O3 -to -1.3 —03

Fig. 5 A as a Function o f f Fig. 6 i) as a Function o f f

A en fonction de { i) en fonction de £

A n c h o r e d S h e e t W a ll
In order to show the application o f the new method to prac­
tical design problem s, the case o f an anchored sheet wall will
be considered (Fig. 7). It is assum ed that p = c = 0 and
y = 1.8 t/m 3. Further, the actual <p is 36°, but a safety factor
o f 1.25 (on tan <p) is introduced by carrying out the calculation
with q> = 30°. An additional safety factor o f 1.2 is applied to
the yield stress (2400 kg/cm 2) o f the steel in the wall and the
anchors, making the “ perm issible” stress 20 0 0 kg/cm 2 for
steel 37.
In the state o f failure the wall is assum ed to undergo a
rotation round the anchor point. W hen the design is made
on this basis, no other type o f failure is possible. If, for in­
stance, the anchorage starts yielding, this very m ovem ent will
decrease the pressures on the upper part o f the wall and in­
crease those on the lower part. The yielding o f the anchorage
stops and the fo o t o f the wall starts yielding as assumed in the
design.
The equations governing the design o f the anchored sheet
wall are found by horizontal projection and by taking the
m om ents at the anchor point:
£ i- E d q — Zi) = E2(q — z 2)
W ith an estim ated value o f the driving depth h2, the heights
^ and q can also be determined as well as f x = q : ht and
£ 2 = q : h2. From the graphs (Figs. 5 -6 ) the corresponding
values o f A and »? are found, and (20)-(21) yield after inser­
tion o f (18)—(19):
W ith these values (23) is very nearly satisfied and (22) yields
A = 14.2 t/m, so that the necessary anchor section is 7.1 cm 2/m.
By means o f the approxim ate pressure diagrams the greatest
positive m om ent is found to be 7.0 tm/m, and the greatest
negative m om ent (at anchor level) — 9.0 tm /m. The necessary
section m odulus o f the wall is then 450 cm 3/m.
Pressure Diagram for
Anchored Sheet Wall
Diagramme des pres­
sions sur écran de pal-
planches ancrées
C e llu la r C o ffe rd a m
( 2 0 )—(2 1 )
The new m ethod can also be applied to foundation pressures
and stability problem s. A s a special exam ple o f the latter, a
cellular cofferdam on rock w ill be considered (Fig. 8 ). The
exterior load Q is a unilateral water pressure. The fill is as­
sumed to be well-com pacted sand with an actual <p = 36°, but
a safety factor 1.25 is introduced by reckoning with <p = 30°.

A = i y i k h i2—A
2V) i —Vi) = —vd
(22)—(23)

W hen (23) is satisfied, h2 has been estim ated correctly, and

(22) gives then the anchor pull. In order to determine the
m om ents in the wall, the previously m entioned pressure dia­
grams m ust be used.
In the exam ple show n in Fig. 7, the heights given are
/¡i — h2 = 8 m and hx — q = 2 m. After som e trials it is found
that h2 = 1.45 m satisfies (23), when the wall is assumed to
be perfectly rough. This gives:
Fig. 8 Stability o f a Cellular Cof-
hx = 1.45 + 8 = 9.45 m q = 9.45 — 2 = 7.45 m ferdam
= 7 .4 5 ; 9 .4 5 = 0.79 l 2 = 7 .4 5 :1 .4 5 = 5.15 Stabilité d’un batardeau
A, = 0.305 ni = 0.505 A2 = 4.95 n* = 0.295 cellulaire

173
In order to obtain a total safety factor o f 1.5, the cofferdam
is designed for a horizontal load 1.2 Q. The fill is also assumed
to be well-drained, so that its average unit weight is y m =
1.7 t/m3.
In the state o f failure a convex circular rupture-line is as­
sumed to develop, so that the overlying earth, together with
the walls o f the cofferdam, rotate about the centre o f the circle.
The 3 equations o f equilibrium for the rotating body give:
G = V 1.2 Q = H 1.2 Q q = — M R (24)-(26)
In the equations ( 6)—(8) a reduced y = 1.0 t/m 3 must be in­
serted, as the fill in the vicinity o f the rupture-line is probably
submerged. Further, c = 0, /9 = 0 and k = w are inserted.
For G, the follow ing equation m ay be obtained (G vz is nega­
tive here):
G = y mhw + y w 2G yz (27)
From the 3 equations (24)-(26) it is possible to elim inate Q
and tu leaving an equation in which the only unknow n quan­
tities are a and w : h. W ith an estim ated (negative) value o f a
the corresponding w : h is found, then t1 from (24) and, finally,
Q from (25). W hen Q attains the required value, a has been
correctly chosen.
W itli h = 9 m ,q = 3 m and a = — 32°, the outlined m ethod
gives w : h = 0.83, tx = 26.8 t/m 2 and Q = 41.1 t/m. A s the
174
actual Q is | • 9 2 = 40.5 t/m, the agreement is satisfactory. It
should be noted that value obtained for w : h is very nearly
equal to the value m ost com m only used in practice (0.85).
C o n c lu s io n
The new m ethod developed by the author can be applied
to problem s such as retaining walls, anchor slabs, free sheet
walls, anchored sheet walls, fixed sheet walls and cellular coffer­
dams on rock and in earth. T he m ethod is applicable to earth
with cohesion or friction, or both, to ground surfaces with any
slope and surcharge, and to walls w ith any inclination and
roughness. The effects o f water pressures and o f layered earth
can also be taken into account, at least approxim ately.
References
Brinch Hansen, J. (1953): Earth Pressure Calculation. Copenhagen (in
the Press).
Kötter, F. (1903): D ie Bestimmung des Druckes an gekrümmten G leit­
flächen. Sitzungsbericht der Kgl. Preuss. Akad. der W iss., Berlin.
Ohde, J. (1938): Zur Theorie des Erddruckes unter besonderer Berück­
sichtigung der Erddruckverteilung. D ie Bautechnik, Hefte 10/11, 13,
19, 25, 37, 42, 53/54.
Rendulic, L. (1940): Gleitflächen, Prüfflächen und Erddruck. D ie Bau­
technik, Heft 13/14.
Skempton, A . W. (1948): Practical Examples o f the <p = 0 Analysis o f
Stability o f Clays. Proc. Sec. Int. Conf. Soil Mech., Vol. II, Rotterdam.