DB Contents

[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Definitions
○ 2.1 Power quantities
○ 2.2 Field quantities
○ 2.3 Examples
• 3 Merits
• 4 Uses
○ 4.1 Acoustics
○ 4.2 Electronics
○ 4.3 Optics
○ 4.4 Video and digital imaging
• 5 Common reference levels and corresponding units
○ 5.1 Absolute and relative decibel measurements
○ 5.2 Absolute measurements
 5.2.1 Electric power
 5.2.2 Voltage
 5.2.3 Acoustics
 5.2.4 Radar
 5.2.5 Radio power, energy, and field strength
○ 5.3 Antenna measurements
○ 5.4 Other measurements
• 6 See also
• 7 References
• 8 Further reading
• 9 External links

[edit] History
The decibel originates from methods used to quantify reductions in audio levels in telephone
circuits. These losses were originally measured in units of Miles of Standard Cable (MSC),
where 1 MSC corresponded to the loss of power over a 1 mile (approximately 1.6 km) length of
standard telephone cable at a frequency of 5000 radians per second (795.8 Hz) and roughly
matched the smallest attenuation detectable to an average listener. Standard telephone cable was
defined as "a cable having uniformly distributed resistances of 88 ohms per loop mile and
uniformly distributed shunt capacitance of .054 microfarad per mile" (approximately 19 gauge).
[citation needed]

The transmission unit or TU was devised by engineers of the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the
1920s to replace the MSC. 1 TU was defined as ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of
measured power to reference power.[2] The definitions were conveniently chosen such that 1 TU
approximately equalled 1 MSC (specifically, 1.056 TU = 1 MSC).[3] Eventually, international
standards bodies adopted the base-10 logarithm of the power ratio as a standard unit, which was
named the "bel" in honor of the Bell System's founder and telecommunications pioneer
Alexander Graham Bell. The bel was larger by a factor of ten than the TU, such that 1 TU
equalled 1 decibel.[4] In many situations, the bel proved inconveniently large, so the decibel has
become more common.
In April 2003, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) considered a
recommendation for the decibel's inclusion in the SI system, but decided not to adopt the decibel
as an SI unit.[5] However, the decibel is recognized by other international bodies such as the
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).[6] The IEC permits the use of the decibel with
field quantities as well as power and this recommendation is followed by many national
standards bodies, such as NIST, which justifies the use of the decibel for voltage ratios.[7]

[edit] Definitions
A decibel is one-tenth of a bel, i.e. 1 B=10 dB. The bel (B) is the logarithm of the ratio of two
power quantities of 10:1, and for two field quantities in the ratio [8]. A field quantity is a quantity
such as voltage, current, sound pressure, electric field strength, velocity and charge density, the
square of which in linear systems is proportional to power. A power quantity is a power or a
quantity directly proportional to power, e.g. energy density, acoustic intensity and luminous
intensity.
The calculation of the ratio in decibels varies depending on whether the quantity being measured
is a power quantity or a field quantity.
[edit] Power quantities
When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a ratio can be expressed in decibels by
evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to the reference
level. Thus, if L represents the ratio of a power value P1 to another power value P0, then LdB
represents that ratio expressed in decibels and is calculated using the formula:
P1 and P0 must have the same dimension, i.e. they must measure the same type of quantity, and
the same units before calculating the ratio: however, the choice of scale for this common unit is
irrelevant, as it changes both quantities by the same factor, and thus cancels in the ratio—the
ratio of two quantities is scale-invariant. Note that if P1 = P0 in the above equation, then LdB = 0.
If P1 is greater than P0 then LdB is positive; if P1 is less than P0 then LdB is negative.
Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for P1 in terms of P0 and LdB:
.

Since a bel is equal to ten decibels, the corresponding formulae for measurement in bels (LB) are
.
[edit] Field quantities
When referring to measurements of field amplitude it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares
of A1 (measured amplitude) and A0 (reference amplitude). This is because in most applications
power is proportional to the square of amplitude, and it is desirable for the two decibel
formulations to give the same result in such typical cases. Thus the following definition is used:
This formula is sometimes called the 20 log rule, and similarly the formula for ratios of powers
is the 10 log rule, and similarly for other factors.[citation needed] The equivalence of and is one of the
standard properties of logarithms.
The formula may be rearranged to give
Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage
or current when the impedance is held constant. Taking voltage as an example, this leads to the
equation:
where V1 is the voltage being measured, V0 is a specified reference voltage, and GdB is the power
gain expressed in decibels. A similar formula holds for current.
[edit] Examples
An example scale showing x and 10 log x. It is easier to grasp and compare 2 or 3
digit numbers than to compare up to 10 digits.

Note that all of these examples yield dimensionless answers in dB because they are relative
ratios expressed in decibels.
• To calculate the ratio of 1 kW (one kilowatt, or 1000 watts) to 1 W in decibels,
use the formula
• To calculate the ratio of to in decibels, use the formula
Notice that , illustrating the consequence from the definitions above that GdB has the same value,
, regardless of whether it is obtained with the 10-log or 20-log rules; provided that in the specific
system being considered power ratios are equal to amplitude ratios squared.
• To calculate the ratio of 1 mW (one milliwatt) to 10 W in decibels, use the
formula
• To find the power ratio corresponding to a 3 dB change in level, use the
formula

A change in power ratio by a factor of 10 is a 10 dB change. A change in power ratio by a factor

of two is approximately a 3 dB change. More precisely, the factor is 103/10, or 1.9953, about
0.24% different from exactly 2. Similarly, an increase of 3 dB implies an increase in voltage by a
factor of approximately , or about 1.41, an increase of 6 dB corresponds to approximately four
times the power and twice the voltage, and so on. In exact terms the power ratio is 106/10, or about
3.9811, a relative error of about 0.5%.

[edit] Merits
The use of the decibel has a number of merits:
• The decibel's logarithmic nature means that a very large range of ratios can
be represented by a convenient number, in a similar manner to scientific
 notation. This allows one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity.
(See Bode Plot and half logarithm graph.)
• The mathematical properties of logarithms mean that the overall decibel gain
of a multi-component system (such as consecutive amplifiers) can be
calculated simply by summing the decibel gains of the individual
components, rather than needing to multiply amplification factors. Essentially
this is because log(A × B × C × ...) = log(A) + log(B) + log(C) + ...
• The human perception of, for example, sound or light, is, roughly speaking,
such that a doubling of actual intensity causes perceived intensity to increase
by the same amount, irrespective of the original level. The decibel's
logarithmic scale, in which a doubling of power or intensity causes an
increase of approximately 3 dB, corresponds to this perception.

[edit] Uses

[edit] Acoustics
Main article: Sound pressure

The decibel is commonly used in acoustics to quantify sound levels relative to some 0 dB
reference. The reference level is typically set at the threshold of perception of an average human
and there are common comparisons used to illustrate different levels of sound pressure. As with
other decibel figures, normally the ratio expressed is a power ratio (rather than a pressure ratio).
The human ear has a large dynamic range in audio perception. The ratio of the sound intensity
that causes permanent damage during short exposure to the quietest sound that the ear can hear is
above a trillion. Such large measurement ranges are conveniently expressed in logarithmic units:
the base-10 logarithm of one trillion (1012) is 12, which is expressed as an audio level of 120 dB.
Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all sound frequencies, noise levels at maximum
human sensitivity — for example, the higher harmonics of middle A (between 2 and 4 kHz) —
are factored more heavily into some measurements using frequency weighting.
Further information: Examples of sound pressure and sound pressure levels

[edit] Electronics
In electronics, the decibel is often used to express power or amplitude ratios (gains), in
preference to arithmetic ratios or percentages. One advantage is that the total decibel gain of a
series of components (such as amplifiers and attenuators) can be calculated simply by summing
the decibel gains of the individual components. Similarly, in telecommunications, decibels are
used to account for the gains and losses of a signal from a transmitter to a receiver through some
medium (free space, wave guides, coax, fiber optics, etc.) using a link budget.
The decibel unit can also be combined with a suffix to create an absolute unit of electric power.
For example, it can be combined with "m" for "milliwatt" to produce the "dBm". Zero dBm is
the power level corresponding to a power of one milliwatt, and 1 dBm is one decibel greater
(about 1.259 mW).
In professional audio, a popular unit is the dBu (see below for all the units). The "u" stands for
"unloaded", and was probably chosen to be similar to lowercase "v", as dBv was the older name
for the same thing. It was changed to avoid confusion with dBV. This unit (dBu) is an RMS
measurement of voltage which uses as its reference 0.775 VRMS. Chosen for historical reasons, it
is the voltage level which delivers 1 mW of power in a 600 ohm resistor, which used to be the
standard reference impedance in telephone audio circuits.
The bel is used to represent noise power levels in hard drive specifications. It shares the same
symbol (B) as the byte.
[edit] Optics
In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is
launched into a fiber, and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each electronic component (e.g.,
connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall link loss may be quickly
calculated by addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.
In spectrometry and optics, the blocking unit used to measure optical density is equivalent to −1
B.
[edit] Video and digital imaging
In connection with digital and video image sensors, decibels generally represent ratios of video
voltages or digitized light levels, using 20 log of the ratio, even when the represented optical
power is directly proportional to the voltage or level, not to its square. Thus, a camera signal-to-
noise ratio of 60 dB represents a power ratio of 1000:1 between signal power and noise power,
not 1,000,000:1.[9]

[edit] Common reference levels and corresponding units

[edit] Absolute and relative decibel measurements

Although decibel measurements are always relative to a reference level, if the numerical value of
that reference is explicitly and exactly stated, then the decibel measurement is called an
"absolute" measurement, in the sense that the exact value of the measured quantity can be
recovered using the formula given earlier. For example, since dBm indicates power measurement
relative to 1 milliwatt,
• 0 dBm means no change from 1 mW. Thus, 0 dBm is the power level
corresponding to a power of exactly 1 mW.
• 3 dBm means 3 dB greater than 0 dBm. Thus, 3 dBm is the power level
corresponding to 103/10 × 1 mW, or approximately 2 mW.
• −6 dBm means 6 dB less than 0 dBm. Thus, −6 dBm is the power level
corresponding to 10−6/10 × 1 mW, or approximately 250 μW (0.25 mW).
If the numerical value of the reference is not explicitly stated, as in the dB gain of an amplifier,
then the decibel measurement is purely relative. The practice of attaching a suffix to the basic dB
unit, forming compound units such as dBm, dBu, dBA, etc., is not permitted by SI.[10] However,
outside of documents adhering to SI units, the practice is very common as illustrated by the
following examples.
[edit] Absolute measurements

[edit] Electric power

dBm or dBmW
 dB(1 mW) — power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt. XdBm = XdBW + 30.

dBW
dB(1 W) — similar to dBm, except the reference level is 1 watt. 0 dBW = +30
dBm; −30 dBW = 0 dBm; XdBW = XdBm − 30.

[edit] Voltage
Since the decibel is defined with respect to power, not amplitude, conversions of voltage ratios to
decibels must square the amplitude, as discussed above.
A schematic showing the relationship between dBu (the voltage source) and dBm
(the power dissipated as heat by the 600 Ω resistor)

dBV
dB(1 VRMS) — voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance.[1]

dBu or dBv
dB(0.775 VRMS) — voltage relative to 0.775 volts.[1] Originally dBv, it was
changed to dBu to avoid confusion with dBV.[11] The "v" comes from "volt",
while "u" comes from "unloaded". dBu can be used regardless of impedance,
but is derived from a 600 Ω load dissipating 0 dBm (1 mW). Reference
voltage

dBmV
dB(1 mVRMS) — voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω[12]. Widely used in
cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single TV signal
at the receiver terminals is about 0 dBmV. Cable TV uses 75 Ω coaxial cable,
so 0 dBmV corresponds to −78.75 dBW (-48.75 dBm) or ~13 nW.

dBμV or dBuV
dB(1 μVRMS) — voltage relative to 1 microvolt. Widely used in television and
aerial amplifier specifications. 60 dBμV = 0 dBmV.

[edit] Acoustics
Probably the most common usage of "decibels" in reference to sound loudness is dB SPL,
referenced to the nominal threshold of human hearing:[13]
dB(SPL)
dB (sound pressure level) — for sound in air and other gases, relative to 20
micropascals (μPa) = 2×10−5 Pa, the quietest sound a human can hear. This
is roughly the sound of a mosquito flying 3 metres away. This is often
abbreviated to just "dB", which gives some the erroneous notion that "dB" is
an absolute unit by itself. For sound in water and other liquids, a reference
pressure of 1 μPa is used.[14]
dB(PA)
dB — relative to 1 Pa, often used in telecommunications.

dB SIL
dB sound intensity level — relative to 10−12 W/m2, which is roughly the
threshold of human hearing in air.

dB SWL
dB sound power level — relative to 10−12 W.

dB(A), dB(B), and dB(C)

These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting
filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound, although
the measurement is still in dB (SPL). These measurements usually refer to
noise and noisome effects on humans and animals, and are in widespread
use in the industry with regard to noise control issues, regulations and
environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dBA or dBA.
According to ANSI standards, the preferred usage is to write LA = x dB.
Nevertheless, the units dBA and dB(A) are still commonly used as a
shorthand for A-weighted measurements. Compare dBc, used in
telecommunications.

dB HL or dB hearing level is used in audiograms as a measure of hearing loss. The reference

level varies with frequency according to a minimum audibility curve as defined in ANSI and
other standards, such that the resulting audiogram shows deviation from what is regarded as
'normal' hearing.[citation needed]
dB Q is sometimes used to denote weighted noise level, commonly using the ITU-R 468 noise
weighting[citation needed]
[edit] Radar
dBZ
dB(Z) - energy of reflectivity (weather radar), related to the amount of
transmitted power returned to the radar receiver; the reference level for Z is
1 mm6 m-3. Values above 15-20 dBZ usually indicate falling precipitation.[15]

dBsm
dBsm - decibel (referenced to one) square meter, measure of reflected
energy from a target compared to the RCS of a smooth perfectly
conducting sphere at least several wavelengths in size with a cross-
sectional area of 1 square meter. "Stealth" aircraft and insects have negative
values of dBsm, large flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have positive values.
[16]
[edit] Radio power, energy, and field strength
dBc
dBc — relative to carrier — in telecommunications, this indicates the
relative levels of noise or sideband peak power, compared with the carrier
power. Compare dBC, used in acoustics.

dBJ
dB(J) — energy relative to 1 joule. 1 joule = 1 watt per hertz, so power
spectral density can be expressed in dBJ.

dBm
dB(mW) — power relative to 1 milliwatt. When used in audio work the
milliwatt is referenced to a 600 ohm load, with the resultant voltage being
0.775 volts. When used in the 2-way radio field, the dB is referenced to a 50
ohm load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts. There are times when
spec sheets may show the voltage & power level e.g. -120 dBm = 0.224
microvolts.

dBμV/m or dBuV/m
dB(μV/m) — electric field strength relative to 1 microvolt per meter. Often
used to specify the signal strength from a television broadcast at a
receiving site (the signal measured at the antenna output will be in dBμV).

dBf
dB(fW) — power relative to 1 femtowatt.

dBW
dB(W) — power relative to 1 watt.

dBk
dB(kW) — power relative to 1 kilowatt.

[edit] Antenna measurements

dBi
dB(isotropic) — the forward gain of an antenna compared with the
hypothetical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all
directions. Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted
otherwise.

dBd
dB(dipole) — the forward gain of an antenna compared with a half-wave
dipole antenna. 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
dBiC
dB(isotropic circular) — the forward gain of an antenna compared to a
circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule
between dBiC and dBi, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field
polarization.

dBq
dB(quarterwave) — the forward gain of an antenna compared to a quarter
wavelength whip. Rarely used, except in some marketing material. 0 dBq =
-0.85 dBi

[edit] Other measurements

dBFS or dBfs
dB(full scale) — the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the
maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. In digital
systems, 0 dBFS (peak) would equal the highest level (number) the processor
is capable of representing. Measured values are always negative or zero,
since they are less than the maximum or full-scale. Full-scale is typically
defined as the power level of a full-scale sinusoid, though some systems will
have extra headroom for peaks above the nominal full scale.

dB-Hz
dB(hertz) — bandwidth relative to 1 Hz. E.g., 20 dB-Hz corresponds to a
bandwidth of 100 Hz. Commonly used in link budget calculations. Also used
in carrier-to-noise-density ratio (not to be confused with carrier-to-noise
ratio, in dB).

dBov or dBO
dB(overload) — the amplitude of a signal (usually audio) compared with the
maximum which a device can handle before clipping occurs. Similar to dBFS,
but also applicable to analog systems.

dBr
dB(relative) — simply a relative difference from something else, which is
made apparent in context. The difference of a filter's response to nominal
levels, for instance.

dBrn
dB above reference noise. See also dBrnC.
 Deutsche Versio
n

• Correlation between sones und phons

− calculator •

Domain of
Psychoacoustics
The subjective perceived sound volume and the artificial term
loudness.
The volume or loudness of a noise is given in sone. 1 sone is equivalent to
40 phons, which is 40 dBSPL of a sine wave of 1000 Hz.

Loudness level LN in phons and Loudness N in sones

Loudness N in sones and Loudness level LN in phons
(volume)

The used browser does not support JavaScript.

 You will see the program but the function will not work.

Conversion valid between 40 phons and 120 phons

Top of Form
50 3.2
Loudness level LN: | Loudness N:
phons sones

For LN > 40 phon | For N > 1 sone

↓ | ↓
|

Loudness N: | Loudness level LN:

sones phons

reset
|

Bottom of Form

For loudness level LN > 40 phons: loudness N in sones = 2[(LN in phons − 40)/10]
For loudness N > 1 sone: loudness level LN in phons = 40 + [10 × log N / log102] in
sones
log 2 = 0.301029995
Conversion only valid between 8 phons and 40 phons
Top of Form
32 0.5
Loudness level LN: | Loudness N:
phon sone

Only for LN < 40 phon | Only for N < 1 sone

↓ | ↓
|

Loudness N: | Loudness level LN:

sone phon

reset
|

Bottom of Form

For loudness level LN < 40 phons: loudness N in sones = (LN in phons / 40)2.86 −
0.005
For loudness N < 1 sone: loudness level LN in phons = 40 × (N in sones +
0.0005)0,35
According to Stanley Smith Stevens' definition, 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons,
which is defined as the loudness level of a pure 1 kHz tone at LN = 40 dBSPL,
or dBA, but only (!) for a sine wave of 1 kHz and not for broadband noise.
There is no "dBA" curve given as threshold of human hearing.

Relation between loudness N in sones

and loudness level LN in phons
Dynamic
phons sones
range

120 256

110 128

fff 100 64

ff 90 32

f 80 16

--- 70 8

p 60 4

pp 50 2

ppp 40 1

32 1/2

25 1/4

19 1/8

14 1/16

11 1/32

9 1/64
Loudness N (sone) and loudness level LN (phon), as shown
here, is easily converted into one another. But the
psychoacoustic perceived loudness level and the objectively
measured sound pressure level in dBSPL cannot be
converted to the weighted dBA level. There is no formula.

The typical question: "How to convert 0.5 sone to decibel

(dB)?" cannot be answered. Only a pure tone of 1 kHz
measured in phons is equivalent to a dB-SPL value.

The volume of a sound is a subjective perception. To "measure" loudness,

the volume of a 1,000 hertz reference tone is adjusted until it is perceived by
listeners to be equally as loud as the sound being "measured". The loudness
level, in phons, of the sound is then equal to the sound-pressure level, in
decibels. Readings of a pure 1 kHz tone should be identical, whether
weighted or not.
Between the loudness N in sone and the loudness level LN in phon we have
the following connection (ISO-recommendation ISO/R 131-1959):
Loudness N = 2(LN − 40)/10 or loudness level LN = 40 + 10 × lb N.
"lb" means logarithm base 2. 10 × lb N = 10 × log2(N)

The sone is a unit of perceived loudness after a proposal of Stanley Smith

Stevens (1906-1973) in 1936. In acoustics, loudness is a subjective measure
of the sound pressure. One sone is equivalent to 40 phons, which is defined
as the loudness of a 1 kHz tone at 40 dBSPL. The number of sones to
a phon was chosen so that a doubling of the number of sones sounds to
the human ear like a doubling of the loudness, which also corresponds to
increasing the sound pressure level by 10 dB, or increasing the sound
pressure by a factor 3.16 (= √10). At frequencies other than 1 kHz, the
measurement in sones must be calibrated according to the frequency
response of human hearing, which is of course a subjective process.
The study of apparent loudness is included in the topic of psycho acoustics.
Volume in acoustics is used as a synonym for loudness. It is a common term
for the amplitude or the level of sound.

To be fully precise, a measurement in sones must be qualified by the optional

suffix G, which means that the loudness value is calculated from frequency
groups, and by one of the two suffixes F (for free field) or D (for diffuse field).

Note - Comparing dB and dBA: There is no conversion formula for

measured dBA values to sound pressure level dBSPL or vice versa.
There is no correlation between sound pressure level SPL as
broadband measuring and dBA. To know the measuring distance
and the frequency content of the signals could also be important.

With the following table you can try to convert roughly, but be cautious using
these psychoacoustic values. The frequency composition of the signal
amplitude is always unknown. The distance of the measuring point is
important for the value of the measure.
From a dB-A measurement no accurate description of the expected volume
is possible.

The following chart is, however, for the dBA values no accurate
knowledge − it's more a guess. "Conversion" of "sone to dBA"

Conversion between sones and phons,

but more of a guess for dBA
sones phons dBA sones phons dBA
0.1 17.9 20.5 1.8 48.5 34.8

0.2 22.8 21.5 1.9 49.3 35.3

0.3 26.2 22.5 2.0 50.0 35.8

0.4 29.0 23.5 2.1 50.7 36.4

0.5 31.4 24.4 2.2 51.4 37.0

0.6 33.5 25.3 2.3 52.0 37.5

0.7 35.3 26.3 2.4 52.6 38.0

0.8 37.0 27.2 2.5 53.2 38.4

0.9 38.6 28.2 2.6 53.8 38.8

1.0 40.0 29.2 2.7 54.3 39.3

1.1 41.4 30.2 2.8 54.9 39.8

1.2 42.6 31.1 2.9 55.4 40.2

1.3 43.8 32.0 3.0 55.9 40.6

1.4 44.9 33.0 3.1 56.3 41.1

 1.5 45.9 33.5 3.2 56.8 41.5

1.6 46.9 33.9 3.3 57.2 42.0

1.7 47.7 34.4 3.4 57.7 42.5

Words to the wise: Always wonder what a manufacturer

is hiding when they use A-weighting. *)

*) http://www.google.com/search?
q=Always+wonder+what+a+manufacturer+Rane&filter=0

This frequency weighting with the A-curve is used for noise

measurements. It is close to the frequency response of the
human
hearing for levels below 30 dB only. But the filter is also used for
higher levels, and therefore gives lower test results than our ears
are feeling. The cut off low frequencies are not measured.

A formula with a cautious try to convert sones to decibels:

dBA = 33.22 × log (sones) + 28 with a possible accuracy of ± 2
dBA
or sones = 10^[(dBA − 28) / 33.22]
The phon is a unit of perceived loudness level, which is a subjective measure
of the strength (not intensity) of a sound. At a frequency of 1 kHz, 1 phon is
defined to be equal to 1 dB of sound pressure level above the nominal
threshold of hearing, the sound pressure level SPL of 20 µPa (micropascals) =
2×10−5 pascal (Pa). Our ears as sensors cannot convert sound intensities and
powers, they can only use the sound pressure changes between 20 Hz and
20,000 Hz. At other frequencies, the phon departs from the decibel, but is
related to it by a frequency weighting curve (equal-loudness contour) that
reflects the frequency response of human hearing. The standard curve for
human hearing is the A-weighted curve (the equal-loudness contour for a
40 dB stimulus at 1 kHz), but others are in use.
sone 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256

phon 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

The "unit" phon has been largely replaced by the dBA (A-weighted decibel),
though many old textbooks and instructors continue to use the phon.

Note: "Set the volume of the radio double as loud or half as loud." Who does
not know, how to do this, is a normal person. Psycho-acousticians are telling
 us, that it has to be 10 dB level difference. Try to cool your hot coffee to the
point "half as hot" - and think it over. Your own feeling may be much different
to other persons.

An increase from 6 dB to 10 dB is perceived by most listeners as "double"

the volume. These sensations are highly subjective, meaning that different
people will hear this in different ways, and "twice as loud" is a much harder
thing to guess than something.
The human perception of loudness is perceived differently from each subject.
In other words it is one’s own perception of sound and it is subjective of sound
pressure level SPL.

Sound Level Comparison Chart with

Factor
Table of sound level dependence and the change of the respective factor to subjective
volume (loudness), objective sound pressure (voltage), and sound intensity
(acoustic power)
How many decibels (dB) level change is double, half, or four times as
loud?
How many dB to appear twice as loud (twofold)? Here are all the different factors.
Factor means "how many times" or "how much" ... Doubling of loudness.

Level Volume Voltage Acoustic Power

change Loudness Sound pressure Sound Intensity

+40 dB 16 100 10000

+30 dB 8 31.6 1000

+20 dB 4 10 100

+10 dB 2.0 = double 3.16 = √10 10

+6 dB 1.52 fold 2.0 = double 4.0

+3 dB 1.23 fold 1.414 fold = √2 2.0 = double

- - - - ±0 dB - - - - - - - - 1.0 - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 - - - - - - - - - - - 1.0 - - - - -

−3 dB 0.816 fold 0.707 fold 0.5 = half

−6 dB 0.660 fold 0.5 = half 0.25

−10 dB 0.5 = half 0.316 0.01

−20 dB 0.25 0.100 0.01

 −30 dB 0.125 0.0316 0.001

−40 dB 0.0625 0.0100 0.0001

Log. quantity Psycho quantity Field quantity Energy quantity

dB change Loudness multipl. Amplitude multiplier Power multiplier

For a 10 dB increase of the sound level we require ten times more power from the
amplifier.
This increase of the sound level means for the sound pressure a lifting of the factor 3.16.
Loudness and volume are highly subjective. That belongs to the domain of
psychoacoustics.

Is 10 dB or 6 dB sound level change for a doubling or halving of the loudness (volume)

correct?
About the connection between sound level and loudness, there are various theories. Far spread
is still the
theory of psycho-acoustic pioneer Stanley Smith Stevens, indicating that the doubling or halving
the
sensation of loudness corresponds to a level difference of 10 dB. Recent research by Richard
M. Warren,
on the other hand leads to a level difference of 6 dB. *) This means that a double sound
pressure
corresponds to a double loudness. The psychologist John G. Neuhoff found out that for the
rising level our
hearing is more sensitive than for the declining level. For the same sound level difference the
change of
loudness from quiet to loud is stronger than from loud to quiet.
It is suggested that the sone scale of loudness reflects the influence of known experimental
biases and
hence does not represent a fundamental relation between stimulus and sensation.
*) Richard M. Warren, "Elimination of Biases in Loudness Judgments for Tones"

It follows that the determination of the volume (loudness) which is double as loud should
not
be dogmatically defined. More realistic is the claim:

A doubling of the sensed volume (loudness) is equivalent

to a level change approximately between 6 dB and 10 dB.
 How do you convert sound quantities to decibel values?
How many decibels is twice (double, half) or three times as loud?
How does the sound decrease with distance?

Weighting filter after DIN EN 61672-1 2003-10 (DIN-IEC 651) - weighted dB-A and
dB-C
A program to combine as much as ten (10) noise
sources
Conversion of sound pressure level to sound pressure and sound
intensity
[top of page]

back Search Engine home

Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear

What is the ear?

Click Image to Enlarge

The ear is the organ of hearing. The parts of the ear include:
• external or outer ear, consisting of:
○ pinna or auricle - the outside part of the ear.

○ external auditory canal or tube - the tube that connects the outer ear to the inside or middle
ear.
 • tympanic membrane - also called the eardrum. The tympanic membrane divides the external ear from
the middle ear.
• middle ear (tympanic cavity), consisting of:
○ ossicles - three small bones that are connected and transmit the sound waves to the inner ear.
The bones are called:

 malleus

 incus

 stapes

○ eustachian tube - a canal that links the middle ear with the throat area. The eustachian tube
helps to equalize the pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear. Having the same
pressure allows for the proper transfer of sound waves. The eustachian tube is lined with
mucous, just like the inside of the nose and throat.
• inner ear, consisting of:
○ cochlea (contains the nerves for hearing)

○ vestibule (contains receptors for balance)

○ semicircular canals (contain receptors for balance)

How do we hear?
Hearing starts with the outer ear. When a sound is made outside the outer ear, the sound waves, or vibrations, travel
down the external auditory canal and strike the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The eardrum vibrates. The vibrations
are then passed to three tiny bones in the middle ear called the ossicles. The ossicles amplify the sound and send
the sound waves to the inner ear and into the fluid-filled hearing organ (cochlea).
Once the sound waves reach the inner ear, they are converted into electrical impulses which the auditory nerve
sends to the brain. The brain then translates these electrical impulses as sound.

Anatomy and

See also ...

Handouts/Teaching sheets

Physiology of the
Ear

What is the ear?

The ear is the organ of hearing. The parts of the ear include:
• External or outer ear, consisting of:
○ Pinna or auricle - the outside part of the ear.
○ External auditory canal or tube - the tube
that connects the outer ear to the inside or
middle ear.
• Tympanic membrane - also called the eardrum. The
tympanic membrane divides the external ear from the
middle ear.
• Middle ear (tympanic cavity), consisting of:
○ Ossicles - three small bones that are
connected and transmit the sound waves to the
inner ear. The bones are called:
 Malleus.
 Incus.
 Stapes.
○ Eustachian tube - a canal that links the
middle ear with the throat area. The eustachian
tube helps to equalize the pressure between
the outer ear and the middle ear. Having the
same pressure allows for the proper transfer of
sound waves. The eustachian tube is lined with
mucous, just like the inside of the nose and
throat.
• Inner ear, consisting of:
○ Cochlea. (contains the nerves for hearing)
○ Vestibule. (contains receptors for balance)
○ Semicircular canals. (contain receptors for
balance)
 How do we hear?
Hearing starts with the outer ear. When a sound is made
outside the outer ear, the sound waves, or vibrations, travel
down the external auditory canal and strike the eardrum
(tympanic membrane). The eardrum vibrates. The vibrations
are then passed to three tiny bones in the middle ear called the
ossicles. The ossicles amplify the sound and send the sound
waves to the inner ear and into the fluid filled hearing organ
(cochlea).

Once the sound waves reach the inner ear, they are converted
into electrical impulses which the auditory nerve sends to the
brain. The brain then translates these electrical impulses as
sound.

THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE

EAR AND HEARING
Peter W.Alberti
Professor em. of Otolaryngology Visiting Professor University of Singapore
University of Toronto Department of Otolaryngology
Toronto 5 Lower Kent Ridge Rd
CANADA SINGAPORE 119074
palberti@attglobal.net

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Hearing is one of the major senses and like vision is important for distant warning and
communication. It can be used to alert, to communicate pleasure and fear. It is a conscious
appreciation of vibration perceived as sound. In order to do this, the appropriate signal must
reach the higher parts of the brain. The function of the ear is to convert physical vibration into
an encoded nervous impulse. It can be thought of as a biological microphone. Like a
microphone the ear is stimulated by vibration: in the microphone the vibration is transduced into
an electrical signal, in the ear into a nervous impulse which in turn is then processed by the
central auditory pathways of the brain. The mechanism to achieve this is complex. This chapter
will deal mainly with the ear, first its structure and then its function, for it is the ear that is mainly
at risk from hazardous sounds.
The ears are paired organs, one on each side of the head with the sense organ itself, which
is technically known as the cochlea, deeply buried within the temporal bones. Part of the ear is
concerned with conducting sound to the cochlea, the cochlea is concerned with transducing
vibration. The transduction is performed by delicate hair cells which, when stimulated, initiate
a nervous impulse. Because they are living, they are bathed in body fluid which provides them
with energy, nutrients and oxygen. Most sound is transmitted by a vibration of air. Vibration
is poorly transmitted at the interface between two media which differ greatly in characteristic
impedance (product of density of the medium and speed of sound within it, _c), as for example
air and water. The ear has evolved a complex mechanism to overcome this impedance
mis-match, known as the sound conducting mechanism. The sound conducting mechanism is
divided into two parts, an outer and the middle ear, an outer part which catches sound and the
middle ear which is an impedance matching device. Let us look at these parts in detail (see
Figure 2.1).
2.2. SOUND CONDUCTING MECHANISMS
2.2.1. The Outer Ear
The outer ear transmits sound to the tympanic membrane. The pinna, that part which protrudes
from the side of the skull, made of cartilage covered by skin, collects sound and channels it into
the ear canal. The pinna is angled so that it catches sounds that come from in front more than
those from behind and so is already helpful in localizing sound. Because of the relative size of
the head and the wavelength of audible sound, this effect only applies at higher frequencies. In
the middle frequencies the head itself casts a sound shadow and in the lower frequencies phase
of arrival of a sound between the ears helps localize a sound. The ear canal is about 4
centimetres long and consists of an outer and inner part. The outer portion is lined with hairy
skin containing sweat glands and oily sebaceous glands which together form ear wax. Hairs
grow in the outer part of the ear canal and they and the wax serve as a protective barrier and a
disinfectant. Very quickly however, the skin of the ear canal becomes thin and simple and is
attached firmly to the bone of the deeper ear canal, a hard cavity which absorbs little sound but
directs it to the drum head (eardrum or tympanic membrane) at its base. The outer layer of the
drumhead itself is formed of skin in continuity with that of the ear canal.
In life, skin sheds and is continuously renewing. Ear canal skin grows like a fingernail
fromthe depths to the exterior so that the skin is shed into the waxy secretions in the outer part

In life, skin sheds and is continuously renewing. Ear canal skin grows like a fingernail
fromthe depths to the exterior so that the skin is shed into the waxy secretions in the outer part
and falls out. This is the reason for not using cotton buds to clean the ear canal because very
frequently they merely push the shed skin and wax deep into the canal, impacting it and
obstructing hearing. The ear canal has a slight bend where the outer cartilaginous part joins the
bony thin skinned inner portion, so that the outer part runs somewhat backwards and the inner
part somewhat forwards. This bend is yet another part of the protective mechanism of the ear,
stopping foreign objects from reaching the tympanic membrane. However it means that to
inspect the tympanic membrane from the outside, one must pull the ear upwards and backwards.
The tympanic membrane separates the ear canal from the middle ear and is the first part of the
sound transducing mechanism. Shaped somewhat like a loudspeaker cone (which is an ideal
shape for transmitting sound between solids and air), it is a simple membrane covered by a very
thin layer of skin on the outside, a thin lining membrane of the respiratory epithelium tract on the
inner surface and with a stiffening fibrous middle layer. The whole membrane is less than a
1/10th of millimetre thick. It covers a round opening about 1 centimetre in diameter into the
middle ear cavity. Although the tympanic membrane is often called the ear drum, technically the
whole middle ear space is the ear drum and the tympanic membrane the drum skin.
2.2.2. The Middle Ear
The middle ear is an air filled space connected to the back of the nose by a long, thin tube called
the Eustachian tube. The middle ear space houses three little bones, the hammer, anvil and
stirrup (malleus, incus and stapes) which conduct sound from the tympanic membrane to the
inner ear. The outer wall of the middle ear is the tympanic membrane, the inner wall is the
cochlea. The upper limit of the middle ear forms the bone beneath the middle lobe of the brain
and the floor of the middle ear covers the beginning of the great vein that drains blood from the
head, the jugular bulb. At the front end of the middle ear lies the opening of the Eustachian tube
and at its posterior end is a passageway to a group of air cells within the temporal bone known
as the mastoid air cells. One can think of the middle ear space shaped rather like a frying pan on
its side with a handle pointing downwards and forwards (the Eustachian tube) but with a hole in
the back wall leading to a piece of spongy bone with many air cells, the mastoid air cells. The
middle ear is an extension of the respiratory air spaces of the nose and the sinuses and is lined
with respiratory membrane, thick near the Eustachian tube and thin as it passes into the mastoid.
It has the ability to secret mucus. The Eustachian tube is bony as it leaves the ear but as it nears
the back end of the nose, in the nasopharynx, consists of cartilage and muscle. Contracture of
muscle actively opens the tube and allows the air pressure in the middle ear and the nose to
equalize.
Sound is conducted from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear by three bones, the malleus,
incus and stapes. The malleus is shaped like a club; its handle is embedded in the tympanic
membrane, running from its centre upwards. The head of the club lies in a cavity of the middle
ear above the tympanic membrane (the attic) where it is suspended by a ligament from the bone
that forms the covering of the brain. Here the head articulates with the incus which is cone
shaped, with the base of the cone articulating with the head of the malleus, also in the attic. The
incus runs backwards from the malleus and has sticking down from it a very little thin projection
known as its long process which hangs freely in the middle ear. It has a right angle bend at its
tip which is attached to the stapes(stirrup), the third bone shaped with an arch and a foot plate.
The foot plate covers the oval window, an opening into the vestibule of the inner ear or cochlea,
with which it articulates by the stapedio-vestibular joint.
2.3. THE SOUND TRANSDUCING MECHANISM
2.3.1. The Inner Ear
2.3.1.1. Structure
The bony cochlea is so called because it is shaped like a snail shell It has two and a half turns
and
houses the organ of hearing known as the membranous labyrinth surrounded by fluid called the
perilymph. The cochlea has a volume of about 0.2 of a millilitre. In this space lie up to 30,000
hair cells which transduce vibration into nervous impulses and about 19,000 nerve fibres which
transmit the signals to and from the brain. It is easiest to think of the membranous labyrinth by
imagining the cochlea to be straightened out as a bony tube closed at the apex and open at the
base with the round and oval windows and a connection to the vestibular labyrinth (see Figure
2.2). It is in continuity with the vestibular labyrinth or organ of balance which in technical terms
acts as both a linear and angular accelerometer, thus enabling the brain to know the position of
the head in relationship to gravity and its surroundings. The organ of balance will not be dealt
with any further.
Vibration of the foot plate of the stapes vibrates the perilymph in the bony cochlea. This fluid
is essentially incompressible. Therefore, there has to be a counter opening in the labyrinth to
allow fluid space to expand when the stapes foot plate moves inwards and in turn to move
inwards when the stapes foot plate moves outwards. The counter opening is provided by the
round window membrane which lies beneath the oval window in the inner wall of the middle ear.
It is covered by a fibrous membrane which moves synchronously but in opposite phase with the
foot plate in the oval window.
The membranous labyrinth is separated into three sections, by a membranous sac of triangular
cross section which run the length of the cochlea. The two outer sections are the scala vestibuli
which is connected to the oval window, and the scala tympani which is connected to the round
window. The sections are filled with perilymph; they connect at the apex by a small opening
known as the helicotrema which serves as a pressure equalizing mechanism at frequencies well
Vibration of the foot plate of the stapes vibrates the perilymph in the bony cochlea. This fluid
is essentially incompressible. Therefore, there has to be a counter opening in the labyrinth to
allow fluid space to expand when the stapes foot plate moves inwards and in turn to move
inwards when the stapes foot plate moves outwards. The counter opening is provided by the
round window membrane which lies beneath the oval window in the inner wall of the middle ear.
It is covered by a fibrous membrane which moves synchronously but in opposite phase with the
foot plate in the oval window.
The membranous labyrinth is separated into three sections, by a membranous sac of triangular
cross section which run the length of the cochlea. The two outer sections are the scala vestibuli
which is connected to the oval window, and the scala tympani which is connected to the round
window. The sections are filled with perilymph; they connect at the apex by a small opening
known as the helicotrema which serves as a pressure equalizing mechanism at frequencies well
below the audible range. They also connect at the vestibular end with the fluid surrounding the
brain, through a small channel known as the perilymphatic aqueduct. The membranous labyrinth,
also known as the cochlear duct, is filled with different fluid called endolymph. On one side it
is separated from the scala vestibuli by Reissner's membrane, and on the opposite side from the
scala tympani by the basilar membrane (see Figure 2.3). The basilar membrane is composed of
a great number of taut, radially parallel fibres sealed between a gelatinous material of very weak
shear strength. These fibres are resonant at progressively lower frequencies as one progresses
from the basal to the apical ends of the cochlea. Four rows of hair cells lie on top of the basilar
membrane, together with supporting cells. A single inner row is medial, closest to the central
core of the cochlea. It has an abundant nerve supply carrying messages to the brain. The three
outer rows, which receive mainly an afferent nerve supply, are separated from the inner row by
tunnel cells forming a stiff structure of triangular cross section known as the tunnel of Corti (see
Figure 2.3). Any natural displacement of the cochlear partition results in a rocking motion of the
tunnel of Corti and consequently a lateral displacement of the inner hair cells.
The hair cells derive their name from the presence at their free ends of stereocilia which are
tiny little stiff hair like structures of the order of a few micrometers long (Figure 2.4). The
stereocilia of the hair cells are arranged in rows in a very narrow cleft called the subtectorial
space formed by the presence above the hair cells of the radially stiff tectorial membrane. The
cilia of the outer hair cells are firmly attached to the tectorial membrane while the cilia of the
inner hair cells are either free standing are loosely attached to the tectorial membrane.
In summary then, anatomically, the ear consists of a sound conducting mechanism and a
sound transducing mechanism. The sound conducting mechanism has two parts, the outer ear
consisting of the pinna and ear canal, and the middle ear consisting of the tympanic membrane.
The middle ear air space is connected to the nose by the Eustachian tube and to the mastoid air
cells housing the ossicular chain, the malleus, stapes and incus. The inner ear, or cochlea,
transduces vibration transmitted to the perilymph via the ossicular chain into a nervous impulse
which is then taken to the brain where it is perceived as sound.
2.3.1.2. Function
Transduction of vibration in the audible range to a nervous impulse is performed by the inner
hair
cells; when the basilar membrane is rocked by a travelling wave, the cilia of the inner hair cells
are bent in relation to the body of the cell, ion passages are opened or closed in the body of the
cell and the afferent nerve ending which is attached to the hair cell base is stimulated.
As mentioned earlier, the basilar membrane responds resonantly to highest frequencies at the
basal end nearest the oval window and to progressively lower frequencies as one progresses
toward the apical end. At the apical end the basilar membrane responds resonantly to the lowest
frequencies of sound. A disturbance introduced at the oval window is transmitted as a wave
which travels along the basilar membrane with the remarkable property that as each frequency
component of the travelling wave reaches its place of resonance it stops and travels no further.
The cochlea is thus a remarkably efficient frequency analyser.
The cochlea has an abundant nerve supply both of fibres taking impulses from the cochlea
to the brain (afferent pathways) and fibres bringing impulses from the brain to the cochlea
(efferent fibres). When stimulated the inner hair cells trigger afferent nervous impulses to the
brain. Like virtually all neural-mechanisms there is an active feedback loop. The copious nerve
supply to the outer hair cells is overwhelmingly efferent, although the full function of the
efferent
pathways is not yet fully understood. It has been suggested that the purpose of the active
feedback system which has been described is to maintain the lateral displacement of the
stereocilia in the sub tectorial space within some acceptable limits.
2.4. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF HEARING (How does this all work?)
2.4.1. The Outer and Middle Ears
Let us deal first with the sound conducting mechanism. The range of audible sound is
approximately 10 octaves from somewhere between 16 and 32 Hz (cycles per second) to
somewhere between 16,000 and 20,000 Hz. The sensitivity is low at the extremes but becomes
much more sensitive above 128 Hz up to about 4,000 Hz when it again becomes rapidly less
sensitive. The range of maximum sensitivity and audibility diminishes with age.
The head itself acts as a natural barrier between the two ears and thus a sound source at one
side will produce a more intense stimulus of the ear nearest to it and incidentally the sound will
also arrive there sooner, thus helping to provide a mechanism for sound localization based on
intensity and time of arrival differences of sound. High frequency hearing is more necessary than
low frequency hearing for this purpose and this explains why sound localization becomes
difficult
with a high frequency hearing loss. The head in humans is large in comparison to the size of the
pinna so the role of the pinna is less than in some other mammals. Nonetheless, its crinkled
shape catches higher frequency sounds and funnels them into the ear canal. It also blocks some
higher frequency sound from behind, helping to identify whether the sound comes from the front
or the back.
The ear canal acts as a resonating tube and actuallyamplifies sounds at between 3000 and
4,000 Hz adding to the sensitivity (and susceptibility to damage) of the ear at these frequencies.
The ear is very sensitive and responds to sounds of very low intensity, to vibrations which
are hardly greater than the natural random movement of molecules of air. To do this the air
pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane must be equal. Anyone who has their ear
blocked even by the small pressure change of a rapid elevator ride knows the truth of this. The
Eustachian tube provides the means of the pressure equalization. It does this by opening for short
periods, with every 3rd or 4th swallow; if it were open all the time one would hear one's own
every breath.
Because the lining membrane of the middle ear is a respiratory membrane, it can absorb some
gases, so if the Eustachian tube is closed for too long it absorbs carbon dioxide and oxygen from
the air in the middle ear, thus producing a negative pressure. This may produce pain (as
experienced if the Eustachian tube is not unblocked during descent of an aeroplane). The middle
ear cavity itself is quite small and the mastoid air cells act as an air reservoir cushioning the
effects of pressure change. If negative pressure lasts too long, fluid is secreted by the middle ear,
producing a conductive hearing loss.
The outer and middle ears serve to amplify the sound signal. The pinna presents a fairly large
surface area and funnels sound to the smaller tympanic membrane; in turn the surface of the
tympanic membrane is itself much larger than that of the stapes foot plate, so there is a hydraulic
amplification: a small movement over a large area is converted to a larger movement of a smaller
area. In addition, the ossicular chain is a system of levers which serve to amplify the sound. The
outer and middle ears amplify sound on its passage from the exterior to the inner ear by about
30 dB.
2.4.2. The Inner Ear
The function of the inner ear is to transduce vibration into nervous impulses. While doing so,
it also produces a frequency (or pitch) and intensity (or loudness) analysis of the sound. Nerve
fibres can fire at a rate of just under 200 times per second. Sound level information is conveyed
to the brain by the rate of nerve firing, for example, by a group of nerves each firing at a rate at
less than 200 pulses per second. They can also fire in locked phase with acoustic signals up to
about 5 kHz. At frequencies below 5 kHz, groups of nerve fibres firing in lock phase with an
acoustic signal convey information about frequency to the brain. Above about 5 kHz frequency
information conveyed to the brain is based upon the place of stimulation on the basilar
membrane. As an aside, music translated up into the frequency range above 5 kHz does not
sound musical.
As mentioned above each place along the length of the basilar membrane has its own
characteristic frequency, with the highest frequency response at the basal end and lowest
frequency response at the apical end. Also any sound introduced at the oval window by motion
of the stapes is transmitted along the basilar membrane as a travelling wave until all of its
frequency components reach their respective places of resonance where they stop and travel no
further. For example, a 1 kHz tone induces resonance at about the middle of the basilar
membrane. Any frequency components lower than 1 kHz must travel more than half the length
of the basilar membrane, whereas high frequency components, greater than 1 kHz must travel
less
than half the length of the basilar membrane. Evidently the brain must suppress high frequency
information in favour of low frequency information as the travelling wave on the basilar
membrane passes through places of high frequency resonant response. An explanation is thus
provided for the observation that low frequency sounds, for example traffic noise, are very
effective in masking high frequency sounds, for example the fricatives of speech, making
telephones near busy streets difficult to use.
How does the brain cope with intensity? The physiological range of intensity of the normal
ear is huge. As a matter of interest it is the same as that of the eye when the responses of the
cones and rods are considered together; thus the visual analogue is appropriate. It is as wide as
seeing a candle flicker on a dark night at a hundred meters to looking indirectly into a bright sun.
The range is so great that only the logarithmic response characteristic of variable rate processes
and thus favoured by anatomical systems, is capable of encompassing it. The normal range of
human hearing is from 0 to 100 dB(A), before sound becomes uncomfortably loud.
Mounted on the basilar membrane close to the end nearest the central core of the cochlea are
a single row of inner hair cells followed by three rows of outer hair cells which are separated
from the single row of inner hair cells by a stiff structure of triangular cross section known as the
tunnel of Corti. Any natural displacement of the cochlear partition results in a rocking motion
of the tunnel of Corti and consequently a lateral displacement of the inner hair cells.
The ear has evolved a very intriguing mechanism to cope with the large range in sound
intensity encountered in the environment. Only the inner hair cells initiate nervous impulses
which are heard as sound. They are not particularly sensitive but they are rugged and they are
placed at the inner edge of the basilar membrane which is relatively immobile . The point where
the basilar membrane vibrates most is about its middle so that the inner hair cells are spared the
most violent vibration of very intense sound. The question then arises, how do the inner hair
cells respond to slight or moderate amounts of stimulation? Here the outer hair cells play a major
role. When they are stimulated by the travelling wave they respond actively and physically
contract. They have muscle proteins in their wall and literally shorten. Because they are attached
both to the Reissner's membrane and the basilar membrane, this produces an additional shear
movement of the membranous labyrinth, which amplifies the travelling wave at the point of
maximal stimulation. This amplified movement is transmitted to the inner hair cells which then
respond. If the amount of movement of the basilar membrane is slight, the amount of outer hair
cell contracture adds significantly to the basilar cell movement; if the amount of movement is
large the contracture adds nothing to the already great displacement of the membranous
labyrinth.
If the outer hair cells are damaged they no longer contract in response to slight sounds and
the inner hair cells are not stimulated. This produces a hearing loss for low intensity sound. If
the sound is more intense, the inner hair cells are stimulated directly and they respond normally
so that the ability to hear louder sounds remain unimpaired. This is a common phenomenon
known as loudness recruitment. The inner hair cells are much "tougher" than outer hair cells and
much less likely to be damaged by ageing, noise or most ototoxic drugs, so ageing, noise and
ototoxic drugs usually only produce hearing loss but not deafness. It was noted earlier that the
ear is most sensitive to sounds between approximately 3000 and 4000 Hz, in part because of the
amplifying mechanism of the ear canal. Thus, the most intense stimulus is produced at these
frequencies and the outer hair cells which respond to these frequencies are most at risk from
damage. Prolonged exposure to loud sounds damages these hair cells and thus explains the
hearing loss from noise which occurs first at 3 to 4 kHz.
2.5. CENTRAL AUDITORY PROCESSING
The nervous impulses are carried along the 8th (statico-acoustic nerve) from the cochlea to the
brain stem. Here the nerve fibres reach nuclei where they relay with other nerve fibres. The
fibres from each auditory nerve split, some passing to one side of the brain, others remaining on
the same side. Thus, as auditory stimuli pass up each side of the brain from both ears, unilateral
hearing loss cannot be caused by a brain lesion. The fibres pass up the hind brain to the mid brain
and the cerebral cortex. There are many central functions, some of which will be examined but
most of which lie outside the scope of this chapter.
2.5.1. The Ability to Block Out Unwanted Sounds.
In a crowded noisy room a young person with normal hearing can tune in and out conversations
at will. This is known technically as the cocktail party effect. The brain quite automatically
adjusts time of arrival and intensity differences of sound from different signal sources so that the
one which is wanted passes to the cortex and all others which do not meet these criteria are
suppressed by feedback loops. This requires both good high frequency peripheral hearing, two
ears and an additional central mechanism. Even in the presence of normal bilateral peripheral
hearing, the elderly lose part of the central mechanism and find it difficult to listen in crowded
rooms. This is compounded if there is some hearing loss.
2.5.2. Spatial Localization.
A normal human can localize quite accurately the source of the sound. One knows from what
direction the sound is coming; one knows where to turn one's head to look for a speaker; as one
knows where to look for an aeroplane or a bird. There are specific neurones which deal with this
in the mid brain.
2.5.3. On and Off Sounds
Hearing has an alerting function especially to warning signals of all kinds. There are brain cells
which respond only to the onset of a sound and others which respond only to the switching off
of the sound, i.e. a change. Think only of being in an air conditioned room when the air
conditioner turns on, one notices it. After a while it blends into the background and is ignored.
When it switches off, again one notices it for a short time and then too the absence of sound
blends into the background. These cells allow the ear to respond to acoustic change - one adjusts
to constant sound - change is immediately noticeable. This is true too with machinery and a
trained ear notices change.
2.5.4. Interaction of Sound Stimuli with Other Parts of the Brain
Sound stimuli produce interaction with other parts of the brain to provide appropriate responses.
Thus, a warning signal will produce an immediate general reaction leading to escape, a
quickening of the heart rate, a tensing of the muscle and a readiness to move. A baby's cry will
alert the mother in a way it does not alert others. The sound of martial music may lead to bracing
movement of those to whom it is being played and induce fear and cowering in the hearts and
minds of those at whom it is being played. Certain sounds can evoke anger, others pleasure. The
point is that the sensations produced by hearing are blended into the body mechanism in the
central nervous system to make them part of the whole milieu in which we live.