Chapter 3:

Roadmap for 3rd chapter

➢ Bernoulli's Equation
● Applications (Venturi, low speed wind tunnel, pitot tube)
Laplace's Equation
➢

General philosophy and use

●

● Superposition principle

● Elementary flows (source, doublet, vortex)

● Semi-infinite and oval bodies

● Cylinder (lifting and non-lifting)

● Kutta-Joukowski Theorem

● General non-lifting bodies

● Numerical techniques (panel method)

Objective: to describe potential flow around an arbitrary

body (e.g. airfoil)
3-1
 Inviscid Incompressible Flow
Incompressible: ρ=const, low speed, M<0.3.
Inviscid: high Re# and away from solid boundaries.

thin viscous
(and rotational)
region

outer flow:inviscid (and irrotational)

3-2
 Bernoulli's Equation
links pressure and velocity for incompressible, inviscid
flow
Local form of momentum conservation:
∂
u 1
 u =− ∇ p f
u⋅∇ 
∂t 
Vector identity: 1

u⋅∇ 
u = ∇ u⋅
u −
u × ∇ ×
u
2

3-3
 Applying the vector identity, we get:
∂
u 1 1
 ∇ u⋅
u −  =− ∇ p f
u× 
∂t 2 

Assume steady flow and rearrange:

∇
  
p

1
u − f =
∇ u⋅
2
u ×


Assume a conservative body force: f =∇ H

(H is the body force potential).
Gravity:
3-4
 
Thus, we get: ∇ p  1 u⋅u  gy =u ×
 2


Let's integrate both sides of this equation along a line:

 
2 2
p 1
∫ ∇   2 u⋅u gy ⋅ds=
 ∫ u ×⋅ 
 ds
1 1

 is aligned with
(1) Along a streamline ds u.

But u ⊥ u × 
  ⇒
(2) Irrotational flow: 
 =0.

3-5
 Gradient theorem: ∫ ∇ F ⋅ds=F
 b − F a
C

⇒
 p 1
 u⋅
 2  
p 1
u gy −  u⋅
2  2
u gy =0
1

p 1
⇒  
 2
u⋅
u  gy=const

If flow is irrotational ( ), then B is the same constant

throughout the fluid.
Otherwise, B is a different constant along each streamline.
3-6
 Neglect the body force:
p 1
 u⋅
u =const
 2

What assumptions did we make in deriving the

Bernoulli's equation?
●

3-7
 Example: wind tunnel contraction
Assume: steady, quasi 1D,
incompressible
inviscid
Find: velocity from
pressure measurements.

3-8
3-9
 Incompressible flow in a duct.

3-10
 venturi (Venturi tube = tube with a constriction)

Applications:
● carburetors in cars

● spray generation

● airspeed measurements

● liquid (e.g. blood) flow

measurements

Schematic of siphon injector

3-11
 Wind tunnels:

3-12
 Example: analysis of airplane designs

(CFD, panel methods)

● Solve for the velocity over the body
● Use Bernoulli's equation to calculate the pressure on
the body 1 2 1 2
p  V = p ∞  V ∞
2 2
● Integrate the pressure to find lift
3-13
 Stagnation point/stagnation pressure

1 1
p  V = p ∞  V 2∞
2
2 2

3-14
 1
⇒
2
p 0 = p ∞  V ∞
2

Stagnation pressure – the pressure which would exist

at a point if the fluid there were brought to rest
(neglecting viscous effects)
static pressure – the pressure existing at a point in the
flow
dynamic pressure – the change in the pressure if the
fluid were brought to rest (neglecting viscous
effects).

3-15
 Example: Pitot-static probe

1 1
2 2
p1  V 1= p2  V 2
2 2 ⇒

3-16
 Pressure coefficient
p − p∞ 1
C p≝ q ∞=  V 2∞
q∞ 2

for incompressible flow (Bernoulli's equation):

1 1
2
p  V = p ∞  V ∞
2 2
2
⇒
1
p− p ∞=   V ∞−V 
2 2
2
p − p∞
⇒ C p= q∞ =
For a stagnation point:
C p does not depend on V ∞ , : it does depend on Re,
M, shape and orientation of the body.
3-17
 Example 1: jet flow

Where the Bernoulli's equation is applicable?

1 --> 2
1 --> 3
1 --> 4
3-18
 Example 2: Find velocity of liquid flowing out of a
tank of height h.

Bernoulli's equation:
1 2 1 2
p 1   V 1  g y1 = p 2   V 2  g y 2
2 2

⇒
3-19
 Potential Flow
Assume: inviscid, irrotational ( ⇒ potential)
incompressible, 2-D
u =∇ 
  - velocity potential
Conservation of mass for incompressible flow:
∇⋅
u =0 ⇒
2
∇ =0 Laplace's equation
governing equation for potential flow

3-20
 Laplace's equation: 2
∇ =0

Cartesian coordinates: Polar coordinates:

2 2 2 2
∂  ∂  ∂  1 ∂ 1 ∂ 
2
 2
=0   2 =0
∂x ∂y ∂r
2
r ∂ r r ∂ 2

(other coordinate systems in the text)

3-21
 Stream function. 2-D incompressible:
∂ ∂
u= , v=−
∂y ∂x
irrotational: 
 =∇ ×
u =0

∂ v ∂u
2-D flow: z = − =0
∂x ∂ y
⇒

⇒ ∇ =0 2
Laplace's equation
governing equation for stream function
3-22
 Note: ∇ 2 =0 and ∇ 2  =0 imply different things.
∇ 2 =0 implies
2
∇  =0 implies

Laplace's operator is linear: n

∇ ∑ a i  i =0
2
⇒
2 2 2
∇ 1 =0, ∇  2=0, ... , ∇  n=0
i=1

(if 1,  2, ... ,n are solutions ⇒∑ a  is a solution)

i=1
i i

We can add simple solutions to get more complex ones.

3-23
 Boundary conditions for velocity

Infinity BC: Wall BC:

Body is a streamline.
3-24
 Fundamental solutions
A. Uniform flow: u =V ∞ ex =
Find the potential  :
∂
u= =V ∞
∂x
∂
⇒
v= =0
∂y

3-25
 Let's find the streamfuction for uniform flow:
∂
u= =V ∞
∂y
∂
⇒
v=− =0
∂x

3-26
 B.Source flow: radial flow in 2-D.

u r = f r , u  =0

This flow is irrotational: 

 =∇ ×
u =0
1 ∂ 1 ∂
⇒ z =
r ∂r  r u  −
r ∂
 u r  =0

incompressible: ∇⋅u =0
⇒ 1 ∂ 1 ∂ u
r ∂r
 r ur  
r ∂
=0

⇒
3-27
 Volumetric flow rate / unit span
2

Q̇=∫  n dS=∫ u r R d =
u⋅
C 0

Q
⇒ c=
2
, Q= source strength

Q
ur = , u  =0
2 r
Also ∇ ×u=0 ⇒

3-28
 Streamlines and equipotential lines for source/sink

Q Q
= ln r , = 
2 2

3-29
 Q Q Q
ur = , u  =0 = ln r , = 
2 r 2 2
In Cartesian coordinates:

Q Q
= ln  x  y ,
2 2
= tan −1  y / x 
2 2
For a source at x0, y0:
Q x− x 0
u=
2   x− x 0 2  y− y 0 2
Q y− y0
v=
2   x− x 0 2  y− y 0 2

3-30
 Uniform flow + source:

Q
velocity potential: =1 2, 1=V ∞ x , 2 = ln r
Q 2
=V ∞ x ln r
2 Cartesian
⇒ =
= Polar
Q
stream function: = 1  2, 1 =V ∞ y ,  2 = 
2
⇒ =

3-31
=
 Q 1
u =u1 u2, u1 =V ∞ i , u2 =
Velocity:  er
2 r
Q x
u=V ∞ 2 2
2 x y
Q y
v=
2 x 2  y 2

Pressure: Does p=p1+p2?

What flow does source+uniform

represent?

3-32
 Stagnation point: u=v=0

Q y
v= 2
2 x  y 2
=0 ⇒ y sp =

u=V ∞
Q
2
x
2 x y 2
=0 ⇒ x sp =

Q
Dividing streamline: =V ∞ r sin  
2
at the stagnation point: =±
Q Q + upper line
V ∞ r sin  =±
⇒ 2 2 - lower line

3-33
 Far downstream:

 0 ⇒
For inviscid flow any streamline can be replaced by a solid
wall or body.
Source + uniform flow can model flow over a semi-infinite
body (Rankine ogive)

Flow from source inside the body stays inside:

x ∞ ⇒
3-34
 Rankine Oval (source + sink + uniform flow)

velocity:
Q xa Q x −a
u=V ∞  −
2   xa2  y 2 2  x −a 2 y 2
Q y Q y
v= −
2   xa  y 2  x −a 2 y 2
2 2

stagnation points: (u=v=0)

v=0 ⇒ y sp=0

u=0 ⇒
3-35

x sp=±a 1
Q
aV ∞
Stream function:

3-36
 Note: if the body is closed => Sum of sources and
sinks =0. However, simply because sum of sources
and sinks =0 does not mean that a closed body exists.
[necessary but not sufficient condition].

3-37
 C. Doublet (dipole)
Let l=2a 0
while
l⋅Q=const =k Q=∞
k is called dipole strength

Velocity potential:
Q
s = ln  x  y = s 0,0
2 2
source at (0,0)
2  s  xa ,0−s  x−a ,0 
d =s  xa , 0− s x −a ,0=2 a
2a
l=2a 0 ⇒
3-38
 Finally, we get the potential for dipole as
k x Cartesian
d = 2 2
2 x  y
k cos  polar
d =
2 r
∂ 1 ∂
u = =
Velocity: u r = ∂ r = r ∂
Stream function:

1 ∂
ur = =
r ∂

∂
u =− =
∂r

3-39
 Streamlines: =const = 0

k
⇒ 2 2
x  y =−
2  0
y

3-40
Uniform flow + doublet

k cos
velocity potential: =V ∞ x 2 r
stream function: =V ∞ y− k sin  =
2 r

Let R = k
2
⇒ R2
=V ∞ r sin  1− 2 
2 V ∞ r

3-41
 2
R
Potential: =V ∞ r cos 1 
2
∂  r
Velocity: u = =
r
∂r
1 ∂
u = =
r ∂
At r=R: ⇒ flow around a cylinder
Stagnation points: u r =0, u =0

On the cylinder:

Where is max velocity?

3-42
 Pressure on the cylinder:

 
2
V
C p =1−
V∞ ⇒ C p =1−4 sin 2 
When Cp=0 ( )?
Find Cl, Cd

Is this a reasonable result?

3-43
 D' Alembert's Paradox: For incompressible, inviscid, irrotational
(potential) flow drag is equal to zero for any body.

3-44
 Vortex. Look at flow with circular streamlines.

u r =0, u ≠0

Incompressible: ∇⋅
u =0

1 ∂ 1 ∂ u
r u r  =0
r ∂r r ∂

⇒
Irrotational: 
 =∇ × u =0
1 ∂ 1 ∂ ur
⇒ z =
r ∂r
r u −
r ∂
=0

⇒
3-45
 Circulation:
2

 =−∮  
u⋅ds=− ∫ u e⋅R d  e=
S 0

 1
⇒ u =−
2 r
 is also called vortex strength

Potential and stream function:

 
= , = ln r
2 2
Compare to source:
Q Q
= ln r , = 
2 2
3-46
 Ideal vortex has a singularity at origin:
 1
u =−
2 r
Real vortices have a viscous core:

E.g. Rankine vortex:


r≤r c u =− 2
r
2 r c


rr c u =−
2 r
(end of material for Exam 2)
3-47
 *
Aerodynamic Interference - Method of images
Interference: ground / wind tunnel boundary effects. The presence of a
solid wall in potential flow can be modeled using images.

Source over a wall

(e.g., in a wind tunnel).

Wall at y=0.
Source of strength Q at (0, a).

The effect of the wall is the same as that of “image source” of

strength Q at (0,-a).
*
Not in Anderson. See 4.12 “Foundations of Aerodynamics”, Kuethe.
3-48
The resulting velocity 
u =u1 u2 is along the wall
⇒ wall is a streamline
Q
check: = 1  2 = 1 2 
2

at 0,0: 1 =− , 2 = / 2
2 ⇒ =0

Source near a wall is roughly similar to that for an air cushion vehicle in
which a downward-blowing air jet is deflected by the ground or by water
surface.

3-49
 Vortex over a wall

image vortex at (0,-a) has

opposite strength

total velocity 
streamline
u =u1 u2 is along the wall ⇒ wall is a

ψ=ψ +ψ = Γ (ln (r )−ln (r ))=

check: 1 2
2π 1 2

3-50
 The pressure field can be calculated using Bernoulli's equation
and the resulting ground (wall) reaction force can be calculated
by integration of pressure along y=0.

corner: 3 images parallel walls:

3-51
 Lifting flow over a cylinder
non-lifting flow over a cylinder (uniform+doublet) + vortex

 = 1  2
R2 k
 1 =V ∞ r sin 1− 2  , R=
r 2 V ∞

2= ln r C
2

Set C=−

2
ln R ⇒ = 1  2 =

3-52
 R2  r
= 1  2 =V ∞ r sin 1− 2  ln
r 2 R
at r=R: r=R is a streamline

2
velocities: u =V cos 1− R 
r ∞ 2
r
R2 
u =−V ∞ sin 1 2 −
r 2 r

find stagnation points:

u r =0 ⇒

3-53
 A) r sp =R

u =−2 V ∞ sin − =0
2 R
⇒ sp =

(i) for  4  R V ∞ ⇒

(ii) for  4  R V ∞
(iii) for  =4  R V ∞

3-54
 B) sp =± 
2 2
R 
u =∓V ∞ 1 2 − =0
r 2 r
r2  r
⇒ ±
R 2 R V∞ R
2
1=0

[  ]
2
r sp ∣∣ 4  R V∞
⇒ =
R 4  R V∞
1 ± 1−


(i) for ∣∣4  R V ∞

(ii) for ∣∣4  R V ∞

(iii) for ∣∣=4  R V ∞

3-55
 In summary:
1.  4  R V ∞ 2.  =4  R V ∞ 3.  4  R V ∞

3-56
 Potential flow around a circular cylinder is not unique. To
make flow unique we need to set the circulation.
Let's calculate drag and lift.
On the cylinder (r=R)
R2 R2 
u r =V ∞ cos 1− 2  =0 u =−V ∞ sin 1 2 − =
r r =R r 2  r r=R

V 2
C p =1− =
V∞
2
1
cd =− ∫
2R 0
C p cos R d =0

3-57
 Lift: 2
1
cl =− ∫
2R 0
C p sin  R d =
2
 
=− ∫
 R V∞ 0
2
sin  d =
RV ∞
1
L ' =c l  V 2∞ S =
2
The lift per unit span is
proportional to circulation
(known as
Kutta-Joukowski theorem
valid for any 2D body)

3-58
 Kutta Condition
Potential flow around lifting cylinder is not unique. Same with
airfoils.

Which picture is physically realistic?

Kutta condition: A body with a sharp TE in motion through a
fluid creates about itself a circulation of sufficient strength to
keep the rear stagnation point at the TE.
In other words: flow leaves TE smoothly.
3-59
 2 types of trailing edges:
1. Cusp: upper and lower 2. Finite angle at TE
surface are tangent at TE

Corrolaries:
● The streamline that leaves a sharp TE is an extension of the
bisector of the TE angle
● Near TE the velocities on upper and lower surface are equal
at equal distances (useful for panel methods)
3-60
 Kelvin's Theorem – rate of change of circulation
D D
= ∮ 
u⋅ds
Dt Dt C
D D
u  D 
=∮  ⋅ds∮ 
u⋅ ds
Dt C Dt C Dt

Assume inviscid flow. Euler equations (include body force):

D
u 1
=− ∇ p f
Dt 
From the kinematics of a material line:
D 
Dt

ds= ds⋅∇ 
u
⇒
3-61
 ⇒  
u⋅ ds⋅∇   1
u =ds⋅∇  
2
u⋅
u
So,
D 1  ∮∇1 
=∮ [− ∇ p f ]⋅ds u⋅ 
u ⋅ds
Dt C  C 2

Assume incompressible flow and a conservative body force

D p 1
=∮ ∇ [−  H u⋅ 
u ]⋅ds
Dt C  2

Gradient theorem:

⇒ D
Dt
=0 Kelvin's Theorem

3-62
 Airfoil acceleration
i) initially at rest

ii) airfoil accelerates

(starting vortex has opposite strength to airfoil)

- opposite happens when airfoil stops
3-63
Numerical methods for potential flow
1. Panel methods:
Non-lifting Lifting

discrete sources discrete sources and vortices

continuous source distribution continuous source and vortex distribution

source panel method (3.17, Anderson) vortex panel method (4.9 Anderson)
+ vortex
3-64
 3-D

2. Conformal Mapping.

3. CFD (finite difference/finite element methods)

3-65
 Panel methods: fast, but can not be extended to non-linear
problems (viscous, transonic)
2D discrete sources panel method (not in Anderson)
1) solid body is represented by a set of straight panels
2) mid-point of each panel has a source (2D line source) of
unknown strength λ i
3) Find unknown source strength given that flow tangency is
satisfied at the mid-point of each panel.
⃗u⋅⃗ni =0 ∀i=1,... , N

3-66
 Example: flow over a bump.

3-67
3-68
 2D continuous source panel method (3.17 Anderson)
1. Symmetric bodies, =0 . Assume a source sheet
= s - source strength / unit length (m/s)
s – distance along the surface
r – (local) distance from P

at P:

For a body of arbitrary shape, find

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 at P:  ds
d = ln r
2
b
 ds
=∫
⇒ a 2
ln r

For a body of arbitrary shape, find  s.

Approximation: straight panels
assume:  s= i on each panel
N unknowns: 1,  2, ... , N

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 Apply flow tangency condition in each control point
N equations
At point P velocity potential due to panel j:
j
⇒   j=
2 j
∫ ln r p d s j
j

because of all panels: N N

j
⇒ P =∑   j =∑ ∫ ln r p d s j
j=1 2  j
j
j =1
where
r P =  x− x j   y− y j 
2 2
j

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If P = i-th panel mid-point xi, yi:
N
j
 xi , yi =∑ ∫ r ij =  x i − x j   y i − y j 
2 2
ln r ij d s j ,
j=1 2 j
∂
The normal velocity of the source panel is: V n= [  xi , yi ]
∂ ni
For j=i (velocity induced by the i-th panel itself) i
V n=
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2
Summing up for the normal velocity at (xi,yi) due to all source panels
and applying flow tangency:
i N  j ∂
V n=  ∑ ∫ [ln r ij ] d s j V ∞ cos  i =0
2 j=1 2  j ∂ n i
or
i N  j
∑ I ij V ∞ cos  i =0
2 j =1 2 

∂
where I ij =∫ [ln r ij ]d s j
j ∂ ni

∂ 1 ∂ r ij
[ ln r ij ]= =
∂ ni r ij ∂ ni

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 Finally, we get the system of N equations for N unknowns
(Eq. (3.153) in Anderson).

System is full ⇒ Gaussian elimination ~O(N3)

More panels give higher accuracy

Once source panel strengths i are found, velocity on the

surface of the body can be estimated:
N
j ∂
V i =V ∞ sin  i ∑ ∫ [ln r ij ] d s j
j =1 2 j ∂ s

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 Lifting bodies (nonsymmetric flow)
Smith-Hess Method(Moran, Ch. 4)
add a constant (distributed) vortex strength γ
⇒ 1 more unknown
Flow tangency at midpoint of panel i (Eq. (3.153) Anderson)
now becomes:

i N
∑

j
2 j =1 2 
I ij 

2 
J ij V ∞ cos  i =0

where Jij = normal velocity at midpoint of panel i due to a unit

strength constant vortex distributed at panel j.
Jij can be evaluated analytically (depends on geometry).
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 Need 1 more equation: Kutta condition
1st panel velocity = N-th panel velocity

Finally, N+1 equations for N+1 unknowns

Other panel methods also exist:
e.g. constant/linearly varying vortices (used in XFOIL)
(1st / 2nd order method) Ch. 4, AAE334/ Kueth & Chow
Cd denotes code accuracy (should --> 0)
For calculation with different N's it is better to plot Cd vs 1/N
(Richardson extrapolation).
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 More points (i.e., smaller panels) should be used near LE and
TE (e.g., using a cos θ distribution).

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 Summary of inviscid, incompressible flow (Chapter 3)
Bernoulli's equation: p 1
 u⋅u  gy=const
 2
Assumptions: inviscid
steady
incompressible
along streamline/irrotational
no body force/conservative body force
Potential flow: ∇ 2 =∇ 2 =0
boundary conditions: ∂ ∂
u= = =V ∞ at ∞
∂ y ∂x
∂ ∂
v=− = =0
∂x ∂y
u⋅n =0 at body (flow tangency)

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 Elementary flows:

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