Substance Health

misuse 2010

A guide for managers and supervisors

in the oil and gas industry
The global oil and gas industry association for environmental and social issues

5th Floor, 209–215 Blackfriars Road, London SE1 8NL, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7633 2388 Facsimile: +44 (0)20 7633 2389
E-mail: info@ipieca.org Internet: www.ipieca.org

International Association of Oil & Gas Producers

London office
5th Floor, 209–215 Blackfriars Road, London SE1 8NL, United Kingdom
Telephone: +44 (0)20 7633 0272 Facsimile: +44 (0)20 7633 2350
E-mail: reception@ogp.org.uk Internet: www.ogp.org.uk

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OGP Report Number 445

© OGP/IPIECA 2010 All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
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Substance
misuse
A guide for managers and supervisors
in the oil and gas industry

All photographs reproduced courtesy of ©iStockphoto.com, except page 12 which is courtesy of ©Shutterstock.com
IPIECA • OGP SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

Contents

Introduction 1

Key elements in the development of a

company policy and supporting protocols 1

Prevention 3

Primary prevention 3
Information, education and training 3
Pre-employment substance testing 3
Pre-shift testing 3
Secondary prevention 3
Voluntary disclosure 4
Random or periodic unannounced testing 4
Searching 4
Employee and management responsibilities 4
Tertiary prevention 4

Appendix 1:
Glossary of terms 5

Appendix 2:
Testing 8

Appendix 3:
Substances: the symptoms and risks of their misuse 14

Appendix 4:
Recreational drug use 17

Appendix 5:
How to recognize substance misuse 18

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Introduction
Substance misuse1 is an issue of widespread
global concern, and one that demands attention
from all sectors of society and industry. Aside
from the obvious potential for workplace
disruption, and the deleterious effect on other
employees or co-workers, there is an overriding
need for employers to consider the implications of
impaired individuals working in a safety-critical
industry where the need for sound judgement and
mental acuity are a constant requirement.
Substances of misuse include alcohol, illicit drugs,
inappropriate use of over-the-counter and
prescription medicines and other substances that
have the potential to impair health, behaviour,
judgement or job performance. It is recognized
that safety, company reputation and financial
performance can be put at risk by a person or
persons whose judgement has been impaired by
substance misuse. It should be noted that even the
normal use of certain prescription or over-the-
counter medications can impair performance.
Key elements in the development of a company
policy and supporting protocols
A specific policy statement is a prerequisite to
the management of substance misuse in the
workplace.
The objective of the policy should be to prevent
the workforce from becoming a risk to themselves
or others through the misuse of substances. Key
elements of a policy statement should be the
1 Formerly known as substance abuse, but both terms can be used interchangeably.
2 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Management of alcohol- and drug-related issues in the workplace.
Code of practice.
3 OGP–IPIECA. 2011. Fitness to work: Guidance for Oil and Gas industry Company and Contractor Health, HSE and
HR professionals.
Even the normal
use of certain
prescription or
over-the-counter
medications can
impair
performance.
Many companies within the oil and gas industry
have substance misuse policies. There is also
international guidance as well as regulatory
requirements within most countries2.
This document is intended to provide guidance to
all those who are involved in the prevention and
management of substance misuse in the
workplace. The document is not intended to
replace national laws, regulations or other
accepted standards.
setting of clear limits regarding fitness for work3,
the availability, possession and misuse of
substances at company premises or on company
business and the consequences for policy violation.
The following sections should be considered as
key elements in the development of a programme
to support the company policy:
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IPIECA • OGP

● Introduction
● Purpose
● Scope—prevention and management
● Roles and responsibilities
● Information, education and training
● Procedures
● Support
● Testing arrangements
● Disciplinary action

Policies and programmes related to substance

misuse should apply to all members of the
workforce and should not discriminate on any
grounds. The company policy on substance misuse
must be especially clear, and take full account of
local laws and public sensitivities. This is
particularly important in a multicultural workforce
in which employees of different religious beliefs
Expatriate
and social backgrounds work and live together. In
members of the
such mixed working communities, alcohol is
workforce should
sometimes consumed and other substances used
be reminded that,
secretly. The company’s policy and supporting
in some countries,
consumption of programmes need to address these situations to
alcohol is prevent abuse and protect the different social
forbidden and customs of the community.
social drinking
may be considered In countries where alcohol is forbidden for cultural
formally or religious reasons, the legal limit is usually zero.
unacceptable. Thus, so-called social drinking is formally
unacceptable. It is therefore very important for the
expatriate population to be fully informed about
this. This is especially so when alcohol is
available only within company compounds and
only to authorized employees. In such
circumstances, there is a risk of alcohol being sold
illegally or offered freely to outsiders.
Company policies should recognize that
substance dependency can be a treatable medical
condition, provided that the individual cooperates
fully. Employees with a declared substance
dependency problem should be dealt with in the
same way as any other employee with a medical
condition. The policy should provide for
rehabilitation and return to effective work upon a
medical evaluation of the individual’s capabilities
following treatment, coupled with appropriate
aftercare and follow-up, e.g. through an
Employee Assistance Programme (EAP) where
one exists. Use can be made of community-based
institutions, where they exist, as well as
professional psychological or medical support.

Any employee under rehabilitation should be

subject to unannounced testing as part of their
aftercare programme. Each company should decide
how they will manage the occurrence of relapses.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

Prevention

Primary prevention

Primary prevention measures aim to prevent any

substance misuse in the workplace.

Information, education and training

Information, education and training programmes
should contain information on the physical,
psychological, social and safety effects of
substance misuse and should include:
● health information relating to substance
misuse;
● workplace rules;
● services available to assist personnel with
problems;
● local laws and regulations;
● how to identify, assist and refer colleagues
who may be at risk; Pre-employment substance testing Knowing how best
● assisting and supporting those who are to assist and
In some countries, pre-employment substance
support those who
undergoing a rehabilitation programme; and testing is legally allowed to prevent the are undergoing
● the dangers of concealing or colluding in employment of individuals with existing substance rehabilitation is
substance misuse amongst colleagues. misuse problems. one of a range of
considerations
Line management should be competent in:
aimed at
● identifying factors in the working environment Pre-shift testing
preventing
(e.g. stress) and work practices (including substance misuse
In some countries there is a legal requirement to
company-related social occasions) which could in the workplace.
conduct daily pre-work testing for certain
be improved to reduce the potential for
substances, e.g. breathalyser testing for alcohol in
substance misuse;
professional drivers or heavy equipment
● identifying changes in individual workplace
operators.
performance and behaviour which may
indicate substance misuse;
● interviewing personnel whose performance or
behavioural changes, and where substance Secondary prevention
misuse may be a possible cause;
● respecting confidentiality, as appropriate; In order to be effective, any company policy
● explaining and responding to questions about should incorporate a means for testing and
the company’s policy, rules and procedures compliance. Secondary prevention refers to
regarding substance misuse; and measures that detect substance misuse before it
● supporting rehabilitation programmes and has an impact on the workplace.
monitoring their results.

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IPIECA • OGP

Voluntary disclosure Employee and management

Many companies offer the opportunity for
individuals who believe they have a substance
misuse problem to disclose this voluntarily (prior
to any workplace impact or positive test result)
and to be offered support, rehabilitation and
employment retention.
responsibilities
Employees and management should maintain
vigilance in the recognition of changes in
individual workplace performance and behaviour
that may indicate substance misuse.

Random or periodic Tertiary prevention

unannounced testing
Tertiary prevention is aimed at mitigating the
Random or periodic testing may be carried out
impact of existing substance misuse, and may
without notice to confirm the substance-free status
include:
of the workforce or to identify substance misuse
● incident investigation;
before there has been a workplace impact.
● ‘for cause’ (i.e. where there is reasonable
suspicion) testing and searching;
Searching ● disciplinary action; and
● case management and monitoring.
Searching company premises may have legal and
social implications, however, searching can act as
a tool for detection and also as a deterrent to
misuse. The extent and frequency of searching
should reflect the level of risk and the perceived
extent of the problem, and will vary according to
the extent permitted by local laws.

Random or
unannounced
periodic testing
may be
carried out as
one of a series
of secondary
prevention
measures.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Appendix 1:
Glossary of terms
The glossary of terms below is presented
according to the context of this document, and is
applicable to occupational medicine activity and
the misuse of psychoactive substances that would
result in disturbances in the level of consciousness,
cognition, perception and judgement, and affect
behaviour or other psychophysiological functions
and responses.
Abuse: the incorrect, improper or harmful use of
any substance in such a way as intentionally to
modify mood, behaviour or performance. It does
not include the appropriate use of therapeutic
medication as directed by a physician. It includes
use which can be described as dependency,
habituation or addiction. Sometimes this term is
used disapprovingly to refer to any use at all,
particularly of illicit drugs. Because of its
ambiguity, the term is not used in ICD-104 and
‘harmful use’ and ‘hazardous use’ are the
equivalent terms in WHO usage, although they
usually relate only to effects on health and not to
social consequences. (See also Substance misuse.)
After-care: the provision of counselling and
periodic drug and/or alcohol testing to persons in
the period after formal counselling, treatment and
rehabilitation, in order to assist them during a
period of adjustment to successful re-entry into the
workplace.
Alcohol (ethyl alcohol or ethanol): in chemical
terminology, alcohols are a large group of
organic compounds derived from hydrocarbons
and containing one or more hydroxyl (-OH)
groups. Ethanol (C2H5OH) is one of this class of
compounds, and is the main psychoactive
ingredient in alcoholic beverages. By extension
the term ‘alcohol’ is also used to refer to alcoholic
beverages. Apart from the social effects of its use,
alcohol intoxication may result in poisoning or
even death; long-term heavy use may result in
4 WHO International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Revision.
The terms listed
below relate to the
use of substances
that have the
potential to affect
concentration,
judgement,
perception,
cognition and
general behaviour.
dependence, or in a wide variety of physical and
mental disorders. Alcohol-related mental and
behavioural disorders are classified as
psychoactive substance use disorders in ICD-10.1.
Alcohol- and drug-related problems: this term
can be applied to any of the range of adverse
accompaniments of drinking or drug taking. It is
important to note that ‘related’ does not
necessarily imply causality. The term can be used
either of an individual drinker or drug user or at
the level of society as a whole. It may be taken to
include both dependence and misuse, but it also
covers other problems.
Community-based institutions: organizations of a
non-medical or medical character that assist
individuals with alcohol- and drug-related
problems. Examples of such organizations are
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA); Narcotics
Anonymous (NA); governmental or non-
governmental agencies or offices providing
assistance; and community associations, clubs,
fraternal organizations, religious organizations,
or any other group or association which assists
persons with alcohol- and drug-related problems.
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IPIECA • OGP

Drug addiction: a condition in which the

individual is physically and psychologically reliant
on the use of the substance.

Employee Assistance Programme (EAP): a

programme that offers assistance to workers, who
have problems including but not limited to
substance use or misuse, that affect—or could
eventually affect—job performance.

Prevention levels: in public health, preventive

medicine strategies are typically described as
taking place at the primary, secondary and
tertiary prevention levels. In occupational health
they are considered the set of actions developed
at workplaces.

Primary prevention: those strategies which intend

to avoid the development of diseases, including
most population-based health promotion
measures. Preventive care may include pre-
employment examinations tailored to an
Dependence: a condition in which an individual
individual’s age, health and family history.
has lost control over the use of the substance;
even after realizing the negative effect, the person Recreational drugs: drugs taken with the intention
has an increased need to use it and is unable to of creating or enhancing a recreational
stop despite attempts to cut down or abstain. experience. Such use is often considered drug
abuse, and is often illegal. It may overlap with
Drug: any substance that, when absorbed into
medicinal use, but is often administered as self-
the body of a living organism, alters normal
bodily function, and may impair one’s mental
faculties and/or physical performance. In
common usage, the term often refers specifically
to psychoactive drugs, and often, even more
specifically, to illicit drugs, of which there is non-
medical use in addition to any medical use. In
pharmacology, a drug is a chemical substance
used in the treatment, cure, prevention or
diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise
enhance physical or mental well-being. Drugs
may be prescribed for a limited duration, or on
a regular basis for chronic disorders. Some
drugs can cause addiction and habituation.
Drugs are usually distinguished from
endogenous biochemicals by being introduced
from outside the organism. Some governments
define the term drug by law.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

medication, for performance enhancement or for

mood alteration purposes. It includes a wide
range of both legal and illegal drugs, but may
have serious or even fatal health effects.

Secondary prevention: strategies aimed at

diagnosing and treating an existing disease in its
early stages before it results in significant
morbidity.

Substance: in chemistry, a chemical substance is

defined as any material, organic or inorganic,
with a specific chemical composition, including
any combination of such substances (also
sometimes referred to as a pure substance). For
the purposes of this document, the term includes
alcohol, illegal drugs, prescription medication or
any other substance introduced into the body that
may alter an individual’s mood, perception,
coordination, response time or judgment in a
manner which renders them unable to do their
job safely or effectively. prescription and over-the-counter medicines such
as amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines,
Substance misuse (also known as drug abuse):
cocaine, methaqualone and opioids, etc., may
relates to taking a mind-altering or performance
result in impairment to health, behaviour,
enhancing substance for a non-therapeutic or non-
judgement or job performance. Use of these drugs
medical effect. Some of the drugs most often
may lead to criminal penalty in addition to
associated with this term include alcohol and illicit
possible physical, social and psychological harm,
drugs. In addition, inappropriate use of
both strongly depending on local jurisdiction. (See
also Abuse.)

Tertiary prevention: measures developed through

treatments that aim to reduce the negative impact
of an established disease by restoring function
and reducing disease-related complications.

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IPIECA • OGP

Appendix 2:
Testing

Key elements for testing are:
● Chain of custody
● Confidentiality
● The role of the Medical Review Officer (MRO)
● When to test
● Analytical drug testing
● Types of specimens for testing
Chain of Custody
The chain of custody is the process for managing
the collection, handling, storage and testing of
collected urine, blood or other samples, to
prevent any possible contamination or
interference. The purpose of this process is to
ensure that results can indisputably be connected
with the person who produced the test sample.
Each stage of the chain must be capable of being
audited, enabling tracking and validation of the
integrity of the sample.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is a complex issue that is generally
linked to the privacy rules/legislations and data
protection legislation in many countries in the
context of substance misuse testing at the workplace.
Substance misuse testing involves collecting sensitive
data, both on the use of drugs, sometimes illegal
drugs, and information on medication taken
which might influence the test result. As such,
employers must have the explicit consent of the
individual not only to carry out the test, but also
for the employer to be informed of the results and
to use the results to make decisions that might
affect that person’s employment (informed
consent). The collecting and holding of such
information is therefore not only subject to strict
controls in many countries but also the subject of
international agreements such as European Union
Guidelines 95/46 and 97/66 on data protection,
and the International Labour Organization (ILO)
Code of Practice on the Protection of Workers’
Personal Data (1996), or the Patient Records
Regulation/Health Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule in the USA.
In some European countries this issue is resolved
by strengthening the role of the occupational
physician. In Finland, France, Belgium, Germany
and Austria the result of the test is communicated
to the occupational doctor, not to the employer.
The doctor is only allowed to inform the employer
whether the person is fit for work or not, but not
what the result of the drug test was. Legal advice
should therefore be considered, as appropriate.

Confidentiality is a
complex issue,
requiring the
explicit consent of
an individual to
undergo testing,
and also for the
disclosure of
results to an
employer.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
The role of the Medical Review
Officer (MRO)
An essential element of a drug testing programme
is a mechanism for a medical review of the results.
That mechanism is the Medical Review Officer. The
MRO will review and interpret lab results obtained
through the employer’s testing programme. The
role is an important safeguard in the testing
process, and provides protection to both the
donor and the employer. The MRO is usually a
medical physician. In some countries (e.g. the
USA), the MRO has legal status, however, in most
countries the MRO has no legal status.
To provide an effective service, the MRO must
have specialist knowledge of, and training in:
● substance misuse disorders;
● specimen collection procedures;
● chain of custody;
● analytical procedures; and
● interpretation of results, including the use of
medical history and other relevant biomedical
information to potentially provide alternative
explanations for positive analytical results. For
example, the MRO can issue a negative report
for a positive analytical result if the test result
is likely to be due to the use of declared
medication.
The MRO assures:
● respect for personal confidentiality and dignity
of the donor;
● maintenance of the confidentiality of medical
information, except when public safety is
jeopardized; and
● maintenance of high scientific and medical
standards.
For an effective review, and prior to pass/fail
results being provided to the employer, the MRO
must be familiar with:
● the employer’s substance misuse policy,
including substances tested and cut-off levels;
The role of the
medical review
officer is an
important
safeguard in the
testing process
and provides
protection to both
the donor and the
employer.
● the list of donors;
● the reason for testing, e.g. pre-employment,
‘for cause’, etc.;
● breaches of chain of custody;
● procedures to ensure that chain of custody and
collection arrangements are robust enough to
withstand challenge;
● the need to ensure that a challenge sample is
safe and secure; and
● how to contact the laboratory and toxicologist
in order that results may be discussed.
When to test?
There are a number of situations in which an
employer may wish to test employees for the
presence of drugs and alcohol. As with all drug
and alcohol testing in the workplace, the
employer’s substance misuse policy should be
clear on test scenarios, what substances are tested
for and what type of specimen is to be tested.
Pre-employment drug testing is probably the most
well-known scenario. The following list provides a
brief description of this and other test scenarios.
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IPIECA • OGP

Pre-employment Where random testing programmes are

A urine or hair test for drugs is most commonly
used. The drug test should be performed after a
conditional offer of employment has been made.
Most employer policies will state that applicants
who fail a drug test shall not be employed.
‘For cause’/reasonable suspicion
employed, they should state what percentage of
the workforce will be tested within a defined time
period. Random is generally agreed to mean that
selection for testing is done in a genuinely
random and unannounced way, i.e. everyone in
the testing pool has an equal chance of being
tested and that the workforce does not know who
will be tested, how often or when.

An individual is tested ‘for cause’ if reasonably

suspected of drug or alcohol use based on their Periodic unannounced
physical appearance, behaviour or performance
Some employers may be keen to ensure that all
indicators in the workplace. In addition, credible
employees are selected for testing within a
information from a third party may trigger such
defined period. In this circumstance a periodic
testing, as may the discovery of alcohol, drugs or
unannounced programme is used: employees
drug paraphernalia in the workplace. It is extremely
know that they will all be tested within a defined
important to have clear, consistent definitions of
time period but they do not know who will be
what behaviour justifies drug and alcohol testing,
selected for testing or when. A random
and any suspicion should be corroborated by
programme can sometimes run side by side with
another supervisor or manager. Since this type of
a periodic unannounced programme to ensure
testing is at the discretion of management, it
that employees remain deterred from substance
requires careful, comprehensive supervisor training.
use once they have had their periodic
unannounced test. As might be expected,
Random periodic testing that is announced is of little value
as a deterrent.
The primary purposes of random testing are to
deter prohibited drug and alcohol use, and to
ensure a drug- and alcohol-free workforce. Post incident
This is a drug and/or alcohol test performed
following an accident or incident when it is
An employee may
believed that an individual’s performance or
be requested to
behaviour either contributed to the incident or,
undergo testing for
alternatively, cannot be completely discounted as
a variety of
reasons, and at a contributory factor. The substance misuse policy
different times, should define situations that would trigger this
e.g. before type of test.
employment, after
an incident, at
Return to duty
random intervals,
on return to duty This is a one-off announced test to confirm
after rehabilitation, substance-free status after an employee has
etc. completed a drug/alcohol treatment programme
and before the subsequent return to work.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Rehabilitation follow-up
This involves ongoing unannounced testing of an
employee in the workplace after they have
returned to work following treatment. A
rehabilitation agreement drawn up by the
employer but agreed to by the employee will
usually dictate how long this type of testing will
continue.
Analytical drug testing
Drug tests are performed either at the ‘point of
collection’ or in the laboratory.
Point-of-collection testing
These tests are generally in the form of a single-
use disposable device and, for convenience, work
by analysis of a specimen of oral fluid, sweat or
urine. A binding reaction (an immunoassay)
between the drug(s) and a prefabricated testing
strip results in a colour change that is usually
displayed within minutes and indicates the
presence or absence of the drug(s). These tests
are not considered as definitive quantitative
Rehabilitation
follow-up,
involving ongoing
testing, may be
carried out for an
agreed period of
time with the
consent of the
employee after
their return to
work.
analyses and are called ‘non-evidential’. They can
be very sensitive but can lack the specificity of
laboratory tests and are generally used as a
screening tool. Samples that are negative on the
screening test are discarded and reported as
negative. A suspected positive sample is normally
called a ‘non-negative’ and will be sent to the
laboratory for a confirmation test.
Laboratory-based tests
The sample must be packaged so that it may be
safely and securely transported to the testing
laboratory. It is necessary to take into account the
fact that urine may be considered a biological
specimen and could require special packaging
material to comply with postal or other
transportation regulations. The laboratory will
often define packaging and transport
arrangements.
A non-negative sample will usually undergo a
repeat immunoassay screening test in the
laboratory and will only undergo further, more
sophisticated testing if positive. False positive
samples from the screening test will be negative
on the confirmatory test. The ‘gold standard’
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IPIECA • OGP

laboratory technique for reliable detection of drug
compounds with high sensitivity and specificity is
gas (or liquid) chromatography combined with
mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The advantage of
this method is that it can be used to quantify how
much of a drug, or its breakdown products, is
present. The specificity of GC/MS may also be
used to identify specific drug substances,
including prescribed medicines, in cases where
screening tests can only indicate the presence of a
drug group. Tests performed in this way are
called ‘evidential’ in that they are of a standard
admissible as evidence. Most laboratories save
positive samples for a period of months or years
in the event of a disputed result. For workplace
drug testing, a positive result is not confirmed
without a review by the Medical Review Officer.
Cut-off levels
Drug testing does not determine impairment or
current drug use. Rather, drug testing determines
a specified amount or presence of a drug or its
metabolite in urine, hair or an alternative
specimen. There is a minimum measurement
applied to drug testing so that only traces of a
drug or its metabolite above a specified level are
reported as positive. This measure is known as a
‘cut-off level‘, and it varies for each drug. If a cut-
off level is set too low, test results will come back
with more ‘false positives’ as some ‘passive’ users
could test positive, e.g. passive inhalation of
marijuana smoke. Cut-off levels exist for both
point-of-collection and laboratory testing and may
be regulated (as in the USA), nationally agreed
as guidelines (as in the UK), or set independently
by laboratories or employers.
Types of specimens for testing
Urine
Urine is a commonly used specimen because it is
non-invasive and easy to store and process. Urine
specimens are representative of the drugs that
have been taken in the past few hours or days.
Oral fluid
Oral fluid is convenient for point-of-collection
testing. Detection in oral fluid is almost immediate
upon use of the substance and lasts for hours to
days depending on the substance.

The ‘gold standard’

laboratory
technique for
reliable detection
of drug compounds
with high sensitivity
and specificity is
gas (or liquid)
chromatography
combined with
mass spectrometry
(GC/MS).

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

A variety of
samples may be
used for testing,
ranging from urine,
oral fluid and
breath, to hair,
sweat and blood,
although the latter
two are not
commonly used
samples in the
workplace.

Breath considered to be an invasive procedure and must

be carried out by a health professional. The
Breath is the most commonly used specimen for
sample then needs careful storage and handling.
finding out how much alcohol is currently in the
For these reasons, and in view of the short
blood. The person being tested blows into a
detection period, blood is not a commonly used
breath-alcohol device, and the results are given
sample in the workplace.
as a number, known as the Blood Alcohol
Concentration (BAC), which shows the level of
alcohol in the blood at the time the test was taken. Sweat
This is a non-invasive test, but limited in use as it
Hair is difficult to obtain a sufficient amount on which
to conduct an initial and potentially second
Hair testing tends to be used mostly at pre-
confirmatory test. Patches are attached to the skin
employment to look at the history of prior drug
to collect sweat over several hours. This type of
use, but the process is more time-consuming and
testing is rarely used in the workplace.
expensive than a urine test. Depending on the
length of hair sample, the test may cover a period
of 30–90 days. For optimum detection, 80–120
strands of hair are needed, and body hair may
be used in the absence of head hair.

Blood
Levels of drugs in the blood may be low when
compared with urine, as most drugs are quickly
cleared from the blood and deposited into the
urine where the drugs are excreted in relatively
large concentrations. Sample collection is

13
IPIECA • OGP

Appendix 3:
Substances: the symptoms and risks of their misuse

This list of substances is for reference only and is ‘prescription’ medication will vary from country to
not exhaustive. Some substances may be legally country.
or socially acceptable, and the classification of

Table 1 Substances: the symptoms and risks of their misuse

Name/class Synonym Route Symptoms/effects Health risks

Adhesives Trade names Sniff, inhale Mental confusion, Addictive. Heart failure,
drunkenness, brain damage, lung
hallucinations. damage.

Aerosols/propellant Trade names Sniff, inhale Mental confusion, Addictive. Heart failure,
drunkenness, brain damage, lung
hallucinations. damage.

Alcohol Trade names Oral Raises pain threshold, Addictive. Heart damage,
relaxes central nervous liver damage, accidents.
system, lowers inhibitions.
Drunkenness.

Amphetamines Speed, uppers, whizz, Sniff, inject Speeds up action of Addictive. Heart
blues, pep pills, sulph central nervous system. problems/increased
heartbeat, malnutrition,
panic, paranoia.

Analgesics Trade name examples: Oral Raises pain threshold. Specific side-effects
Paracetamol/ depending on medication.
Acetaminophen;
Codeine; Ibuprofen;
etc.

Antihistamines Trade names Drowsiness, allergy relief. Side-effects if misused.

Barbiturates Downers, barbs Oral Raises pain threshold, Addictive. Especially high
calming, relaxing. risk if mixed with alcohol.
Clumsiness, loss of
coordination.

Cannabis Grass, pot, weed, Usually resin or Alters mood and Addictive. Damage to
dope, hash leaf is smoked; perception, distorts reality. psychomotor performance;
sometimes oral Loss of coordination. lung, respiratory damage.

Cocaine Coke, snow, crack Sniff, inject, Raises pain threshold, Addictive. Nasal
inhale feeling of euphoria, membrane destroyed.
relaxes central nervous
system. Hallucinations,
paranoia and delusions
after repeated doses;
damage to lungs.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

Name/class Synonym Route Symptoms/effects Health risks

Codeine Trade name Oral Raises pain threshold. Addictive. Malnutrition,

Lethargy, apathy. Relaxes constipation. Overdose
central nervous system. causes convulsions, coma,
Loss of judgement and self death.
control.

Cough medicines Trade names Oral See constituents on

(may contain packaging/information
analgesics, anti- leaflet
histamines, alcohol)

Dry-cleaning agents Trade names Inhalation of Mental confusion, loss of Addictive. Convulsions,
vapour co-ordination, nausea; damage to lung,
hallucinations. brain, liver, bone marrow.

Glues Trade names Inhalation of Mental confusion, loss of Addictive. Convulsions

vapour co-ordination, nausea; damage to lung,
hallucinations. brain, liver, bone marrow.

Gamma Hydroxy GHB, liquid E, liquid X, Oral Similar to ecstasy: nausea, Central nervous system/
Butanoic Acid ‘the date rape drug’, dizziness, agitation, brain damage, addictive,
Xyrem depressed breathing, depression.
amnesia, unconsciousness,
death.

Heroin Horse, junk, smack Sniff, inhale, Raises pain threshold, Addictive. Convulsions,
(Diamorphine) inject relaxes central nervous constipation, coma, death
system; lethargy, apathy, from overdose; potential for
loss of judgement and infection, e.g. hepatitis, HIV
self-control. from needles.

Hydrocarbons Trade names Inhale Mental confusion, loss of Damage to lung, liver, bone
(petrol/gasoline, co-ordination, nausea; marrow; potential for long-
lighter fuels, paint hallucinations. term carcinogenic effects.
thinners, solvents, etc.)

Lysergic Acid LSD, acid Oral (tablets or Increases sensory Addictive. Convulsions,
Diethylamide impregnated experience, perceptual accidental death due to
paper) distortion, anxiety, panic. delusions; flashbacks
experienced years after
exposure.

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IPIECA • OGP

Table 1 Substances: the symptoms and risks of their misuse (continued)

Name/class Synonym Route Symptoms/effects Health risks

Khat Qat Oral (chewing Euphoria, hallucinations, Addictive, depression.

leaves) manic behaviour.

3,4-MDMA Ecstasy, E, MDE, Oral Enhanced visual, auditory Central nervous system
Adam, Eve, Shabu and tactile perception. damage. High risk of death
especially if mixed with
alcohol.

Mescaline Oral Increases sensory Addictive. Death due to

experience, perceptual delusions; flashbacks
distortion, anxiety, panic. experienced years after
exposure.

Nicotine From tobacco Smoked/inhaled Speeds up action of Addictive. Long-term

central nervous system. effects; emphysema, lung
cancer, heart disease.

Opium Raw opium usually Raises pain threshold, Addictive. Constipation;

pipe smoked, relaxes central nervous overdose causes
converted opiates system. Lethargy, apathy, convulsions, coma, death;
usually injected or loss of judgement. infection, e.g. hepatitis and
inhaled HIV from needles.

1-(1-Phenylcyclohexyl) Phencyclidine, PCP, Inhaled Alters mood and Overdose causes

piperidine angel dust perception, distorts reality. convulsions, coma, death.
Depression, hallucinations,
confusion, irrational
behaviour.

Psilocybin Magic mushrooms Oral Increases sensory Addictive. Death due to

experience, perceptual delusions; flashbacks
distortion, delusions, experienced years after
anxiety, panic. exposure.

Tranquillizers Examples: Valium, Oral (tablets, Relaxes central nervous Addictive. Overdose causes
(benzodiazepines) Librium liquid) system. coma, death; increased risk
of death when mixed with
alcohol.

16
 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Appendix 4:
Recreational drug use
Recreational drug use is the use of a drug with
the intention of creating or enhancing a
recreational experience. It is often considered
drug abuse, and is often illegal. It may overlap
with medicinal use, but is often administered as
self-medication, for performance enhancement or
for mood alteration purposes. It includes a wide
range of both legal and illegal drugs, but may
have serious or even fatal health effects.
Medication should always be taken as prescribed
by the doctor, and medical assistance should be
sought if side-effects are suspected.
Counterfeit drugs or medication purchased from a
non-assured source (e.g. over the internet) may
contain toxic substances, and the concentration of
the active ingredient may vary from zero to
extremely high, causing serious health problems
or, in extreme cases, death.
Viagra for instance, both legally prescribed and
counterfeit, can cause impaired vision, disturbed
colour vision and myocardial infarction (heart
attack).
Anabolic-androgen steroids (generally known as
‘steroids’) are frequently misused by young, non-
competitive bodybuilders for cosmetic reasons,
e.g. to increase muscle mass and strength.
Steroids can cause many adverse effects, such as
increased blood pressure, liver damage and
cardiovascular disease. They are also associated
with psychiatric symptoms including aggression
and violence, mania and psychosis.
Some drugs are
frequently misused
for recreational
purposes, e.g.
anabolic steroids for
body-building, and
diuretics to achieve
weight loss.
Some people use diuretics to lose weight, causing
hypotension and electrolyte disturbances.
Tranquillizers, analgesics and beta-blockers may
be used to calm nerves before speeches,
presentations and performances, and can cause
drowsiness, inaudible verbal communication,
dizziness and fainting. Alcohol, amphetamines,
barbiturates, marijuana, cocaine and even
caffeine can also be regarded as recreational
drugs under certain circumstances.
Managers in the oil and gas industry should be
aware of this phenomenon, as recreational drug
use may not only cause serious health problems
(e.g. HIV from sharing needles) but also cause
accidents due to decreased alertness, and
impairment of psychomotor skills, decision-
making and interpersonal relations.
17
IPIECA • OGP

Appendix 5:
How to recognize substance misuse

Behaviour and work performance are legitimate General signs of substance misuse
areas of concern for managers. Expert knowledge
● Missed deadlines
regarding the misuse of substances is not
● Missed appointments
necessary, but managers should remain alert to
● Making mistakes due to inattention or poor
changes in the normal work pattern and/or
judgement
behaviour of employees, and should try to
● Wasting more material than usual, having to
understand the reasons behind such changes. The
re-do work
reason for investigation into suspected cases of
● Making bad decisions, errors in judgement, not
substance misuse is, ultimately, to ensure the
accepting assigned responsibilities
safety of all employees at the workplace, and the
● Getting complaints from customers and
goal should be to help dependent individuals,
workmates
rather than to catch and punish them. While the
● Using improbable excuses for poor job
role of managers is to recognize and document
performance
changes in accordance with company policy, they
● Attributing poor performance to poor health
are not usually counsellors or doctors, and need
● Failing to follow instructions
to recognize when professional resources (e.g.
● Not responding to training
from within a medical department) should be
● Mood fluctuations
used to evaluate workplace observations and
● Loss of self-esteem.
provide expert external support.

Observable changes in persons abusing alcohol Absenteeism

or misusing substances can generally be grouped
Monitoring the frequency and reasons given for
in four ways:
absence can be an indicator of substance misuse
1. Changes in personal habits and activities.
problems:
2. Changes in personality.
● A pattern of absence following weekends,
3. Changes in physical appearance.
holidays, etc.
4. The emergence of financial or legal problems
● Frequent lateness for work or appointments
related to misuse.
● Illness with no medical certificate
● Presenting for work in an obviously
Misuse of different substances may present
inadequate condition.
different symptoms. Below are examples of
warning signs that may indicate alcohol and/or
substance misuse, but note that it is not possible to On the-job absenteeism
list all relevant behavioural and work pattern
● Frequent trips to lavatories, storage rooms,
signs. Most often, a person with alcohol/substance
restroom, basement, etc.
misuse or dependency problems will display
● Poor time-keeping
multiple (three or more) behaviours which develop
● Sleeping on the job
over an extended period of time; these signs are
● Loss of interest in the job and other activities
general, however, and may signify problems other
that the individual previously enjoyed
than substance misuse. For example, alcoholism,
● Regularly receiving visits by strangers or other
diabetes, high blood pressure, thyroid disease,
employees with no legitimate reason for being
psychiatric disorders, emotional problems and
in that work area.
certain heart conditions all share some of the same
signs. Likewise, unusual or odd behaviour may
not necessarily be related to substance misuse.

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 SUBSTANCE MISUSE: A GUIDE FOR MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THE OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY

Prone to incidents ● Getting others to take over own work

responsibilities for no good reason; does not
● Repeated incidents on the job
accept work assigned
● Frequent visits to first-aid clinic or doctor
● Unusual flare-ups or outbreaks of temper
● Incidents off the job
● Receiving secretive phone calls.
● Repeated violation of safe working practices.

Personal appearance and

Confusion and poor concentration
demeanour
● Difficulty in understanding and recalling
● Deterioration of physical appearance
instructions, details, etc.
● Dress or grooming becomes sloppy or
● Inability to carry out sequential assignments.
inappropriate
● Appearing withdrawn or preoccupied
Erratic work patterns ● Smelling of alcohol/breath sweeteners/mints
● Inability to follow or participate in conversation
● Fluctuating periods of very high and very low
● Reports of marital/family problems
productivity and quality of work
● Increasing financial problems
● Work is not planned properly; shifts from one
● Involvement with the law
thing to another without reason
● Coordination problems such as unsteady walk,
● Withdrawal from responsibility
eyes uncoordinated
● Abrupt changes in work attendance, quality of
● Memory gaps
work, work output, discipline.
● Tremors
● Poor balance
Unwillingness to change ● Eyes red or bleary; pupils dilated or
constricted, wears sunglasses
● Changing jobs or duties may present a threat
● Extreme sensitivity to mentioning a possible
that would uncover a substance misuse
substance misuse problem; excessive denial of
problem that has been carefully hidden.
a problem
● General changes in overall attitude
Problems with other employees ● Secretive behaviour regarding actions and
possessions
● Friction in relationships, including supervisor-
● Poorly concealed attempts to avoid attention
employee relationships, usually resulting in
and suspicion
degrading performance and efficiency
● Wearing of sunglasses at inappropriate times
● Overreaction to real or imagined criticism
● Continual wearing of long-sleeved garments
● Unusual borrowing of money from friends or
particularly in hot weather, or reluctance to
co-workers
wear short-sleeved attire when appropriate (as
● Complaints from colleagues about behaviour
an attempt to hide certain needle marks).
● Unreasonable expressions of resentment and
rebellion against authority
● Avoidance of contact with associates/colleagues
● Talking louder than usual, or talking when one
should be listening
● Lying chronically
● Disruptive behaviour, causing unrest among
other employees

19
IPIECA is the global oil and gas industry association for environmental and social issues. It develops,
shares and promotes good practices and knowledge to help the industry improve its environmental
and social performance; and is the industry’s principal channel of communication with the United
Nations. Through its member led working groups and executive leadership, IPIECA brings together the
collective expertise of oil and gas companies and associations. Its unique position within the industry
enables its members to respond effectively to key environmental and social issues.

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Telephone: +44 (0)20 7633 2388 Facsimile: +44 (0)20 7633 2389
E-mail: info@ipieca.org Internet: www.ipieca.org

OGP represents the upstream oil and gas industry before international organizations including the
International Maritime Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Regional
Seas Conventions and other groups under the UN umbrella. At the regional level, OGP is the industry
representative to the European Commission and Parliament and the OSPAR Commission for the North
East Atlantic. Equally important is OGP’s role in promulgating best practices, particularly in the areas
of health, safety, the environment and social responsibility.

London office
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