404 PROCEEDINGS OF
Propagation of the Low-Frequency Radio Signal*
J. RALPH JOHLERt, SENIOR MEMBER, IRE
The following paper was solicited for the PROCEEDINGS by the Tutorial Subcommittee
of the IRE Wave Propagation Committee, and appears below as a part of a continuing
program of presenting review and tutorial papers on subjects of general interest and im-
portance. The Editor
Summary-The propagation of a radio signal and the propagation
in the time domain is reviewed for linear amplitude systems. The
particular case of the propagation of a ground wave pulse is con-
sidered in detail. A stretching in the form or shape of the pulse is
noted as a result of the filtering action of the propagation medium.
Theoretical transfer characteristics for the media of propagation of
LF signals are introduced and methods of computation are con-
sidered. The particular case of a signal transmitted between two
points on the earth's surface is considered from the viewpoint of
propagation in the time domain.
The field of LF waves propagated around the earth is, in large
measure, influenced by the reflection and transmission processes at
the ionosphere. Such processes are evaluated theoretically with the
aid of Maxwell's equations together with an equation which describes
the electron motion in the presence of a static magnetic field, a
superposed electrodynamic field together with mechanical collisions
between electrons and ions, such as the Langevin equation of motion
of the electron. The use of full mathematical rigor in the application
of these equations is feasible and indeed desirable at LF. Thus, the
application of these equations to an electron-ion model plasma with
arbitrary orientation of the superposed magnetic induction results in
anisotropic transmission and reflection properties. The full rigor
can be applied to model plasmas in which the electron density and
collision frequency vary with altitude. This leads to the notion of
reflection and transmission at a continuously stratified plasma.
Four distinct magneto-ionic propagation components exist in the
ionosphere. These can be identified as ordinary and extraordinary,
upgoing and downgoing waves. All of these propagation components
are coupled to each other as the electron density changes with
penetration depth into the plasma.
The anisotropy as a result of the electron gyration (Lorentz
force) caused by the superposed static magnetic field of the earth
clearly introduces a nonreciprocity in the propagation of the field
between transmitter and receiver since the ionosphere reflection
coefficient would not in general be the same if transmitter and re-
ceiver were interchanged.
The nature of the signal as a result of ionospheric propagation
can be determined from the CW field with the aid of the Fourier
transform-integral techniques employed on the ground wave in
detail.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE ELECTRICAL properties of the ground, the
ionosphere, the space between the ground and the
ionosphere, and outer space determine the propa-
*Received by the IRE, October 23, 1961; revised manuscript
received, January 29, 1962. This work was sponsored by the U. S.
Air Force as part of Tasks 4 and 5 of the Rome Air Development
Center, D.O. AF30-(602)-2488, March, 1961.
t National Btureau of Standards, Boulder, Colo.
HIIE IRE A pril
gation of low-frequency (LF) electrom-lagnietic waves in
the vicinity of the earth. The electrical properties of
these media (Fig. 1) are by convention described in
concise form by means of the angular wave number
k=ki, k2, k3, * , written k=-qw/c, which involves the
-
index of refraction 7 =7 1, 2, .7 3 * *, the angular fre-
quency w = 27rf, and the speed of light c'-3(105) m/sec. A
time-harmonic electromagnetic wave, i.e., a wave whichi
oscillates harmonically in time t from t = -o to
t= + oo (a wave uninterrupted in time) can be de-
scribed in terms of the electric field E, volts/meter,
E = |E| exp (iwt -ikD),
at a distance D when such a wave is propagated through
a particular medium k of infinite extent. T he principal
task of the theoretician in the development of a de-
scription of the propagated field comiiprises the deter-
miination of the wave niumber or index of refraction
from the electrical properties of the medium, applyinig
Maxwell's equations for the propagation of electromag-
netic fields E, H (H = electrodynamic miagnetic field)
to the boundaries between and within the various imedia
and introducing the nature of the source of the radia-
tion.
In the past, attention has been focused upoIn the
propagation of these waves around the surface of the
earth taking account of the grounid, the ionosphere anid
the space between the ground and the ioniosphere. Re-
cently, as might be expected, considerable interest has
developed in the propagation of LF waves in outer
space, anid there seems to be little doubt that interest
in this type of propagationi will inicrease with time.
The theoretical treatmenit of low frequencies ap-
parently differs quite markedly from the theoretical
treatment usually employed at high frequenicies as to
the degree of mathematical rigor. Indeed, the mathe-
matical rigor required for a theory of propagationi of
radio waves in the vicinity of the earth increases rapidly
as the frequency is decreased. This is not difficult to
appreciate intuitively since the wavelength becomes
quite long and eveni approaches in magniitude certaiin
critical dimensionis of the mediunm at I 'VLF, such as
the altitude of the lower boundary of the ionosphere
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal
Xr-
sX \ I a
Fig. 1-Propagation media in the vicinity of the earth, illustrating
propagation of waves about the earth.
h (Fig. 1). Thus, for example, at 100 kc, \=f/cc---.3000
m at 10 kc, X-30,000 m. Therefore, the conventional
geometric-optical treatment requires more rigorous
corrections since such a treatment in the classical sense
implies rays or waves of zero wavelength (f= oo) or
practically speaking, waves the length of which is small
compared with the critical dimensions of the medium.
Indeed, as the frequency under consideration is de-
creased to the VLF region and the distance between
transmitter and receiver d (Fig. 1) is great, it seems to
be quite necessary to abandon ray theory altogether
and employ the full mathematical rigor to Maxwell's
equations together with the appropriate boundary
conditions and electrical description of the media. Such
an approach is, of course, more difficult and the geomet-
ric-optical methods can be derived from this viewpoint
[I], [2 ] as an approximate theory for higher frequencies
and/or shorter distances. Whereas the full rigor results
in a more satisfying mathematical treatment, the dif-
ficulties of maintaining full rigor increase with increas-
iIng frequency. Low frequencies are, therefore, on the one
hand, in a part of the frequency domain where full rigor
is difficult to apply and, on the other hand, complete
confidence in the geometric-optical theory does not ob-
tain. LF viewed from this perspective is, therefore, a
difficult and challenging field of study for the particular
species of investigator interested in the explanation of
observed LF phenomena from the more penetrating
viewpoint of electromagnetic theory.
Interest in LF waves has persisted from the early
days of the radio science. More recently the require-
ment of precision radio navigation systems, such as the
Loran-C pulsed radio niavigation system [3], [41 and
the requirements for high reliability in communications,
especially in the Arctic, has stimulated interest in the
favorable properties of these waves. Interest in these
waves is also indicated by the extensive measurements
of Belrose [5 ] and the theoretical work of Budden
[6] and Barron [7].
This paper reviews the theory of propagation of LF
waves with particular emphasis on the propagation of
a signal and propagation in the time domain.
405
.9
,l
Optcal Horizon
' r/ c- ot
"0 \T1/ "/Surfoce
of
/_Centerof ohere
the Earth
II. PROPAGATION OF LF SIGNALS NEAR THE EARTH
Radio waves are employed to transmit information
from point to point (Fig. 1), s to o (source to observer)
around the earth. This is accomplished in a restricted
sense as a form of modulation of the fields of time-
continuous waves, E(co, d) volts/meter which depenid
upon frequency, f = co/2r, cycles/second and distance d,
meters. This is accomplished in a most general sense by
means of an electromagnetic signal or transient electro-
magnetic field E(t, d) volts/meter, which field depeiids
upon time t and distance d, both reckoned from the
transmitter.
The Hertz dipole [8] has been employed with re-
markable success by theoreticians to represent a trans-
mitter of such a signal in the LF frequencv domain.
Such a transmitter implies a point source (either ver-
tical electric or vertical magnetic polarization) of radia-
tion. But such a point source (except for fields very
close to the transmitter) is not difficult to approximate
experimentally at LF since the wavelengths are quite
long relative to the dimensions of practical antennas.
It is further implied that more complicated antennas
could be synthesized by application of the superposi-
tion principle. A corresponding dipole probe has beeni
utilized to define the field at a distance d from the
source s (Fig. 1). Such a signal [E(t, d) volts/meter] if it
is to convey useful information, communication, or
provide a radio navigation fix or time difference or in-
deed synchronize a system of clocks at different geo-
graphic locations to a common frame of referenice [3], is
varying in time (is modulated) and indeed is typically
discontinuous in time. Thus, the signal E(t, d) is an
electromagnetic pulse in the quite general sense of the
Fourier integral, assuming linear amplitude media of
propagation
E(t' d) exp (iwt')E(w, d)fr(c)f8(w)do, (1)
27r co
or using the symbol i-l for the inverse Fourier tranis-
form or Fourier integral
E(t' d) = i-f(, d) (2)
 406 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE A2 pril

where f(w, d) is the complex Fourier transfornm of a cordinig to the principle of relativity, nio soonier thani a
signal. The source transform f9(cw) is determined from signial tranismitted at the speed of light over some ray
the time domain F,(t) by the direct transformationi lenigth D. This poin-t was established imlanly years ago
(1914) by Somimiiierfeld [10] aidiBrillouini [It'] in a pair
f4w(@)- J exp (-iwt)F,(t)dt (3) of mleimiorable papers whiclh established the conisisteilcy
of electromagnetic t-heorN with relitivity. WNhereas the
or CXW conicepts of phase velocity an(d group velocity in
the presenice of aniomIolouLs (lispersiol) gave velocities
J8(W) -JF,(t) (4) which varied betweenl positive an(dl negative infinity,
where the source F8(t) represents a Hertz dipole current the full transieint solutioni demonistratedl that a light
moment, 101 ampere-miieters as a funiction of universal wave signal velocity properlv definied(was always less
source time t and the CW field E(w, d) represents the than the speed of light and thuis conisistenit with the
complex transfer characteristic of the propagation principle of relativity. Therefore, the shortest "rayx"
medium. Since practical systems for the transfer of in- (Fig. 1) has a length D=d, the distanice alonig the sur-
formation affect the signal, it is necessary to introduce face of the earth (since waves in the earth atre com-
the complex transfer characteristic of the systeimi (prini- pletely absorbed). The first wave to arrive at the re-
cipally the receiver) fr(w). i T he local time t' [91 is ceiver o is then the ground wave j -0. Other waves will
reckoned locally from the beginninig of the first pre- arrive later as a result of propagation over soimie dis-
cursor [lo], [11] of the pulse, which cani arrive at a tanice such as D=Dj where j=1, 2, 3, (Fig. 1)
poinit o (Fig. 1) no sooner thani a signal propagated over and correspondinigly arrive at the receiver at ever later
the distance d at the speed of light c, but which will in times t = tj. This fact is not obvious to the observer of aL

general arrive later. Thus, CW "signal" [E(w, d)] since such a signial cannot re-
solve the individual ordered rays j which arrive at the
t' =t - ndlc (5) receiver. Thus, the observer sees on1v the resultanit
vector field E(w, d) of the suII1 of a inumllber of individual
where i-l (for air, n71-1.000338 typically at the sur- fields Ej(w, d) of each ordered ray
face of the earth).
The completely degenierate case of a signail varying I)
harmonically in time from niegative to positive infinity EA(w, d) ZEj(w, d), j 0) 1, 2,3, * (7)
j-0
(t= -oo to t-= + xc) is a very special situation which
can convey theoretically zero informationi between the in which the zero order field j=0 is the ground wave
point s, the transmitter, and the receiver o (Fig. 1), and each higher order field j=1, 2, 3, or j0 cor-
E(t'd) ' E(co, d), responds to
(6) ionosphere [12], ionospheric waves or waves reflected by the
but which is nonetheless frequently employed as ani
approximation for "narrow bandwidth" communica- Ej(co, d) = iwdDi-'C exp (icot1)Gj1G,r8a1FjFC , (8)
tion systems with the inferenlce that such systems are where
satisfactorilv described by the "zero bandwidth"
asymptote and where the notion of bandwidth implies a C= Iolb2/47rKd3 = 10-7/d, Jo! = 1, K- -1 ,/0' (9)
finite spectrum of frequencies f(w, d). Indeed, nmost and the local time for the groulnd wave t'o is
theoretical calculations of the field E evaluate this
transform E(c, d) with the imiplication that such a tO' -t-b, (1()
function, evaluated over all frequenicies of concern in b - n ldlc, (11)
the Fourier integral (1) from negative to positive in-
finity, together with a specification of the source as a where Eo(w, d) = Eo(o, d) exp [- i(wb +4)c) ], consider-
functioni of time [f(t) I yield the niature of the propa- ing 4, a phase lag or phase correction [13], and simi-
gated sigiial. larily, the local ionospheric wave timle or ionospheric
wave delay
III. PUILSES AND PROPAGATION IN TIIE TIrmEI DomAIN
The theoretical notion of the signal as a pulse imiiplies t/'(j= 1,2,3, )is,
importanit consequences as to the interpretationi of tj' t bj,
=
(12)
propagation in the time domnaini. This can be nmore
readily explained from the viewpoint of geonmetric- bj I 1 Djlc, (j= 1, 2, 3, * ).
=
(13)
optics. Indeed, the use of full mathematical wave theory The quantity bj-b, a time, is called the relative iono-
rigor would yield the same general conclusionis as those spheric wave delay, Fig. 2 (relative to the grounid wave).
which are reached with the aid of geometric-optics. The physical length of the particular type of ray Dj
A signal transmitted arounid the earth between two represented in Fig. 1 (other types of rays are feasible)
points (Fig. 1) s to o, could arrive at the point o, ac- can be evaluated geometrically for a reflectioni at ani
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 407
;;z I I
cn D 640w-
:1 -1

o- 400
\ U)
w
> 320 > ZL460~\
J !-- w
i 240 -4- !ddX
'ir
3. 160 1-- . l80
ne ST Mi.

!. ee
-

i-1-
Q.--
-O 80
--
:1!160
240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800
-.- -- . -- .-- --- - .- --- ---
II
IW

DISTANCE d/j, STATUTE MILES -I

0 129 257 386 515 644 772 901 030 1158 1287 4j
0
z

DISTANCE dfi, KILOMETERS

Fig. 2-Relative skv-wave delay for various altituide h of
the lower ionosphere boundary.
DISTANCE, d/j, STATUTE MILES

altitude h above the surface of the earth of radius a, Fig. 3--Geometric-optical relation between the angle of incidence c/
distance from the source d/j, j= 1, 2, 3, * , j O, and the alti-
Di = 2j[(a + h) cos i,, - a cos rj], (14) tuide h of the lower boundary of the ionosphere.
where (Fig. 1) + is the aingle of incidence of the ray on which converts the former to the latter or from the view-
the ionosphere and rj is the corresponding angle of in- point of the ray theory, takes account of ray focusing
cidence on the earth and the subscript j reminds the by the ionosphere and a corresponding defocusing of
reader that the equation refers to a particular iono- rays by the earth. Bremmer [1 ] has developed for-
spheric wave (j=1, 2, 3, ) or ground wave (j=0)
-

mulas for such a correction. A modification of this

under consideration. The angles &5i and rj are evaluated focusing or convergence correctioni Aj has been de-
quite simply from the geometry. If, veloped by Wait [14] to take account of rays near the
geometric-optical horizon rji-r/2 and beyond. The
A [[2a(a + h) (- cos + h2] then (15) complete expression can be written

j (1 + /a [(21 sin- / sin0]1/2

sin O j = Aj-'a sin-,
2i
(16)
x {[a(1-cos 2 ) +ih]
cosOi j = A,1 [a(1-cosi) +h], (17)
0 / (a + h) cos- - a A3 , (20)
sin rj = A1'(a + h) sin- (18)
2j
in which Aj can be evaluated from the cylindrical
cosrj=A- [a (cos--1) + k cos-j (19) Hankel function of order n= 1 of the second kind, which
for j=1 can be written
where 6 (Fig. 1) is the angle at the center of the earth
subtended by the distance d along the surface of a Aj (, Zj) H11/3 (2) ) exp I-i[5r/12 -Zj
} (21)
spherical earth, or simply d = a@. The relation between
distance d/j, angle of incidence 4i, and height h of the where
lower boundary of the ionosphere can therefore be (22)
quite simply illustrated as in Fig. 3. kia cos3 Tr/3 sin2 rl.
Z; =

The transmitting and receiving antenna factors GC
have been included to take account of antennas other
than Hertz dipoles, where for the particular case of a
vertical magnetic Hertz dipole Gj=1 in the equatorial
plane of the dipole an-d Gj =sin rj for the vertical elec-
trical dipole.
The geometric-optical theory permits the use of plane
reflection coefficients or Fresnel type reflection coef-
ficients for rays reflected at the ground (Fig. 1) or the
ionosphere. However, the ionosphere is not plane and it
is necessary at low frequencies to introduce certain
spherical corrections to the geometric-optical theory.
The relation between plane and spherical reflections is
defined by the convergence-divergence coefficient aj
Wait [14] has developed numerous graphs of the func-
tion aj and Aj and Johler [12] has detailed some com-
putation methods, especially for the Hankel function
H113(2) (z)-
The factor Fj is an antenna pattern factor since it
describes a plane wave incident on a sphere with a re-
ceiver dipole antenna located on the surface of the
sphere. The factor Fj accounts for the presence of the
spherical earth at both the transmitter Fjt and the re-
ceiver Fjr, and if it can be assumed that the geometric-
optical ray is not too close or beyond the geometric-
optical horizon (Fig. 1), the Fresnel approximation
again sufficies to determine Fj, or for vertical polariza-
tion
 408 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE .1 pril

Fj - [I + Ret(Tj)][I + Rer(Tj)] (23) receiver. Wait [15] has developed curves of this funic-
where the superscripts t and r refer to the transmiiitter tioIn and some computationi methods have beeni OlIt-
and receiver respectively, and the subscript e refers to lined by Johler [12 ]. Close to, but beyon-d the geomiietric-
optical horizon, the factor Fj = F(F,";t Clcan be evaltiated
vertical electric polarization anid as noted by Wait [15]. A residue series sumnmiiationi [12-1
Re(Jrj) k22 cos Tj/k12 - [k22/k12 -sin2 Tj]I/ }
- 2iV/ir exp [-ikl(d - di)]
/{ k22 cos rj/k12 + [k22Ilk12 -sin2 rj l/2[, (24) X exp [-i(kia)1/30'-r]
or for horizontal polarizationi (31)
S U( (2 113T - q2)lW(2'11r,)
Re,n(Tj) = cos rj - [k22 12 - sin2 Tj] /2} where the permittivity lapse factor a, which takes ac-
C Tj + [k22/k12 - sin2 rT] 1/2} (25) equation of Riccati, noted by7 Bremmller anid tabulated
where by Johler, et al., [16]
db
k2 - 2- I C C (26) --262r + 1 = 07 (32)
/2 d,r
c _ C C

which definies the wave iiuiiber of the air and the where the factor 6 (which depends oni dielectric constanit
ground in terms of the dielectric constant E2 relative to E2 anid coniductivitv g) for vertical electric polarization
a vacuum, the conductivity, a, mhos/m and the per- of the Hertz dipole 8 = ,
meability yo=4wr( 1-7) h/m. The dielectric constanit is -ik22a' /3 Ik12
E2=15 for typical land and e2=80 for sea water; also be = (33)
or= 0.005 and 5 mhos/m for land anid sea water respec- - 1k2
tively. Here again it has beeni found necessary to correct
the rays near and beyonid the geometric-optical horizon where the permittivity lapse factor a, which takes ac-
Ty-T-'r/2. A contour initegral developed by \Vait [15] counit of the variation in inidex of refractioni of the
can be employed close to the geometric-optical horizon atmosphere with altitude is a'-0.75 to 0.85. Howe
for the calculation of Fj= Fj/Fjr: [17], Johler, Walters, anid Lilley [16], and Walters anid
Johler [18] have developed methods for taking the
Fjt,l (7r)-1 /2 exp [-ik,aO']
-
special roots T= T, of (32), where the limiiiting roots
exp [-i(kla/2)"W30'p]
r (27) a=0, a= o are found from
Jexp[-i2r/3] W '(p) - qWI(p) H2,3(2)[4(-2rs)3I2] = 0, 8e oO (34)
where O'(d -dH)/a, where dH is the distance from tranis- H113 (2) ['- 2,)3/2] = 0, be = 0, (35)
mitter to geometric-optical horizon (-rj-r/2) and
s = 0, 1, 2, 3 * * .
(k1a)"13 k1 / k
The reflection process at the ground and the iono-
q=
2 k-2 AV 1---2 (28)
sphere is represented (8) in concise form Cj, according to
Bremmer [I], for the case of a vertically polarized
Wj(z) and Wl'(z) are airy integrals related to the cy- transmitter and receiver (Fig. 4).
lindrical Hankel Functions [12 ] (also see Appendix).
I dj ~ 1 + A1x
wi(p) Cj = -R _ (36)
j!R, dxi _ 1 - A 2X-_A3Z2 X=o
x2

= exp [-2iri/3]IA/7r/3 (-p) 1I2H113(2) [23 (_p) 3t2]X (29)

where
Wl'(p) = exp [-4iri/3]v'ir/3 pHi,a(2)[2 (p)3/2], (30) A1 = - R.rTm.r
where A 2 = ReTee + R.Tnimn
A3 = ReRm[ -TeeTmnm + Te,n,,Tme.]
-< arg p <
-
3 where Re and Rm are the conivenitional Fresnel ground(l
and reflection coefficients for plane waves of angle of ini-
cidence rj (Fig. 1) of both vertical anld horizontal
arg (-p) = arg p -7r polarization respectively, and the 7"s represent, the
m ioniosphere reflection coefficients for planie waves witlh
arg pm/n =- arg p where m and n are integers. angle of incidenice Oi; thus, the essential nature of the
n
propagation of the CW signal around the earth via the
These restrictions on arg p make all functions involved ionosphere can be described in terms of four reflectioni
single valued. Note that a separate conductivity a and coefficients Tee, Te, Tine, Tim The reflection coefficienit
dielectric constant E2 can be ascribed to transmitter and Tee refers to vertical electric polarizationi of the incidenit
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 409
plane wave and a similar vertical electric polarization of
the reflected wave. The coefficient Ter describes the
generation of the abnormal component by the incident
vertical polarization (reflected horizontal electric po-
larization for vertical electric excitation). Similarly,
- Ray Indicating Electric Vector Trm refers to the incident horizontal electric polariza-
in Plane of Vertical Electric Sourte
and Observor Dipoles tion and the corresponding reflected horizontal electric
--- Ray Indicating Magnetic Vector polarization. Also, the abnormal component of the
in Some Plane
horizontal electric polarization (reflected vertical elec-
tric polarization for horizontal electric excitation) is de-
Hm Ns V scribed by the coefficient Tine. Referring these matters
I-
0
to a local coordinate system (Fig. 5) at the ionosphere
lower boundary [12], [19], [20],
Tee = Ey'r/Ey'is Trmn-= Ex'r/Ex,ij
$_
Tem = Ex'r/Ey'i Tmie = EyrlExt (37)
where the subscripts i or r refer to the incident and re-
Hm,tl,N,9 V HM,2, N2t V2 flected wave, respectively, at the lower boundary of the
ionosphere. The techniques for evaluating the reflection
,PE 00
W 0
E 0
v -R - -r- coefficients for an anisotropic model electron-ion plasma
are quite complicated and will be discussed later.
The ground wave CW, Eo(w, d) (i.e., the zero order
ray j=0 can be evaluated from the classical series of
residues) formulated by Bremmer can be written in the
form [1], [13 ], [23 ] for vertical electric polarization
= 2icoC [27ra2/3(kia)113 +11/2
cr, E2 E(w, d) =2icoC 2eraXl 3(kia) 113 -

Hm,1, Ni,1Vi Hm,21 N2' V2 HM,3, N3 Z3

Ev EE 0* 0,
f ~ ~ ~d aed r~
E
exp {i (kia)1/3ra2/3 -+ _- + -_]

,n,~~ ~
we EEE ow E Es
(38)
/ s=0 [2r-11,/6] _-

where s=0, 1, 2, 3, * * *, C is given by (9), and again

a-0.75 to 0.85 and 6, Sr have been defined (32), (33).
A horizontally-polarized Hertz dipole radiation field
1')~~ ~~~~~
N
E/ \\)^^^^^
E 0 E //
0 can also be found (vertical magnetic field, HI, ampere-
cc r cr sl: tz: {k
turns/meters) simply by replacing be by 6l. &.. = 6,ki/k2
crI,' 2,1 (2, l2,2
re-evaluating ,r and substituting in (38).
Hm,l Nj, 1/1 HM,21 N2, 1/2 Hm,3, N31 V3 Hm N4,
49 The notion of a CW signal E(o, d) as the vector sunm
£
we
V E E E
E
E 0E we
_|_E E E EF
E
0 E @ 0 w @
we EFvE;E
0 0 of individual rays ordered in timne (7) is obscure to the
L-.;- observer of such a signal. However, a signal in the true
sense, i.e., oIne which can convey informationi and henice
is interrupted in the time domain, manifests the indi-
vidual propagation rays. The Fourier integral (1) for a
pulse transmission can be rewritteni as a consequence of
propagation of such signials E(t, d),
_ _ M CY to to n o g p
E EEEwEOEEw
c: cr
vE
Cr_
a:. cr ta: c. :.
:z cr.r :zr
c E(t', d) = > Ej(t'1, d)
0-i , I2, 07. (62,2 O3. 62,3
- j=o
Fig. 4-Geometric-optical ray propagation mechanism, illustrating P C0X
1
the development of the factor C3 and illustrating coupling exterior = exp (iwt'j)Ej(w, d)fr((w)f8(&)dw. (39)
to the ionosphere as a consequence of the generation of the abnor- j7o 27r _
mal components.
This merely represents the sum of separate Fourier in-
tegrals for each ray, separated in time by the iono-
spheric wave delay t'j.
The signal E(t', d), (1), (39) which has been de-
scribed in the time domain, is in general complex if com-
plex source functions Fj(t), (3) are employed. The signal
410 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE A pril

Fig. 5-Local coordinate system for ioniosphere botundary.

w d 858 MILES d-662 MILES cr.

w =dd858 MILES
w
LL
w I- w
w
N. N N
C,) C,)
-J
0>
a1)
-o w-r
w
0 4 00
0L)
r Q& 1M=ICRO ECN

tl MICOECODS
N t' MICROSECONDS tI MICROSECONDS

-C

d _o MILES d = 512 MILES a:w d_-O MILES

- ,o w
W N
U)
(I)
Li} W/v\/V

F
i0 h
-,.

~0
:
a.
-1w i:ri 0 100
I

waL) Q)
cc
I MICROSECONDS +1 tI' MICROSECONDS

t' MICROSECONDS

(a) NIGHTTIME (b) NIGHTTIME (C) DAYTIME

Fig. 6-Observations of propagated pulses of various lengths illustrating the time separation of the grounid wave (j =0) and the various iono-
spheric reflections (j= 1, 2, 3, * * ). The measurement of a point in tinme oni the leading edge of the pulse with the amplitude envelope
-

minus the derivative of the amplitude envelope method is also illustrated (b, d=512). (Oscillograms traced frorn original photographs of
July-August, 1953, CYTAC/Loran-C field tests).
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low- Frequency Signal 411
which is observed anid recorded as an oscillogram, for on the pulse (a particular ionospheric ray signal can be se-
example, is typically the real part of the complex field, lected). The existence of an ordered (j=0, 1, 2, 3, )
Re E(t', d), while the amplitude E(t', d) |, can represent sequence of signals Ej(w, d) as a result of propagatioin
some sort of einvelope detection process in the receiver. over such rays as Dj (Fig. 1) has therefore been estab-
Thus, an envelope can be synthesized with the aid of a lished both theoretically and experimentally.
complex source and propagated with the signal as an
index of the pulse dispersion (change in forimi or shape) IV. THE GROUND WAVE SIGNAL
as a result of the propagation. The particular case of a ground wave pulse, E(t', d)
The physical notion of a signial observed at a poinit o =Eo(t', d), j=0 has considerable theoretical and prac-
(Fig. 1) as the sum of ordered rays in the time domain tical interest. The source dipole current F8(t) cain be
is illustrated [21 ] in Fig. 6 for various length pulses em- specified in a variety of forms. The complex damped
ployed during the development of the Cytac/Loran-C cosine form has considerable theoretical interest [23].
system [22]. The pulse radiated at the source, undis-
turbed by the ionospheric time rays (pure ground wave) ReF,(t)= Reexp(-'t)
is shown as oscillogramns [Re E(t', d) ] at short distances. = exp (-cit) cosw,i, (0 < t < oo)
The action of the propagation medium on the signal is =0 ({t< 0) (41)
demonstrated by the complicated, multiple (j=0, 1, 2,
3, * )3, overlapping pulses observed at great dis- or for the sine source,
tances. Thus, the oscillogram or amplitude-time func-
tion Re E(t', d) observed at a great distance comprises - Im F,(t) = Re i exp (- vt) exp (- cit)=
the overlapping individual signals Ej(t', d), j=0, 1, 2, sin=0, (t < O) Wct,(0 < t < oo) (42)
3, t-- - , apparently added together according to the
complex field specification Ej of each and separated in where
time by the ioniospheric wave delay t'j of each ray j or- V = C1 + iwc. (43)
dered in the time domain j=0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . The ap-
proximate area in the amplitude-tinie plane occupied The direct transformation can be accomplished for
by each ordered ray is showni in Fig. 6. Areas of overlap this particular source by evaluating the integrals (3),
in which both constructive and destructive interference (4) and inserting in the integrand of the Fourier inte-
between cycles of the multiple pulses produce notches. gral (1),
Enhancements in the composite pulse canl be observed.
Notwithstanding the areas of overlap, the instru- E(t', d) = - exp (iwt')E(w, d)
mentationi has been developed which can sort out the 27r 0

individual ordered rays Ej(w, d), j=0, 1, 2, 3, * , in co

the time domain and study or measure the amplitude, J F,(t) exp (-iwt)dtdw (44)
phase and dispersion of these individually [3], [4],
[22]. Thus cycles and minute fractions of a cycle can be or upon evaluating the inner integral for the specified
measured by tagging a poinit in time on the pulse. One source F8(t), (41)-(43),
such method utilizes the amplitude envelope and hence
employs amplitude envelope detection. In effect, the E(tI, d) = J E(w, d)|
method forms the difference between the amplitude
envelope E(t', d)| and the derivative dIE(t',d) jdt',
and an elaborate null seeking device [4] seeks out a fF cos F(.1i' + tan-1 (
niull point or zero crossing for the time function so de-
sired, thus determi-ninig a time-root T, of the differential VIC 12 + (UC + I)2
equation
d cos [-co' + + tan-' -(cli;-
F(t', d) clI E(t',d)j -C2 dt'-, E(t', d)j
= 0, (40) +
VC2 + (Wc- W)2

where cl and C2 are coinstanits which move the point in + [sin [W'
time which is to be tagged oni the pulse, such as the time +
i -
-
~c/~'+~tan-'
~ -(C+
gate shown on Fig. 6(b), which can be set by the oper- - -\IVC,2 + (CC + I)2
ator to pick out a particular point on the pulse. Both
amplitude and time (phase) can be measured at such a sin [-ct' + 4'' + tan-'
point. Additional techniques are used to detect cycles
and minute fractions of a cycle under the envelope oIn + |l
L d@, (45)
the leading edge (pure ground wave signal) or elsewhere
412 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE April

I ! i ' !~
Il~ ~ ~ I
~

a,-2

.2

LL-i
VERTICAL ELEC'
r

2C: o. 0.
-
:2
Lu
LL-

I0

Frequency, f, Cycles Frequency, f, Cycles

Fig. 7-Amplitu(le transfer characteristic of Fig. 8- Phase tranisfer (characteristic of the grouniid wave.
the ground wave.

VERTICAL ELECTRIC DIPOLE

COSINE SOURCE
Ioe= ampere-meter; fcIlOOkc
cl 2.5 (10 5);&0.005mhos/meter j-
e20 ; d=50miles
./
Note fx(w. d) fx(w. d)| exp Li 1(w.d)],
The Fourier Spectrum CL
Time,t'

Fig. 9-Integrand of Fourier integral or image of pulse in the fre-

quency-amplitude plane at small distance from the source, illus-
trating the relation of the integrand to the Fouirier spectrum
waves.
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 413
where q5'=-45-7r/2=arg [E(co, d)] and E(co, d)= and the phase spectrum is
Eo(w, d)..
The real part of the amplitude-time function (45) Re 0.(w, d) = arg [f.(w, d)]
E(ti', d) is the desired function for the cosine source (41),
and the imaginary part -Im E(t', d) = Re [iE(t', d) ] is = arg [f(w, d) + f(-w, d)] (w > 0). (49)
the desired function for the sine source (42). This inte-
gral can be evaluated with the aid of quadrature tech- The phase, cfr.(w, d) can be reckoned (Fig. 9) from the
niques [23]. Thus, the problem has been reduced to the origin t' = 0 to the crest of the continuous wave or Fou-
evaluation of a real integral rier spectrum wave at a certain frequency (0.2 Mc, Fig.
9). The corresponding amplitude If(w, d) does not
correspond to the amplitude of the integrand Fj(w, d).
rX
E(t', d) = Ft(w, d)dw The two waves do intersect, however, at the point
t'= 10 ,usec, (see, e.g., Fig. 9), at which point the Fourier
spectrum wave enters the integration (45) with a phase
- Re f f(w, d) exp (iwt)dw. (46) shift beyond the crest of the wave. Thus, the Fourier
_m spectrum waves will all be phase advanced by different
amounts between the zero and infinite frequency limits
The transfer function for the ground wave, E(Q, d), of integration. The Fourier spectrum wave, f.,(w, d),
(38) which can now be inserted directly in the integrand could, therefore, represent exactly the signal observed
of the Fourier integral is illustrated in Figs. 7 and 8. through a receiver, if and only if the receiver transfer
Since the transfer characteristic E(co, d) =Eo(w, d) is function, fr(co), as shown in (1), (39), introduced an
complex, both anmplitude and phase are presented as a "infinite Q" or zero bandwidth circuit into the trans-
function of frequency for various distances. The phase is form, Ft(w, d), such that only a single frequency was
presented as the phase lag ¢Ck where the total true phase admitted. But this is another way of saying the receiver
arg [E(w, d) ] = - [kid +4c+r/2 ]. The effect of the con- circuit rings or oscillates indefinitely as a result of the
duction currents in the earth on the propagation has "high Q" of the circuit. Thus, in general, it is necessary
been introduced as the conductivity for typical land, to perform the integration (1), (39) for each time t' from
a = 0.005 mho/m. The effect of the displacement cur- zero to infinite frequency to describe the signal E(t', d).
rents in the earth on the propagation has been intro- Fortunately the wave (Fig. 9) Ft(w, d) damps out rap-
duced by the dielectric constant E2 = 15 (relative to a idly as the frequency f is increased. Indeed, the particu-
vacuum). The permeability yLo=4ir(10-7) henry/meter lar wave illustrated (Fig. 9) applies to short distances
has been assumed. The use of the series of residues ap- (d = 50 statute miles) whereas for greater distances [23]
plicable to propagation about a spherical earth takes the integrand for the case of the ground wave pulse is
account of the vertical lapse of the index of refraction of rather severely mutilated by the transfer function
the earth's atmosphere [I] by the factor a (38) where (Figs. 7, 8) such that the wave Ft(w, d) damps out in a
a-0.75. Although it has been assumed that both trans- cycle or fraction thereof, which is another way of sayinig
mitter and receiver are located on the surface of the the integral E(t', d), (1) converges rapidly. This con-
earth, the effect of elevating transmitter and/or receiver vergence phenomenon, together with any further muti-
can be introduced by multiplying each term of the series lation introduced by the receiver transfer characteristic
of residues (38) by the factorf8(h1)f8(h2) where hi and h2 Jfr(w) can be exploited in the application of quadrature
are the height of the transmitter and receiver, respec- techniques on the integral [23 ].
tively, above the surface of the earth, and (1), (13), (18) The detailed structure of the transient for various
combinations of characteristic frequencyf =wc/27r and
dampinig cl for both sine and cosine source functions are
v 1 2 /3 - 2habl/3 -
illustrated in Figs. 10-13 (pp. 414-415). The dispersion of
IV 2 (kia)213 - 2T
the pulse at great distance is evident in the illustrationis.
f8(h) = The most noteworthy attribute of this dispersion was ani
IV2{ -(2)"1/3,r
increase in the natural period of the pulse or a stretching
of the pulse in the time domain. The propagation me-
in which lv(z) is the modified Hankel function tabulated dium thus illustrated, assuming a perfect
(infinite
by Furry [24 ]. bandwidth) receiver fr(w) = 1 filters the signal, and
The integrand of the Fourier integral (Fig. 9) in the indeed at the greater distances the exact form of the
frequency-amplitude plane at some given local time t' source becomes obscured by the filtering action.
can be related to the more conventional notion of the The cosine source (Figs. 11 and 13) employs an
Fourier spectrum f(c(w, d) by eliminating the notion of a abrupt initial current. The radiated field therefore prop-
negative frequency Thus, the amplitude spectrum is agated an impulse type of function which is superposed
w.

upon the sinusoid. This can be explained quite simply

I f2(w, d) I = I f(Co,d) + f(- , d)| (w > 0) (48) for the case of an infinitely conducting earth with the
414

o
Vg

U)4)
12001
E 8° 0'°

4(101
2101

-49

-2(169)

-20A
0.
'0

|1
10
1505

20 30

___
40 50 60
PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE

70 80 90 100

_
uT
E

V)
3C

-a

lT

-0
.1

I0

400-1
2(10-I)
-2,If0
0

O_ 20 60 40 80
VERTICAL ELECTRIC DIPOLE SOURCE

100
IXtt

.S
1of= ampere-meter; f=I-Okc
c, =2.5(io5);

^1>
120
1f1^

~~~
o0=0.005 mhos/meter

i
If2= 5

140
IAX

\-
\~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
4
160
$1vX

i .
.1 pril

180
1nt
__
20',
4tir~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

0e 04 'E
T

z 02 - -3E

c
2 0)

el
-04.0
5 15 20 25 30 35 40
"I -ti
Time. t Microseconds -O 5 iO 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. 10-Instanltaneous signlal atod c orrespondliiog damped LF sinle Time, t Microseconds
wave soulrce currenlt of a1 propalgated groulnd ssave pullse.
Fig. 11- Instanitanieous sigInal anid correspoindinig daniped LF cosinie
xs ave souirce (current of a1 propagated gronioid wave ptulse.

aid of the convenient Laplace tranisform

The finiite bandwidth of a radio receiver or filter,
E(s) =1 (v= 0)
fr(°) #;£ 1, cani be introduced by a mutilation of the Fou-
(50°)
rier transform with onie or more frequency selective niet-
where s =iw. The inverse Laplace tranisform £-C is works. Perhaps the simplest nietwork is the followinig
f ,1
\series network:
E(t', d) = £''E(s) (t) (-51) =

R
(ico)
where the Dirac impulse funlctioln 6(t') can be definied in I

relation to the step funictioin u(t); thus, fr (co) - R I

rt
b()dt =(t),
,,j
where
u(t)=1,
u(t) =O
The impulse is, of course, finiite in the danmped cosine
wave (amplitude and durationi finlite) as a result of the
finite conductivity of the ground, the displacement cur-
rents in the ground and the effect of the earth's curva-
ture. The transient response of the ground wave at
great distances illustrates (Figs. 12-14, pp. 415-416) the
stretching of such pulses in the time domain.
(54)
-co2 +- (iw) +
L
-
C'L
(52)
where R is a resistive elemnenit (ohms) L is an iniductive
element (henry) and C is a capacitive element (farads).
The n1odificationi of the pulse by the finite bandwidth
so described (54) for particular values of R, L anid C is
I>0
illustrated in Figs. 15 anid 16, p. 416). The ringinig of the
t < 0. (53) circuit becomes evident (Fig. 16) as the constants R, L
and C are changed so that the bandwidth becomes quite
narrow, i.e., the Fourier spectrumii wave, fJ0(w, d) is ap-
proached asymptotically.
The damped sine-squared pulse, of which the enive-
lope shape, defined by sinil w, can serve as a useful nmodel
for the type pulse employed in radio navigation sys-
tems. Such a pulse can be syiothesized quite simiply by
redefining the source funiction F,(t), (41), (42),
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 415
14(0- 13)
VERTICAL ELECTRIC DIPOLE SOURCE F-..
12 (10-13) VERTICAL ELECTRIC DIPOLE SOURCE -
I I l-I aTr e-meter; fc 17kc -
10o ampere-meter; fc- 17 kc
=

((I2)I to0(i0-')
cl - 3(104); cr- 0,005 mhos/meter - cl=3(104). a- = 0005 mhos/meter
P.215 1 8 (10 13)
E-6E-C,
ll

/ ~. \ s2=15; E'= E-Ec

E 6 (10 13)
0

<
-\t=C2+iwc, C2=3(O3
where-
-
0 4(1003)
Re Fs (t) = [exp (-c1t) - exp (-c21)] cos wCt
-n iti"12~ I] x 2(10 13)
3(0) KO
0

20
E */\) - 0-13) II II
- 10
0

4(109° } 2(10- °
tW 2(109) ~2(1°-!3 f\

-(20-9) -((010)

-E E 20Lo OO-p
°
0 0n
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
__9_

A?
E
0
to

0?
1._
0

0.5

-nhS .I I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 40 160 10 200 c

Time, t' Microseconds ,

E
Lu

n; E 7. ----.qource E'
Fig. 12-IInstantaneous signal and correspondinig damped VLF sine
wave source current of a propagated ground wave pulse. us -r
w ,r
a 4>
cE x
R

Re F0(t) = exp (-cit) sin2 o.,t sin w,t (55) V.Vi .I

20 0
AAI
40 60 s0 (00 120 140 0 U10 200
1 Time, t. Microseconds
Re F,(t) = exp (- cit) sincot
-_ (-c1t) sin (w, + 2cow)t
exp Fig. 13-Instantaneous signal and corresponding damped VLF cosine
wave source current of a propagated ground wave pulse illustrat-
- 4 exp (-cit) sin (wc 2co)t. - (56) ing the introduction of a less abrupt initial source current.
i i

Fs(t) = - exp (-Pt)- - exp (vpt) where A i = i/2, A2 =-i/4, A3 =-i/4. A particular
2 4
sine-squared pulse Re E(t', d) is illustrated in Fig. 17
--exp (-V2t), (57) (p. 417) together with the amplitude envelope E(t', d) |.
4 The source functions which represent natural phe-
nomena, such as sferics (the electromagnetic radiation
where from thunderstorms), will not, in general, have the pre-
=
cl + iwc (as before) cise mathematical form of a damped sinusoid, impulse
Vo = C1 + i(w, + 2wo)
function or step function. Since the application of the
superposition principle is not always practical, another
P2 =
C1 + i(cw,- 2p). approach to the general problem is appropriate [23],
The typical radio navigation type pulse has a value
[25]. Indeed, it is quite possible to extend the theory to
for cl of the order of cop. It is quite obvious, however, that complicated waveforms. Consider an experiment in
which the signal Re E(t', d) is observed and recorded
the amplitude time function E(t', d) for the damped
at some distance d, from the source. The theory is then
sine-squared pulse is merely the sum of three waves required to predict the form of the signal recorded at
calculated as previously described (45). some other distance d2. The theory is also required to
E(t', d) = AI E,(t', d) + A2Ep,(t', d) + A 3E,,(t', d), (58) determine the form of the source F8(t).
416

l
L-

O
._

cr,
.

a
L
PROCEEDINGS OF TIIE IRE

VERTICAL ELECTRIC DIPOLE SOURCE

1 = ampere meter (step function)
d-1000 miles
c = 0.005 mhos /meter

2=15
-1

-J

-1
A pril

20 40

Tire, t, Microseconds

Fig. 14 The step and imiipulse source currenit radiation

of the ground wave.

Time, t'Microseconds
Fig. 15-Comparison of the calculation of the pulse observed through Fig. 16-Comparison of the calculation of the pulse observed through
an infinite bandwidth receiver (fr(@) 11 with the calculation of
=
an infinite bandwidth [fr(w) 11 receiver with the calculation of
the same pulse observed through a finite bandwidth receiver
=

Lfr(c") illustratinig the effect of "narrow-band" as compared the same pulse observed through a finite bandwidth receiver
with "broad-balnd" receiver. Ifr(,co) 1.
=
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 417
also

cr JxW2 (co, di)

) fE(w,7 di) E(w,d2) (63)
n

- and
l-i

E(t', d2) = (co d2) cos [wt' +

f(, 0;(w, d.)]dcd. (64)
a:
Thus, with the aid of quadrature techniques [24], [26],
LD
n-
the analysis of the detail of transient signals could be
continued ad infinitum.
V. IONOSPHERIC WAVES
cr The essential nature of the propagation of the iono-
spheric waves is described by the four reflection coeffi-
cients (36), (37) Tee, Tem Trrmmn Tine. These reflection co-
efficients can be employed in VLF mode calculations in
a method developed by Wait [26]. T hese reflection co-
efficients have been employed directly in geomnetric-
optical calculations [12 ]. In the latter the angle of inci-
t'(fL sec)
dence Xi is real. In either case a form of polarizationi
- IFs(t)I,THE AMPLITUDE ENVELOPE OF THE SOURCE coupling between vertically anid horizonitally polarized
Re Fs(t), THE SOURCE CURRENT MOMENT
waves external to the ionosphere canl be noted. This is
most obvious in the calculation of the effective reflection
coefficient of the geometric-optical theory Cj (Fig. 4).
Notice that each reflection from the ionosphere gives rise
to both horizontal and vertical polarization as a conise-
quence of the generation of the abnormal componenit,
in spite of the fact that the incident wave comprises
pure vertical or horizontal polarization. Thus, the ab-
t (psec) normal component cannot be ignored in the case of ver-
Fig. 17-The damped sine-squared pulse, illustrating synthesis of a
tically polarized transmitter and receiver for the or-
radio-navigationi system-type pulse with corresponding amplitude dered propagation rays, j> 1, i.e., j= 2, 3, 4, . This
envelope. is a form of coupling between wave polarizations quite
distinct from the coupling between the magneto-ionic
propagation components within the ionosphere to be
The complex spectrum (48), (49) can be determined described subsequently.
directly from the observed signal Re E(t', d): The evaluation of the reflection and transmission
rX processes at the ionosphere is the most complicated part
fM(w, d) = exp (-iwt') Re E(t', d)dt'. (59) of the problem of describing the transform of the signal
Ej(co, d) for any individual time-ordered ionospheric
The complex spectrum of the source fx,8(wo) can then be propagation ray j= 1, 2, 3, . . The index of refraction
determined of the ionosphere is first determined. The lower bound-
ary of a model electron-ion plasma (Fig. 5) below which
fMw, d) (z <0) the ionization is nil (N = O) or zero electron
(0

=
E(w,d) (60) density, is considered to be the xy plane. The region
above the xy plane (z > 0) is characterized by an electron
Since the real part of the signal Re E(t', d) was em- density N and a collision frequency v which vary with
ployed, the source function Re F8(t). can be described respect to altitude z. A plane wave Ei gives
ex Ei |IiI exp [iwt D (65)
F,(t)
=

= exp (x)z8Xdo (61)

21r co

where the index of refraction (z<0), i7 =t7o = 1, is the

c
or
speed of light c-3(108) m/sec and the quantity D is re-
1 lated to other parameters (Fig. 5) [19 ], [ 20 ], [ 27 ].
I{cos [wt + x,a(cw)] I d@o, (62)
0x
F (t) =- f.a(W) D = x sin 4i sin 4a + y sin4i cos4a + z cs 9i, (66)
7ro
418 PROCEEDINGS OF T'HE IRE .gA pril

is varying harmonicallv in tinmie t at a frequency f=w/2wr trolns per cubic meter (usually expressed as electronis/cc)
anid is assumed to be incident upon the xy plane at an withl charge e, mass m, aind vector velocity V, where IA(
aingle of inicidence q5i and a miagnetic azimuth 0,, is meas- anid e0 are the permneability aind pernittivity of space,
ured clockwise fromii the yz planie for the directioni of respectively. The collisioin frequenicy faictor g is as-
propagationi. The earth's imaginetic field vector I,,, sumed to be a con-staint real iiumliber with respect to
ampere-turns/nmeter is cointained in the yz plaine at a frequency; g--p is the classical miiagineto-ioiiic theory.
dip or inclin-ationi anigle I (miieasured from the hori- After elimiinlatinig the vectors V anid h, it can be coni-
zontal). cluded that field E exists iii the miiediuLmi if ct qal(jrtic
A resultanit wave Et transmitted inito the ionosphere equation in , is satisfied [I 1, [ 19 ], [20 ], [ 28 1,
miiodel (z>O) (Figs. 5 and 18) is thein assumed to have
the formn aU4~4 + a3,3 + a2t2 + ajt + (a0 = 0 (71)
where the coefficienits of this quartic are definied in the
Et- |' It exp i ct - -ID (67) Appenidix. The roots of this equationi ( ) are quite
simply related to the index of refractioni of the mniediuimi
where, in the plasma mi,odel, X or the wave nunmber k = (wlc)Pq, sitnce
= x sin. sin. 0, + ysin4icos4, + zs (68) '= -2 + Sin12 4t. (72)
in which v is, in general, a complex number, the value of The existeince of a quartic equationi in the inidex of
which will depenid upoIn altitude z, ¢-=(z). refraction as a direct consequenice of the simiultanieotus
The quantity ¢ is determined by a simnultaneous solu- solutioni of M\Iaxwell's equationis, (69) atnd the equationi
tion of Maxwell's equations of motioni of the electron (70) was first noted by Booker
aHt anid the Booker quartic is more or less equivalenit to (71).
V X F + Lot = 0, Two pairs of roots ¢ canl be found [19] where eachi
(t
root cani be identified as either ordinary or extraordi-
nary, upgoinig or downigoinig mnagnieto-ionic propagat ion
VX - f- -o--= °'
at
(69) component withini the mncodel ioniosphere plasim-a.
Sinice the electroni denisity and collisioni frequency
and the equation of motioni of ain electroIn (Laingevinl cani vary with respect to altitude z, a mnodel plasmia
equation) which cani be deformed to fit miiost any- ineasured or
dV - theoretical electroni-ioni profile, N(h), N(z), is desirable
m-+ mgV+ lioe(V X Hm)+ eE = 0 (70) fromii the theoretical viewpoint to completely describe
dt
the reflectioni and transimissioni process at the ion-io-
with the electric field E, the magnetic field H7 (electro- sphere. Several approaches to this problem have beeni
dynamic as distiniguished from I7.. the static field of the utilized by various authors such as Buddeii 16] and Bar-
earth), the convection currenit J= -NeV for N elec- roni [7]. The nlotioIn of a continuously varyinig mediumi

- ORDINARY (o) MODE

-EXTRAORDINARY (e) MODE H,
|fl UPGOING 0) AND DOWNGOING
WAVES ARE COUPLED AT EACH BOUNDARY
Fig. 18-Structure of the flexible plasma miiodel, illustrating ordinary
and extraordinary propagation components, coupled at the bound-
aries. Each slab (z,, n = 1, 2, 3, * * , p) becomes smaller as the
number of slabs (p) is increased, until a stable reflection is ob-
tained. z is always infinite where each N = N, v = vn corresponds
to median values of the intervals (Z,), respectively, of the par-
ticular profile under investigation.
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low- Frequency Signal 419

has beeni treated by approximating the medium with reflection or transmission process at the ioniosphere,
one or more slabs of uniform compositioni as exemplified except for the topmost slab, where only the upgoing
by the works of Brekhovskikh [29], Hines [30], Ferraro waves are considered.
and Gibbon [31 J. Such methods have been exploited It is necessary to distiniguish between the ordiniary
by Johler and Harper [27], and carried to the limit, and extraordi nary magneto-ionic componients of propa-
such that the number of slabs p for each calculation de- gation for both the upgoing anid downgoing waves.
pends upon the computation precision required and the This is accomplished by an examination of the form of
particular values of the electric and geometric pa- the index of refraction function with respect to fre-
ranmeters. quency and altitude (or electron density and collision
The detailed structture of such a flexible model is il- frequenicy which varies with respect to altitude). Thus,
lustrated in Fig. 18 as a stack of plasma slabs of arbi- the index of refractioni v [as defined by (71), (72) ] is de-
trary thickness (but consistent with computation effi- tailed for each frequenicy and slab zn, 7 = 7n,. The upgoing
ciency) zn except the topmost slab of thickness zp= co. ordiniary and extraordinary 77)e and the downgoinig
The number of such slabs p is also quite flexible, since ordinary and extraordinary 1,7),e function conitinuity is
the notion is implied in such a model that the measured examiined in detail as a function of frequency to deter-
electron density-altitude, N(h) or N(z) profile, and col- mine, if any, the crossover points of the functions for
lision frequency altitude, v(h) or v(z) profile, can be ap- each slab or electron density under consideration.
proximated to any desired accuracy by decreasing zn The absolute distinction between ordinary and extraor-
and increasing p simultaneously until a stable reflection dinary magneto-ionic wave components [19], [27]
process is obtained. remains quite arbitrary, but the analysis must be con-
A constant electron density and collision frequency sistent between each slab and consistent within each
with respect to altitude z is of course assumed for each slab for upgoing anid downgoing waves.
slab. A set of four roots -=v of (71) are found to exist The reflection and transmission coefficients are de-
in each slab. Two of the roots will exhibit a negative termined by the boundary conditions which express at
imaginary (Im ¢ negative) corresponding to an upgoing the boundary of each slab the principle of continuity
wave (+z direction, Figs. and 18)
5 and two of these of the tangential E and H and the normal H fields
roots will correspond to a positive imaginary (Im r (Figs. 5 and 18) of the model plasma. These fields are
positive) corresponding to a downgoing wave (-z direc- equated immediately above and below each boundary
tion, Figs. 5 and 18). It is necessary to consider both up- and after considerable ado, a matrix equation is ob-
going and downgoing waves in the analysis of either the tained [27],

~at,la,,2ai, 3a,,4al,,6al ,6 Tein, T-M aoe) aom

bl,lbl,2bl,,3b1,41b,5b1,6 T ee) Tine boe, born
(1) (1)
C1,iCl,2il,3C1,4C1,5C1,6 Ueioy Coe
(1) (1) dont
dl,ldl,2d,,3dl,4 d,,5d,,6 Ueio, doe)
(1) (1)
a2,3(a2,4 a2,5 a2,6 a2,7a2,8 a2,9a2,l0 Uero) Ummo
(11) (1)
b2,3b2,4b2,51b2,6b2,7b2,8b2,9b2,10 Tere, Umre
(2)
(2)
C2,3C2,4C2,5C2,6C2,7C2,8 C2,9 C2,10 Urnio
(2) (2)
d4,3d2,4d2,5d2,6d2,7d2,8 d2, d2,10 Unie, Umie
(2)
(2)
a3,7(a3,8(a3,9a3, 0la3,l1 a3,2 a3,13 a3,14 U erOy U mro
(2) (2)
b3,7b3,8b3,9b3, l0b3, l1b3,12b3,13b3,14 Uere) ± - O, (73)
C3,7C3,8C3,9C3,10C3,11 C3,12C3,13C3,14
d3,7d3,8d3,9d3,l0d3,11 d3,12d3,13d3,14

u(p-i) (p 1)
Ueio, Umio
(p-i) (p-I)
Uete) Urnie
(p-i) (p-1)
U erol Umro
(P-1)
U ere
(p) (-)
Cp,p+4 . . .

Cp,p+9 Ue o
Umte-
u(p)
beic,
420 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE .11 pril

(09

NICOLET / 3

+@
^- \ ~~~~~~~~NN3.081'
1216 CST, 4 JULY 1957
10 7 -
st \ \ \
CHURCHILL -

z19551 \

CROMPTNu et cl (19531
1l06 -PWE

1\(953)

14 I1
50 60 70 g0 90 100 110 120
ELECTRON DENSITY, EL/CC ALTITUDE, h, KILOMETERS

Fig. 19-Electron denisity-altitude [N(h) or V(z)] (quiescent Fig. 20 Collisioni frequency-altitude [v(h) or v(z)l profiles
and disturbed) profiles. (Nicolet/3 was employed in calculations)).

where the elements of the matrix a1,, are defined in

. . .

the Appendix.
The upgoing ordinary and extraordinary and the
downgoing ordinary and extraordinary magneto-ionic
components of propagation are coupled within the iono-
sphere (Fig. 18) as a result of the introduction of the
boundary conditions described in concise form in the
nmatrix equationi (73). Thus, at the upper and lower
boundary of each slab, energy is transferred between
the four magneto-ionic components of propagationi
[four roots of the quartic equation (71)]. This type of
coupling is distinct from the coupling of the polarization complex collision frequency g could exhibit higher at-
components, external to the ionosphere described pre-
viously [beginning of Sectioni V-see also Fig. 4 and
(36) ].
The continuously stratified technique can be illus-
trated by evaluating reflections from an ionosphere
inodel determined by actual measured profiles of elec-
tron density (Fig. 19) and collision frequency (Fig. 20). energy as a modificationi of the coefficients of the quartic
A typical daytime-room profile N(h) presented by Way-
nick [32] (Fig. 19) anid a corresponding disturbed pro-
file of Seddoni and Jackson [33], indicative of the in-
tensity of ioniization during a local auroral zone ioino- neto-ionic theory remains unaltered at LF/VLF.
sonde blackout, were selected for purposes of illustrating
application of the described conitiniuous stratification
techniques. The region of the ionosphere oni the latter
curve, below 1000 electrons/cc, was represented (dashed
curve, Fig. 19) with a Gaussian distribution [6],
N = Nniax exp [-(z zrnax) /k'],
-
The reflection coefficients T'EE, 7',0, Tlh,, aiid Twnm were
evaluated (Figs. 21-28, pp. 421-422). The reflection co-
efficients for the quiescent profiles are illustrated in Figs.
19-25. The disturbed profiles reflection coefficienits are
illustrated in Figs. 26-28.
The reflection coefficients TC, 1Cnj show a steadNy
decrease in amplitude as the frequency is inicreased. A
small perceptible rise is nioted inear the gyrofrequency,
however. This was a result of the approximnationi
g-v [27] and the assumed model, whereas the use of a
tenuation niear the gyrofrequency. Such a complex col-
lision frequenicy can be deduced from the work of Phelps
[36], Molmlud [37], Janicel anid Kahani [38], where a
collisioin frequence vP=(u) proportional to the electroni
energy or temperature is derived. Johler aniid Harper
[27] have introduced electroni collisions proportionial to
equation (71). This, of course, introduces somiie changes
in the detail of the reflection coefficieints, but the general
formii of the reflection coefficients of the classical ihuag-
T'he miiagniitude of the abniormiial comiiponenits |en,I
6 also shows a decrement as a funictioni of frequency.
These components are quite small for the assumiied
imiodel ( < 0. 1 at 10 kc, for examnple). The correspondintg
disturbed blackout reflection coefficients imply a slight
chatnge in the angle of inicideence Oi as a result of a lower-
inig of the ionosphere. Ilowever, the principal cause of

where the constanits N10ax, z.,I,., and k' were determined chanige as a result of this profile is, nievertlheless, the re-
bv the measuredl profile > 1000 electronis/cc. In par- distribution of the electron density-altitude profile. It
ticular, Nmax 26,000, Zm1a, = 85,000, k' 1.92 (108). is iinterestinig to niote an inlcreased aIttellUation at the
The Nicolet/3 collision frequency [34], [35] was em- higher frequencies 100 kc to 1000 kc. I-lowever, the hiigh
ployed in this analysis. These collision frequencies are attenuation or total ionosonde blackout which char-
applicable to the classical magneto-ionic theory employ- acterizes high frequencies does iiot seemli to exist at LF.
inlg the approximation g-v [27], [36] in the equation of Indeed, an enhancement in the field is aniticipated from
motion of the electroni (70). this profile at VLF ( < 30 kc).
1962 Johler: Propagation oj Low-Frequency Signal 421

IA

1.2
cn
_ 1.0 z
1- a
F-

a~ 0-

4 i-

I-

Ut)
0.4
0.

02.i
4X 0o 2X 10
FREQUENCY, CYCLES/SECOND
Fig. 21-Reflection coefficients (amplitude and phase) of the lower Fig. 22 Reflection coefficients (amplitude and phase) of the lower
ionosphere for LF's, illustrating the frequency dependence of the ionosphere for LF's, illustrating the frequencoy dependence of the
classical magneto-ionic theory (aO =0, 180°). ctassical magneto-ionic theory (4k, =90', 270 ), vertical polariza-
tion (Tee, Ter).

W
z
T- co
z
Li a
i: C)
a:

:3 a -J
-j
Q.
LA; a.
I-
U) 0)
0.
0.

c /
T,,,l at 0a -
90

D
1044 2 x 10 4 x 1044 105 2X00 4 X 105 t0 80 120 160 200 240 280 320
FREQUENCY, CYCLES /SECOND MAGNETIC AZIMUTH,O., DEGREES
Fig. 23-Reflection coefficients (amplitude and phase) of the lower Fig. 24-Reflection coefficients (amplitude and phase) of the lower
ionosphere for LF's, illustrating the frequency dependence of the ionosphere for LF's, illustrating the action of the Lorentzian force
classical magneto-ionic theory (+, =90', 2700), horizontal polari- (earth's magnetic field) in the classical magneto-ionic theory
zation (Tmni1, Tm.). (f20 kc).

0.40 1 7
f IOOkc/s
036 Hm = 05
I 60'
032 = 81.80

028 l-Teel v 4
4

024 z

Q20 _
rg Tem
a.~~~~
arg Tme
016 g tee
-\ __ I

MAGNETIC AZIMUTH, O,, DEGREES

Fig. 25-Reflection coefficients (amplitude and phase) of the lower

ionosphere for LF's, illustrating the action of the Lorentzian force
(earth's magnetic field) in the classical magneto-ionic theory
(f= 100 kc).
422 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE A pril

CO,
z
H
4
5 i0 iI,4 z
0
w 0.8 40
0
C4
e) P
-j
a.
a:
-1-4 O
! X
J,

4 cn

Q Peml at o, zO 1 \
I
0
-B I
LIOTmeJ at fa 180= N<X'
02 fITmeOIat 00 z

AfTemi at Oa e c
\ z; 16
104 2 X 104 4 X le 105 2 x 105 v104 2 X 104 4 X 104 105 2 X 105 4 X 105 106
FREQUENCY, CYCLES/SECOND FREQUENCY, CYCLES / SECOND

Fig. 26-Reflection coefficients (amiiplitude and phase) of the lower
ionosphere for LF's during disturbed conditionis, illustratinig the
frequenicy dependence of the classical magneto-ionic theory.
ITe,I and IT., are also illustrated for comparison with the
quiescenit conditionis (see Figs. 21-25 for complete reflection co-
efficients). ( =0,
0 180'.)
Fig. 27-Reflectioni coefficienits 'amiiplitude an(d phase) of the lower
ionosphere for LF's during distuirbed conditionis, illustratinig the
frequency depenidence of the classical mageneto-ioniic theory.
Tee and T,71,m are also illustrated for comparisoni with quiescent
conditions (see Figs. 21-25 for complete reflection coefficients).
(g, =90', 270°, vertical polarization Tee, Tern)

I ~~~~~~~12
BLACKOUT MODEL
PLASMA
--- QUIESCENT MODEL 8

PLASMA
-goao 270 -4 z
Hm*.5 cS
j- 60.2
I l
,,, 0.8 O

0.6
0'
a. 2a270-\
4
\\ ~~w
0.4- c
-8ro-<
ma

4X104 le 2XIO0
FREQUENCY, CYCLES/SECOND

Fig. 28-Reflection coefficients (amplittide anid phase) of the lower

ionosphere for LF's duiring disturbed conditions, illustratinlg the
frequency dependenice of the classical magneto-ionic theory.
IT, and IT are also illustrated for comparisoin with quies-
cent conditions (see Figs. 21-25 for complete reflectioni coeffi-
cients). (0a =90°, 2700, horizonital polarization, T.,,T,,,Lic.)

The effect of the Lorentzian force, iA-oe(V> xH.), [see
(70) or the action of the earth's mnagnietic field oni the
, ioinospheric signals E1(t', d) will thus be determinied.
reflectioni process is also illustrated ill Figs. 24 and 25.
The reflectioin coefficients are illustrated here as a func-
tioni of mnagiietic azimuth q, (Fig. 5). Note the propaga-
tioIn into the west, X =2700, shows simaller reflection
coefficienit than the propagation intto the east, b -=900,
for the particular example illustrated. This seemiis to be
quite genierally valid for grazinig inicideince type tratns-
mllissioni, qi-82'. This clearly inidicates a nonreciprocity
in the tranismission, i.e., the interchanige of transmitter
and receiver would Inot produce the same field.
Although the ioniosphere reflections are quite initri-
cate, it is quite feasible to evaluate the field of eaclh
ioniospheric propagation ray, Ej(w, d), (7), (8) or the
total field, E(w, d). The applicationi of the transforma-
tion techniques (1)-(4), (39), (41)-(46) catn then be
applied to particular signal sources (as was illustrated
for the grounid wave, Sectioni IV), F0,(t). The propagatedl
VI'l. CONCLUSIONS
Low frequeincies exhibit properties whiclh are quite
a favorable to high reliability anid precisionl radio naviga-
tioni-timiinig. In particular, the grounid wave signal is
especially favorable at distanices less thani 2000 statute
iiiiles (3200 kin), i.e., the pulse type transmnissions re-
solve or sort oult the iiidividual propagation rays. At
greater distanices the signials propagated via ioniospheric
propagation rays also exhibit favorable properties, pro-
vided againi the inidividual ioniospheric propagation
rays are sorted in the timiie domiiaini. The detailed investi-
gationi of these properties is ioNo required cas a result of
the economic anid scientific importance of the tnavigatioln
timing and communicationis systemns nowt operati ng
at LF.
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 423
APPENDIX
The coefficients of the quartic equation (71) are

ao= (a 1)2[1- ]+ (a2 -1) + aL2AT2 s-1 (74)

s2 - /12 s S2 - h2 S(S2 - h2) s(s2 h2)
hLhTaL
a,= 2 (a2 2

(75)
S(S2 - h2)
{ [iA]+L } (a2_1)++ 2aL2 s - 2 1
a2 <2LI2A2J(a2+
(5A) ss-2 + (76)
s2 -h2 - S(S2 h2) s S(S2 - 2) S2
s b2 S
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s

a3 2 ALA'TaL22)
- ,)
= -asec2i -all/(1 - a2) (77)
S2- L2
a-. _ -

S(S2- h2)
(78)

S= 2 -i
-
- (79)
3N2- co)

where (Fig. 18) v = v,, the collision frequency of the par-

ticular altitude n under investigation is

(80)
(ON2

hL t- A sin I, (81)
kT = h COS I, (82)
aL = sin ('P COS Oal aT = sin ki sin 'Oa, (83)
a = sin 4i, (84)
WN = Ne2/Km, (85)
and the electron density of the particular slab n (Fig.
18) under investigation is
WH = A(oeHm/m, (86)
K = 1, IC2AO = EO. (87)
The elements of the matrix equation (73) are defined:
a1,, = cos 04 b, -,=-sin
5f

ai,2 = -Cos sin b ,2 = -cos'i cosS a

(1)
al,3 =
Qio bi,3 = - 1
(1)
a,,4 b,4 = - 1
(1)
= Qro bl, = -1
(1)
a1,6 =
- Qre b,6 = - 1
w (1)1
a2,3 =
-ai,:3exp -Lti-zl2iJ b2,3 = exp $-i
- Zij]
C
(A) (1)
a2,4 = - al,4 exp L-t- z1liej b2,4 = exp - ir-zjt',
, (1)
a2,5 = -al,5 exp -i - zlro b2,= exp $-i-Zlrro
C
424 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE A pril

a2,6 = -a i,6 exp [-i lre b2,,l -exp -i- Zlrf]

(2)
a2,7 = -Q b2,7 - 1
(2) -1
a2,8 - Qi b2,8
(2)
a2,9 = -Qro b,--1
(2)
a2,10 - Qre b2, -

a3,7 -a27 exp [-i-2tio] b3,7 = exp [-i- Z2¢io]

cow (2)1 W (2)

a3,8 -a2,8 exp Z2tie b3,8 = exp - ZS e

a3,9 -a2,9 exp -- Z2tro b3,9 = exp [ [ i a1 Z2¢o~(2)]

613,10 =- 61210 exp --Z2tre] b3o exp $ Z2~re]

(3)
a3,11 = Qio b, -1
(3)
a3 ,.2 - Qi b3,12 -1
a13,I3 - Qro b3,13 1

a3,14 -
(3)
Qrc b3,14 1

C) (pl ) L--1
a6p,p+4 = -ap-,,p+4 exp [-i--zp-Qio
_ c

ap,p-+9=Qic
cl,l =
-coS
- 4i Sin 4)0 - cos 4)
d,I= [A r X_ cos oa,aT-Pic
C1,2 = - COS f) dl2= sin Oa~
(1) (1)
Cl,3 = - [aLP.iQ - io j dlu3 =ll - [ Qi - aTP,o
(1) (1) (1)
(G1,4 = - IaLPc - ¢i> I
, -1 p(1)
( (1 1
(1) ]
dl,- - - ro Qro -61TPj
~ I
dl,6 =-- ?'([P Q?(' a7,P,- I
(1) (1)

C2,5 - - [aLP.0 -¢r

G! 3 - -ca,L Pi'
eX L-Z-.
(1)P - 1 d,3 dl3 exp [-i zi1jo]
(1)1 = -
W

C2,3 = - CG, eXp -1 Zllio d2,4 = - dl,4 exp zl

c

C2.4- CIA exp

=
z(1j d25= -dlsexp[-i Zliro]

C2,6 = - C1,6 eXp -Z- Zltre d2 --d,6 exp 2- 1zt.,,

(2,) (2) (2) (2)
C2,7 = [0Pv i d2,7 = -Lio Qio a TPw ]
C2,8 = -
P(2) ~(2)
[aLP PicJ
. d2, =--[(2)Q (2) _ 7, i I
Qr(2)-
P(2) (2)] 2)
C2,9 - [aL Pro - ro d2,9d,==~
-
- Q(2
ro r - a TP?o
C
2

(2) (2)
C2,10 == - [6aLPre - ? c I d210= k-
-
V(2) Qie(2) - a1TP,.,I
1962 Johler: Propagation of Low-Frequency Signal 425

C3,7 = -C2,7 exp (-iZ2)i] d3, 7 = -d2,7 exp [-i - z2o)]

C3= -C2,8 exp [-i-z2e] d3,8 = -d2,8 exp [-i-Lz2tK ]

C3,9 = -C2,g exp [-i-z27 ]ro d3,9 = -d2,9 exp [-if-z2to2]

C3,10 = C2,1 eXp [-i- 2re d3,10 = - d2o0 exp [-i- z2tr ]
(3) (3) (3) Q(3) (3)
C3,11 = - [aLPio -io ] d3,= - o Qio - aTPio ]
C3,12 = aLPie - e I d - e ic - a Ppe ]
3) (3) [~(3) Q(3)
C313= - aLPro - Pro I d33 - Lro Qro - aTPro(3) ]
C3,14 =-[aLPre - , I 3 -14
= - Qre - aTPre']

Cp,p+4 -=-Cl,p+4 exp [-i-Zp 1io ] dp,p+4 =-d i,p+4 exp co ]

Cpp+9 - [ILPie -
] d = -d QieaTP(e
- ]

aoe = cos o/ sinfa

boe = cos 'k Cos 'k
co, = - Cos 'ka
doe = sin i0a
aor = cos (ka
bomr = - sin /a
Com = COS (i sin qka
dorn = Cos 'i CoS 'k,
and
P = Ez/Ey, Q = EX/Ey,.
Both transmission coefficients U and reflection coeffi-
cients T previously introduced (37) are determined by
the matrix. The U's are defined as
(n) (n)
(n) Ebyio (n) Eyro
Ueio - Uero =
Ey,,, Ey,
(n) (n)
(n) Ejwo (t) ~Eyro
UMn io =Umro =

Ex'i E,zi (88)

(n) (n)
(a1) Fyie (n) Eyre
Ueie=i Uere = E
EF,j, Ey,
(n) (n)
(it) ie (n) Fyre
Umrie -
Urnre =
426 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IRE A pril

The analytic expressions for the complex numbers REFERENCES

p(),
po),pI), pn), e Q(n) can be derived [1 H. Bremmer, "Terrestrial Radio Waves Theory of Propaga-
tion," Elsevier Publishing Co., New York, N. Y.; 1949.
from the definitions by a simultanieous solution of MVax- 121 J. R. Wait, "Diffractioni theory for LF sky-wave propagatioll,"
well's equation (69) and the equation of motion of the J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66, 1713--- 730; Jtune, 1961.
electron (70) with the following result: [31 G. Hefley, "Timing potenitials of Loran-C," Signal J. Armed
Forces Commun. and Electronics s.so(.. vwol. 15, pp. 45-47;
Februarv, 1961.

aLr + -haL)]
][t _ ] + [aLaT - ][ ]-

p= (89)
[1 S211L2s2] [ ]L2-[ _ ][
shTh

SlS2- 2 ]2-2_
i- I/+IT2
(S2 I2) 2 Il2 +(2h 2]

s2 - hlL 2- [h7,
- /I 1h
(90)
a2 - - aL2 -2 __ h_ a T. + i a TD i
S(S21 h2) __ S2

where the particular slab (Fig. 18) n 1, 2, 3, [41 W. P. Frantz, W. N. Dean, and R. C. Frank, "A precisioin multi-
radio navigation system,'" 1957 IRE CONV ENTION
=

purpose
p - 1, p under consideration is designated by the nota- RECORD, pt. 8, pp. 79-120.
tion ¢ (n)' p =p(n) Q= Q(n), and io, ie, ro, and re refer [51 J. S. Belrose, W. L. Hattoni, C. A. MclKerrow, aind R. S. Thain,
"The engineering of communicationi systems for low radio-
to the four roots of the quartic in r for upgoing, down- frequencies," PROC. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 661-680; May, 1959.
going, ordinary, aiid extraordinary waves, respectively, [61 K. G. Budden, "The numerical solutioni of the differential equa-
tionis governing the reflection of long radio waves from the iono-
in the particular part zn of the electroni-ion plasma under sphere, II,` Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A, Phil. Trans., vol. 248,
pp. 45-72; 1955-1956.
consideration. [71 D. W. Barron, "The numerical solutioii of differenitial equation's
The factor Fat r can be written [12] governing the reflexion of long radio waves from the ionosphere,
IV," Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A, vol. 260, pp. 393-408: March,
t,r (7)-'1/2
F= = exp [-ik,a6'] 1961.
[8] H. Hertz, "Die Krafte Elektrischer Schwingunigen Behnadelt
nach der Maxwell' schen Theorie," Ann. Phys. Chem. (Leipzig),
{J0 exp [-i(kla/2)1/30"'a] vol. 36, pp. 1-22; 1889.
[9] H. A. Lorenitz, "The Theory of Electronis and its Applicatiolns to
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ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
K. G. Budden, "Radio Waves in the Ionosphere," Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, London, England; 1961.
J. A. Ratcliffe, "Physics of the Upper Atmosphere," Academic Press,
London, England; 1960.
J. A. Ratcliffe, "Magneto-Ionic Theory and its Applications to the
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A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY ON GROUND
WAVE PULSES
L. Brillouin, Uber die Fortpflanzunig des Lichtes in Dispergiereniden
Medien," Ann. Phys., vol. 44, pp. 203-240; 1914.
J. R. Johler, "Propagation of the Radiofrequency Ground Wave
Transient over a Finitely Conducting Plane Earth," Geofis. pura e
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J. R. Johler, "Transient radiofrequency ground waves over the sur-
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J. R. Johler, "A Note on the Propagation of Certain LF Pulses Uti-
lized in a Radio Navigation System," U. S. Dept. of Commerce,
Office of ech. Services, Washington, D. C., NBS Tech. Note No.
118 PB 161619; October, 1961.
J. R. Johler and L. C. Walters, "Propagation of a ground wave pulse
around a finitely conducting spherical earth from a damped sinu-
soidal source current," IRE TRANS. ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGA-
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J. Keilson and R. V. Row, "Transfer of transient electromagnetic
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V. V. Novikov, "Propagation of a radio pulse over the surface of a
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V. V. Novikov and G. I. Makarov, "The propagation of pulse signals
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A. Sommerfeld, "Uber die Fortpflanzung des Lichtes in Dispergie-
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B. van der Pol, "On discontinuous electromagnetic waves and the oc-
currence of a surface wave," IRE TRANS. ON ANTENNAS AND PROP-
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J. R. Wait, "A note on the propagation of the transient ground wave,"
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J. R. Wait, "Propagation of a pulse across a coastline," PROC. IRE
(Correspondence), vol. 45, pp. 1550-1551; November, 1957.
J. R. Wait, "The transient behaviour of the electromagnetic ground
wave over a spherical earth," IRE TRANS. ON ANTENNAS AND
PROPAGATION, vol. AP-5, pp. 198-205; April, 1957.
J. R. Wait, "Transient fields of a vertical dipole over homogeneous
curved ground," Canad. J. Phys., vol. 34, p. 116; January, 1956.
J. R. Wait, "On the waveform of a radio atmospheric at short ranges,"
PROC. IRE (Correspondence), vol. 44, p. 1052; August, 1956.