r:.;~:~2=;·-~r~ .::.•· · , .!.:·t:::.

·~r·
··>:·:.C:.H.A"P T E<·R · .:
;
:~~·J'' ·<;': .. ::~~~~~$~.
~ " ,.,.-~.'. . ~
'.
'
>I ~(:N:·{ :"~~j:";
._,. ' ' . \
8
TOOTHED
GEARING
OUTLINE

Introduction Comparison of Involute and

Classification of Toothed Gears Cycloidal Tooth Profile

Terms Used in Gears length of Path of Contact

Law of Gearing Length of Arc of ContaCt

Forms of Teeth Spiral Gears

Interference Expression for Centre Distance

Minimum Number of Teeth on Pinion to Efficiency of Spiral Gears

Avoid Interference Internal Gearing
Minimum Number of Teeth on Pinion for
Involute Rack

8 ..1 INTRODUCTION

In the olden days power was transmitted from one shaft to another by mounting wheels of rotigh
surfaces on them. This device was capable for small power transmission. But for big power trans-
mission there was slip between the wheels. Later on wheels were provided with teeth on their surfaces
which gave definite velocity ratio and positive drive. The distance between the driving and driven
shafts is relatively"small as compared to the belts, ropes and chain drives. The force required to
hold the gears together is not much, so there is less wear and tear of bearings. The gears are very big
in size in rnins and very small in watches. They are used for increasing or decreasing the velocity ratios.

Advantages of Gear Drive

1. It requires less space as compared to belt or rope drive.
2. Since there is no slip, so exact velocity is obtained.
3. It is capable of transmitting higher power in comparison of belt or chain drive.
4. It is m'o re efficient and effective means of power transmission.
However, there is more manufacturing cost and the cutting of teeth requires extra care.
iitJ
3 76 Theory of Machines

8.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TOOTHED GEARS

The gears are classified on the basis how they are being used. Gears which transmit power or
motion between parallel axes are spur, helical and herringbone. The gears used for joining,
intersecting and coplanar shafts are called bevel gears. The worm and worm.gears are used for
joining the shafts in different planes. The angle between the shafts is generally of ninety degree.
The gears are classified on the basis of the velocity drive also.

Gears are Classified on the Basis of Position ofAxes of Shafts

· SpurGear
In spur gears, the teeth are parallel to the axes of the wheel. The gearing so formed is known
as spur gearing.· This gearing may be internal or external. External gears rotate in opposite
directions while internal gears rotate in the same direction. Refer Fig. 8.1. .The larger wheel in
internal gearing is called annular and the smaller one is pinion.

r----i--,-- Pitch ..
circles

(a) Exten1al spur gearing

(b) Internal spur gearing .

Fig. 8.1 . (a) External Spur gearing. (b) Internal Spur gearing.

Rack and Pinion

When a gear meshes with a gear in straight line, the combination so formed is called rack
and pinion arrangement. With the help of this arrangement rotary motion can be converted into
 CHAPTER 8 : Toothed Gearing 377

linear motion and vice versa. Rack is supposed to have infinite radius. It is used in lathe machine
where rack give~ motion to saddle. Refer Fig. 8.2.

. Rack
. gear

Fig. 8.2

Helical Gear
In helical gear the teeth are inclined at certain angle from the axis of the wheel. This angle is
known as helix. Since the teeth are twisted, so there are more teeth in contact at a time. Thus the
load distributed is less per tooth as compared to spur gear tooth. Because of this the helical gear is
used for higher loads. The teeth have line contact which is gradual. So the operation is quiet.
Helical gear is of two types single and double. In single helical gear, there is axial thrust between
the teeth which is not desired, but in case of double helical gear the effect of axial thrust is
neutralised. Double helical gears are known as herringbone gears also. In the mating gears if one
gear is right handed the other will be left handed. The mating gears have the same helix angle.
Helical gears are widely used in automobiles, turbines, etc. Refer Fig. 8.3.

Left handed
gear

a=helix
angle

Right
handed gear

Single helical gears Double helical gears

Fig. 8.3

Bevel Gear
Bevel gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another where their axes intersect.
The shafts may be inclined at any angle from 0 to 180°. In case when this angle is 90° and giving
3 78 Theory of Machines

equal speed, the gearing is called mitre. They are used in differential of automobiles. Refer to
Fig. 8.4. Here e is the shaft angle. They are cut on conical surfaces. '

/
/
/

Fig. 8.4 Bevel gear.

,Worm and Worm Gear

Worm is a cylindrical body having one or more threads cut on it in the form of helix. Worm
with one thread is called, single threaded worm. Worm having two, three or four threads cut <;mit
is called double, triple or quadruple threaded worm and so on. Worm and worm gear drive is used
for high speed ratios upto 500:1. The system is used to transfer motion frqm input shaft to the
follower shaft. The worm may be conical in shape. The diameter of worm is small as compared to
worm gear. In this drive there is surface contact. The worm rotates with high spee,d and there is
sliding between the worm threads and the wheel teeth, so large amount of heat is generated in the
direction tangential to the thread surfac~The spiral angle of worm thread for maximum efficiency
is slightly more than 45°. Refer Fig. 8.5.

Fig. 8.5 Worm and worm gear.

0
 CHAPTER 8 : Toothed Gearing 3 79

Gears are Classified on the basis of velocity of the drive also such as :

Low speed gearing -up to 3 m/s

Medium speed gearing - 3 to 15 m/s
High speed gearing - more than 15 m/s.

Gear Material
The choice of material of gears depends upon the type of service, peripheral speed, method
of manufacture, degree of accuracy, etc. The various materials used for gears include a large
variety of steels, cast irons, bronzes and non-metallic materials such as wood laminate, texolite,
pressed wood, etc. Steels are strong and highly resistant. They cim be easily machined to the
required degree of accuracy and capable of transmitting heavy loads. They can be heat treated to
give required hardness to the gear. Various methods of heat treatment are available in literature.
Cast iron is widely used because of its good wearing properties and excellent machinability.It can
be cast in any desired form easily. Bronzes are used for worm gear drive because they can
withstand heavy sliding loads~ Like cast iron they can also be cast in any shape easily. Gears of
non-metallic materials are weak and operation may be quiet.

8.3 TERMS USED IN GEARS

Some important terms relating to gears are explained here. They can best be defined with the help
of Fig. 8.6.

Pitch surface
element

\ ,.,. .......................
Clearance---"\ ~\.._ Dedendum
circle
Tooth
thickness Bottom
land

Fig. 8.6

..- Pitch Circle It is the imaginary circle which by its pure rolling action produces the
same effect as the actu.al gear under reference.
Pitch SUJface It is the surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder at pitch circle which the
toothed gear may be considered to replace.
Pitch point It is the point of contact of the two pitch circles of the mating gears.
Pitch circle diameter It is the diameter of pitch circle.
380 Theory of Machines

Addendum circle It is the circle passing through the top of teeth and concentric with the
pitch circle.
Dedendum circle It is known as root circle also. It is drawn through the bottom of the teeth .
. Addendum It is the radial distance of tooth from pitch circle to addendum circle.
Dedendum It is the radial distance of tooth from dedendum cir~le to pitch circle.
Clearance It is the difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum
of mating gear.
Working depth It is the radial distance of tooth from addendum circle to clearance circle.
Total depth It is the sum of addendum and dedendum or the radial distance from
dedendum circle to addendum circle.
Base Circle A circle of radius r cos <j> is called base circle where r =radius of pitch circle
and <j> = pressure angle.
Width of tooth space It is the length of arc between two adjacent teeth at pitch circle.
Tooth thickness It is the thickness of tooth at pitch circle.
Backlash It is the difference between the thickness of a tooth and width of tooth
space at pitch circle.
Top land It is the top surface of tooth.
Bottom land It is the bottom surface of tooth.
Face width It is the length of top land.
Pinion and gear When two gears are meshing the smaller is called the pinion and the
bigger one is called the gear.
Circular pitch It is the distance of a point on one tooth to the corresponding point on the
adjacent tooth along pitch circle. It is represented mathematically as

Pc = nd (circular pitch)
T
where d =pitch diameter, T =number of teeth on gear
Diametral pitch It is defined as the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter. It is
expressed mathematically as
d
p
=Id
where T =number of teeth, d =pitch circle diameter
·Module It is the ratio of pitch circle diameter to the number of teeth. It is expressed as

m= -d
T
where m =module, d =pitch circle diameter, T =number of teeth
m is expressed in millimeter; . It is the reciprocal of diametral pitch.
VelocihJ ratio It is the ratio of speed of driving gear to the speed of driven gear.
 CHAPTER 8 : Toothed Gearing 381

Face of tooth It is the portion of tooth which is above the pitch surface.
Flank of tooth It is the portion of the tooth which is below the pitch surface.
Path of contact It is the curve traced out by the point of contact of two teeth from the
beginning to the end of engagement.
.- Arc of contact It is the path traced by a point on pitch circle from the beginning to the
end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. The arc of contact is divided
into two parts. The part from the beginning of engagement until the two
teeth are in contact at the pitch point is called the arc of approach and that
from the pitch point to the end of engagement is called as the arc of recess.
Pressure angle This is the angle between the normal at the point of contact of two teeth in
mesh and common tangent at pitch point. This angle is represented by <j>.
The values of cj> are usually 141° and 20°.

Let q and 0 2 be the fixed centres of the two base circles as shown in Fig. 8.7(a). Let the
corresponding involutes AB and A' B' be in contact at point L Lines ML and NL are normal to the
involutes at point L and are tangents to base circles. It will be proved later on that the normal of an
involute at a given point is the tangent drawn from that point to the base circle, therefore the
common normal MN at point L is also the common tangent to the two base circles. It is also shown
that the common normal MN intersects the line joining q and 0 2 at point Pwhich is called as pitch
point. Let F be the maximum tooth force as shown in Fig. 8.7(b). It can be resolved into tangential
and radial. components. ~ese components act along and at right angles respectively to the
·• . common tangent PT to the pitch circles.
Radial force, FR = F sin cj>;
Tangential force, Fy = F cos cj>, where cj> = pressure angle

\Common normal at point of

\_ contact 'L' or Pressure line
f

T T
Pitch circle
(wheel2)

(n) (b)

Fig; 8.7
382 Theory of Machines

The tangential force provides the driving torque and the radial force causes bending of the
shaft. If r is the pitch circle radius of the gear the torque exerted on the gear shaft is given by Fr. r.
The radial component is proportional to sin ~and causes thrust and the tangential component is
proportional to cos~ and used for determining the power. So the value of ~should be as small as
possible. '

8.4 LAW OF GEARING

Fig. 8.8 shows a pair of gear teeth in contact at

point P. Points M and 0 are the centres of
rotation of the curved bodies. N is the point of
intersection of common normal to MO. SoN is
the pitch point. Let VA, wA, V 8 and w8 be the
linear and angular velocities of curved bodies
A and B respectively. Since the two bodies A
and B remain in contact, so the components of contact ,

their relative linear velocities along the '

common normal must be equal. Fig. 8.8
Component of VA along common normal =component of V 8 along common normal
V8 cos~=VA cosa ... (i)
(j)B. OP cos~= (j) A. MP. cos a:
OY M)('
w 8 .0P. - = wA.MP.--
OP MP
WB. OY = (j) A . MX
wB MX
... (ii)
wA OY
Triangles MNX and OYN are similar, so
MX
-- = -- = -
MN NX
... (iii)
OY ·ON NY
Comparing equations (ii) and (iii), we get

~=MN=NX ... (iv)

wA ON NY
The angular velocity ratio is inversely proportional to the ratio of distance of point N from
centres M and 0. ,;
For correct gearing a constant angular velocity ratio for all positions of wheel is required. It
will be possible only when point N becomes the pitch point. This is the law of gearing which states
that the common normal at the point of contact mlist pass through the pitch point~·
The relative velocity along the common tangent is called the velocity of sliding ~ of teeth.
 CHAPTER 8 : Toothed Gearing 383

Resolving VA along common tangent, we get

VA sina=coA.MP. PX
MP
=co A . PX =co A (PN + NX) (from the geometry of Fig. 8.8) ...(v)

Similarly, the component of VB along the common tangent is

VB sin~= roB. OP. py_ =coB. PY = roB(NY- PN) ... (vi)

OP
So the relative velocity V5 along the common tangent
V5 = VA sin a -VB sin~ ( ·.· Gear B is in clockwise sense)
=co A (PN + NX)-coB(NY- PN) [from (v) and (vi)]
... (vii)
so VB is with -ve'sign
From equation (iv), we know that

co A NY
~

or co B. NY = co A. NX ... (viii)
Making use of equation (viii) into equation (vii), we get
V5 =(co A +roB) PN

where PN = distance of point of contact from the point of intersection of common

nnrmal and the line joining the centres of rotation.
Thus velocity of sliding is proportional to the distance of pitch point from the point of
contact.

8.5 FORMS OF TEETH

'
In two meshing teeth, the shape of one of the teeth may be chosen arbitrarily and the other tooth is
designed in such a way that they both follow the law of correct gearing. Such teeth are called
conjugate teeth. Gears having conjugate teeth can be successfully used for transmitting motion but
they are difficult to m~ufacture as special devices are used for this purpose which are costly. So
conjugate teeth are not much common in use.
The common forms of teeth used widely are :
(i) Cycloidal tooth profile, and (ii) Involute tooth profile.

8.5.1 Cycloidal Tooth Profile

A cycloid is the locus of a point on the circ~mference of a circle which rolls without slipping
on a fixed straight lmc
384 Theory of Machines

Refer Fig. 8.9, where fixed line or pitch line of a rack is shown. Two circles 1 and 2 are
touching at point P. Circle 2 is moving to the right without slipping on fixed straight line which is
the pitch line. The point P traces a curve PA on the
circle as it rolls. PA represents the face of the cycloidal
Pitch
line Face tooth profile. When circle 1 rolls to the left without
slipping on fixed straight line P traces a curve PB . The
I '
I curve PB forms the flank of the tooth profile. Curve
'
BPA represents the total side of the tooth. Similarly,
CP' D represents the other side of the tooth.
Fig. 8.9

Epicycloid When a circle rolls outside the circumference of a fixed circle without
slipping, a point on the circle forms a curve which is known as"epicycloid.
Hypocycloid When a circle rolls inside the circumference of a fixed circle without slipping,
a point on the circle forms a curve which is called as hypocycloid. Refer Fig. 8.10.
Curves ABL and A' B' N are the epicycloid and hypocycloid reS)9.ectively.

Fixed
circle
A'

Fig. 8.10

N OTE Refer Fig. 8.10, when the rolling circle touches the fixed circle at point P, the point A
which is the generating point, reaches at point Band the line BP is found normal to
the epicycloid ABL. Similarly, B' P' is the normal to the hypocycloid A 'B' N.
Arc AB = Arc AP

The construction of epicycloid and hypocyloid curves is shown in Fig. 8.11. Two rolling
circles 1 and 2 touch each other at point P. Circles 1 and 2 roll outside and inside of a fixed circle
respectively. The point P on circle 1 traces a curve PA which is known as epicycloid. Similarly,
when circle 2 rolls to the left inside the fixed circle, the point P traces a curve PB known as
hypocycloid. The curves PA and PB form the face and flank respectively of the cycloidal tooth. In a
similar way, the other side of the tooth A' P' T5 can be constructed.

Fixed
circle

Fig. 8.11
 .·.
CHAPTER 8 ; Toothed Gearing 385

8.5.2 Involute Tooth Profile

Refer Fig. 8,12(a). A string AB (Arc) is wrapped on the circumference of a cir~le. When the
string is unwound from the circle, it takes the straight form AB' which is perpendicular to OA. The
point B finally reaches to point B' passing through points~, B2 , .. . . ...... B5 . The curve BB' is known
as the involute.

B'

This line is normal to

involute and tangent
to base circle

jO
(a) (b)

-Involute Teeth Cycloidal Teeth

Fig. 8.12

So involute is the locus of a point located at the end of a thread when it is unwound from a
circle. In case of toothed wheels, the circle is known as base circle. The base circle is divided into
equal number of parts (say six) A-5, 5-4, 4-3, etc. Tangents at points 5, 4, 3 etc. are drawn and
lengths of tangents at these points are set off equal to arcs B-5, B-4, B-3, etc. to form the involute.
Thus curve B~ B2 ..... B' is the involute. The tangent B5 5 at any point 5 on the base circle is normal to
the involute at B5 . Thus it is concluded that normal at any point of an involute is a tangent to the
base circle from that point.
Thus the shape of involute will be as shown in Fig. 8.12(b) where A is the starting point and
AE is the initial short profile (length) of the tooth ~hich when extended forms one side of the tooth
i.e., AM. The other side of the tooth will be generated in the same way starting from point Q in the
reverse direction. Arc AQD =DB.

- - -·: