Stephanie Gaertner

November 14, 2018

Language Acquisition

After much reading about L2 learning variables; both internal and external, I have come

to the conclusion that teaching and learning a foreign language is very complex. It is clear,

however, that some factors are more influential than others, and that I, as a teacher, can have an

impact on each of them. In this paper, I will discuss seven of these.

In my mind, the most important variable in learning another language is a person’s

attitude. According to the American Psychological Association, attitude is defined as a

psychological construct. It is a “learned global evaluation of a person, place or issue, which

influences thoughts and actions” (Perloff, 2016, p. 3). A student's attitude is a crucial factor in

foreign language learning. Gardner (1968) dives more into this concept in his article on how

attitudes and motivation influence second language acquisition. According to Gardner’s

observations from a number of studies, a student’s attitude is heavily influenced from their

parents and teachers. He provides a specific example of an English speaking parent actively

encouraging their child to learn French by stressing the importance and ensuring that they do

their work. This parent may hold a positive or negative attitude towards the French. If the child

was to perform poorly in their French studies they can receive a negative reaction from their

parents who are encouraging them to succeed. Thus we see that the attitude within the home,

influences a child’s attitude towards the target language. Smith (n.d) explains that attitude is a

mixture of different influences, such include family, peer groups, past experiences, anxiety,

education, occupation and more. No student is born liking or disliking learning a foreign
language. This is important to note in language acquisition because situations are what develops

our attitudes. Therefore, developing a positive attitude to language learning can be learned.

Smith also discusses components of attitude in learning a language. The first being;

Cognitive. Second language learners can develop concepts and feelings of what learning a

foreign language entails. This corresponds with the definition that attitude is a learned evaluation

of a person in various aspects which influence their thinking and action. The second component

is, evaluative. This is when a student evaluates their language from either a negative or positive

experience in their learning process (Smith, n.d.). Evaluative learning influences attitude because

it is correlated to the type of association one has with the target language. To emphasize this

point, Gardner also explained that “motive appears to derive from the attitudinal characteristics

in the home and must be fostered by an accepting attitude, by the parents, concerning the

language group” (Gardner, 1968, pg.149). Other factors of attitude are boredom, fear, anxiety,

failure to see relevance and lack of interest. One approach teachers can make is helping students

have creative thinking in the initial stages of the foreign language learning process. This can be

done by giving good material that is not overbearingly difficult or too easy. Students should have

a positive experience in the beginning, to influence their perception and attitude in a positive

way.

The next important variable in second language acquisition is Motivation. A study was

conducted in the San Francisco State University, where they observed 138 second level French

and Spanish High School students from three different High Schools in the United States. They

found that discontinuing students scored higher on the “fulfilling a requirement” category. They

also found that those who study beyond the second year, developed interests for their own sake.

Their recommendation was to instill a goal of proficiency rather than a goal of fulfilling a
requirement. To instill this goal of proficiency in the learner, teachers must be able to help

students develop their intrinsic interest and motivation. Ramage suggested that having

knowledge about the nature of the language will help learners have a base for their motivation.

This means understanding the target languages power, how it places them socially, educationally

and professionally (Ramage, 1990). Teachers must be able to have an understanding for

themselves of the language to be able to convey that to learners.

Another motivational construct is the socio-educational or social aspect of learning a

language. R.C. Gardner explains this type of motivation by saying, “it is not a trait, as some

individuals contend, but it is a general characteristic of the individual that applies to any

opportunity to learn the language” (Gardner, 2007, p. 11). According to this definition, Gardner

is stating that motivation in learning a foreign language should not just be according to external

factors. It should come as a genuine interest from the learner to be able to communicate in the

target language. Motivation to learn a second language already involves external factors, such as

doing well in a course or being socially accepted by natives. Gardner points out that integrative

motivation is what is crucial in addition to the other types of motivation, because it incorporates

the cognitive and behavioral components of learning a second language. This is not only

important for students to achieve in their learning process, but is also necessary for teachers to

develop.

The third variable is the role of emotion in second language acquisition. Emotion is an

interesting factor because it deals the individual. Outside factors can influence a person’s

emotion, but it can only be controlled by that person. Seymour Epstein conducted an experiment

where he focused on two aspects of emotion in second language acquisition. He said, “emotion

functions as an amplifier, providing the intensity, urgency, and energy to propel behavior.”
(MacIntyre, 2002, p. 61). If this definition of emotion can be internalized in a learner’s positive

language learning, then they can be driven to excel in learning a second language. Epstein

compared this point to oxygen deprivation. In summary, all humans need oxygen and are

compelled to breathe. It is not oxygen deprivation that motivates a human to breathe, but it is the

emotions related to fear and panic. Compare the difference between holding your breath for

thirty seconds and choking for 30 seconds. The oxygen deprivation is the same, but the emotion

of fear is what effects behavior and reaction (MacIntyre, 2002, p. 62). In relation to second

language acquisition, emotions cause learners to act in a particular way which can make a

smooth language learning process.

Another emotion is feeling embarrassed. Seymour explains that embarrassment urges one

to hide and withdraw themselves from a situation. What learners fail to see at the moment, is that

embarrassment and the feelings attached to it are common among leaners. Just as the oxygen

example, a student’s reaction to their language experience is governed by their emotional

reaction. Negative and positive emotions have an effect on action and performance. According to

a Classroom Leadership article, teachers can aid in a student’s emotions through a few simple

strategies. Some include, making learning relevant, help establish positive peer relationships,

identify and deal with depression and stress (Henley, n.d.). Teachers may not be able to change a

student’s emotion, but they can create situations and an environment where there are positive

influences.

The fourth variable is aptitude. The University of Miami in Ohio measured language

aptitude by administering Modern Language Aptitude Tests to students that measured first

language skills in elementary. The test also measured second language acquisition aptitude and

second language anxiety or motivation. The subcomponents included grammar, vocabulary,

language comprehension and inductive language learning. The four factors in Carroll’s research

suggested that L2 aptitude measures a different component of language skill (Sparks et al.,

2011). This draws a conclusion that to develop aptitude as a language skill is similar to the

ability of acquiring other skills. Therefore, aptitude in language acquisition is achievable and can

directly influence a student’s success. They also found that there was a strong correlation

between working memory and success in language learning (Sparks et al., 2011). In a different

study Kormos and Safar (2008) explained that working memory has multiple components which

are highly correlated with performance in L2. These aspects are in vocabulary, grammar,

listening, reading, writing and speaking.

Given the knowledge that the skill of improving working memory is directly related to

aptitude development, a teacher can help guide students toward aptitude improvement. Teachers

can help in this process by directing a specific focus on working memory. Working memory is

similar to short-term memory and refers to how well one can store information in their brain

(Marianne, 2016). A few strategies to implement this is playing games which improve memory,

setting aside time to meditate and give the brain a break, develop routines and to not multitask to

the extent of it becoming overbearing. As teachers, we should avoid complicating students with

too much material at once. There are a variety of ways to improve working memory which is

directly related to developing aptitude.

The next variable that I consider a variable in language acquisition, is religious beliefs.

Religion itself does not necessarily have the same impact as one’s own beliefs does. One way it

influences language acquisition is through devotion. Devotion to a specific cause or reason to

learning a language effects the purpose which can motivate a learner in a different way. A study

was done by Markham and Latham (1987) where it assessed the influence of religion-specific
background knowledge on adult ESL listening comprehension. There were 28 non-religious

subjects, 16 practicing Muslims and 20 Christians. They each listened to a passage of prayer in

Islam and Christianity. The results came back that religious beliefs does significantly impact

language acquisition and that the content exerts powerful influence on listening comprehension.

In the article, Paul Markham and Michael Latham explain the schema theory, which is a

theory that explains the concept of how religious beliefs can influence language acquisition. The

theory describes how knowledge is represented and how that facilitates use of knowledge in a

particular way. They further explain that “students who adhere to a specific religious group are

going to recall more ideas, produce more elaborations and few inaccurate distortions” (Markham

& Latham, 1987, p. 13). As teachers, it is essential that we have background knowledge on how

specific material interacts with a learners L1. If we can be aware of this, we can be able to help

provide more useful material that is relatable and will produce meaning.

The next variable is the use of strategies. Teachers should be able to help students

recognize the strategy of metacognition and apply it to language learning. Victori and Lockhart

(1995) conducted an experiment by holding counseling sessions for learners who had negative

beliefs about their learning. A counselor gave different learning strategies and viewpoints to his

patients and explained psycholinguistic principles. After months of counseling, learners

developed a wide variety of language learning skills. They concluded that when metacognition is

improved it leads to learner autonomy. Autonomy ties back to the variables of attitude, emotion,

motivation and aptitude. When conducted carefully and properly, these factors all work together

to help learners develop a sense of confidence and positivity in language acquisition. Teachers

can play a significant role by formally dealing with negative beliefs and teaching strategies to
enhance a learner’s awareness of their personal weakness and strengths. Teachers can also teach

strategic knowledge or refer students to counselling sessions if it is needed or desired.

The final variable is age. Over the years, it has often been said that the older you are, the

more difficult it is to learn a language. In my opinion, age is the least of important variables that

influence second language learning. Therefore I will focus on the misconceptions of age in

second language learning. Based off the article Fallacies of Critical Period Hypothesis,

misinterpretation is the first fallacy and is a misunderstanding of a child’s language acquisition.

According to a study, which tested the prediction that language is acquired more quickly before

puberty, concluded that the fastest acquisition occurred in students from the age of 12-15 and the

slowest were from the ages 3-5. This test challenges the critical period hypothesis and proves

that adults learn language more quickly in the beginning stages of learning a language (Snow &

Hoefnagel, 1978). This proves that adults also have quick capabilities of learning a second

language. The other misconception is misemphasis on rates of failure. We often hear the

experiences and read research on how adults are unsuccessful in L2, but we fail to note that there

are adults who achieved fluency or native like proficiency. The article was clear in stating that

there simply is not enough emphasis on late learners who achieve language acquisition.

(Marinova et al., 2000) Teachers should be aware of these misconceptions to instill hope in their

students. Adults have been long misinformed, that there may potentially be difficulty in getting

rid of the misconception. Although, based off of more recent research, age does not play a

critical factor in second language acquisition. Therefore, adults and children can learn a second

language.

Overall there are internal and external factors that impact the way a learner and teacher

perceives and achieves second language acquisition. There are more influential factors than
others, and I ordered each factor from the most to the least importance. Language acquisition is

heavily influenced by a learner’s attitude, which correlates to a learner’s motivation, which is

then influenced by emotion, learner’s aptitude and working memory, religious beliefs, autonomy

and finally the misconception of age. Second language acquisition is complex, but highly

achievable. Throughout my research, I was able to find that second language learners can learn

to acquire L2 through the aid and influence of effective strategies and lessons taught by the

teacher.
 Bibliography

Gardner, R. (1968). Attitudes and Motivation: Their Role in Second-Language Acquisition.

TESOL Quarterly, 2(3), 141-150. doi:10.2307/3585571

Gardner, R. C. (2007). Motivation and second language acquisition. Porta Linguarum, 9-20.
Retrieved November 12, 2018, from http://hdl.handle.net/10481/31616

Henley, M., & Long, N. (n.d.). Helping students with emotional problems succeed. Classroom
Leadership, 7(3). Retrieved October 18, 2018, from http://www.ascd.org/publications/classroom-
leadership/nov2003/Helping-Students-with-Emotional-Problems-Succeed.aspx

Kormos, J., & Sáfár, A. (2008). Phonological short-term memory, working memory and foreign
language performance in intensive language learning. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition,
11(2). doi:10.1017/s1366728908003416

MacIntyre, P. D. (2002). Motivation, anxiety and emotion in second language acquisition.

Individual Differences and Instructed Language Learning, 2, 45-68. Retrieved October 18, 2018,
from
http://faculty.capebretonu.ca/pmacintyre/research_pages/journals/motivation_chapter_2002.pdf

Marianne Christiansen, M. (2016.) Attentional Control, Working Memory and Language

Aptitude. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Institute of Language and Literature, Trondheim.

Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. E. (2000). Three misconceptions about age
and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 34(1), 9. doi:10.2307/3588095

Markham, P., & Latham, M. (1987). The influence of religion-specific background knowledge
on the listening comprehension of adult second-language students. Language Learning, 37(2),
157-170. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1987.tb00563.x

Perloff, R. M. (2016). Cover art The Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in
the Twenty-First Century (6th ed.) [Ebook]. Retrieved October 19, 2018, from
https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Richard_M_Perloff_The_Dynamics_of_Persuasion?i
d=K4m_DQAAQBAJ

Ramage, K. (1990). Motivational factors and persistence in foreign language study. Language
Learning, 40(2), 189-219. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb01333.x

Smith, A. N. (n.d.). The importance of attitude in foreign language learning. The Modern
Language Journal (2nd ed., Vol. 55, (Feb., 1971), pp. 82-88). Retrieved October 09, 2018, from
https://www.jstor.org/stable/321854.
Snow, C. E., & Hoefnagel-Hohle, M. (1978). The critical period for language acquisition:
evidence from second language learning. Child Development, 49(4), 1114-1128. doi:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1128751

Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2011). Subcomponents of second-
language aptitude and second-language proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 95(2), 253-
273. Retrieved October 18, 2018, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/41262345.

Victori, M., & Lockhart, W. (1995). Enhancing metacognition in self-directed language learning.
System, 23(2), 223-234. doi:10.1016/0346-251x(95)00010-h