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Contents
1 Apparent viscosity 1
1.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Power-law fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3 Non-Newtonian fluid 7
3.1 Types of non-Newtonian behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.2 Shear thickening fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.3 Shear thinning fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1.4 Bingham plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.5 Rheopectic or anti-thixotropic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.1 Oobleck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2.2 Flubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.3 Chilled caramel topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.4 Silly Putty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.5 Plant resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.6 Ketchup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.7 Dry granular flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
i
ii CONTENTS
4 Pitot tube 13
4.1 Theory of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.2 Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3 Industry applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5 Pressure measurement 20
5.1 Absolute, gauge and differential pressures — zero reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Static and dynamic pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4 Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4.1 Hydrostatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4.2 Aneroid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.4.3 Spinning rotor gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5 Electronic pressure sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5.1 Thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5.2 Ionization gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.6 Dynamic transients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.7 Calibration and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.8 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.9 European (CEN) Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.10 US ASME Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6 Pump 42
6.1 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.1.1 Positive displacement pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.1.2 Impulse pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1.3 Velocity pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.1.4 Gravity pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.1.5 Steam pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.1.6 Valveless pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2 Pump repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3.1 Priming a pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.3.2 Pumps as public water supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.3.3 Sealing multiphase pumping applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
CONTENTS iii
6.4 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.5 Pumping power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.6 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8 Rheopecty 69
8.1 Confusion between rheopectic and dilatant fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
8.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9 Specific speed 70
9.1 Pump specific speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.2 Net suction specific speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.3 Turbine specific speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.3.1 English units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.3.2 Metric units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.3.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
10 Terminal velocity 74
10.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.2 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.2.1 Derivation for terminal velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.2.2 Terminal velocity in a creeping flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.2.3 Finding the terminal velocity when the drag coefficient is not known . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
10.3 Terminal velocity in the presence of buoyancy force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
11 Thixotropy 82
11.1 Natural examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
iv CONTENTS
11.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11.3 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
11.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
12 Time-dependent viscosity 85
12.1 Thixotropic fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
12.1.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
12.2 Rheopectic fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.2.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.3 Hysterisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.4 The marker and cell method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
12.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13 Water hammer 89
13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13.2 Cause and effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13.2.1 Related phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
13.3 Water hammer from a jet of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.4 Water hammer during an explosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.5 Mitigating measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
13.6 The magnitude of the pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
13.6.1 Instant valve closure; compressible fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
13.6.2 Slow valve closure; incompressible fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.7 Expression for the excess pressure due to water hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
13.8 Dynamic equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
13.9 Column separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
13.10Simulation software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
13.11Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
13.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
13.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
13.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
13.15Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
13.15.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
13.15.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
13.15.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter 1
Apparent viscosity
tic
Shear stress (τ) [Pa]
s
m pla
ha
B ing
n t
ta
η₂
la
Di
η₁ η₄
t onian
New
η₃
1
2 CHAPTER 1. APPARENT VISCOSITY
Apparent viscosity (sometimes denoted η)[1] is the shear stress applied to a fluid divided by the shear rate ( η = γ̇τ
). For a Newtonian fluid, the apparent viscosity is constant, and equal to the Newtonian viscosity of the fluid, but for
non-Newtonian fluids, the apparent viscosity depends on the shear rate. Apparent viscosity has the SI derived unit
Pa·s (Pascal-second, but the centipoise is frequently used in practice: (1 mPa·s = 1 cP).
1.1 Application
A single viscosity measurement at a constant speed in a typical viscometer is a measurement of the apparent viscosity
of a fluid. In the case of non-Newtonian fluids, measurement of apparent viscosity without knowledge of the shear
rate is of limited value: the measurement cannot be compared to other measurements if the speed and geometry of
the two instruments is not identical. An apparent viscosity that is reported without the shear rate or information about
the instrument and settings (e.g. speed and spindle type for a rotational viscometer) is meaningless.
Multiple measurements of apparent viscosity at different, well-defined shear rates, can give useful information about
the non-Newtonian behaviour of a fluid, and allow it to be modeled.
( )n
du
τxy = k
dy
where
n−1
du du du
τyx = k =η
dy dy dy
where the term
n−1
du
η = k
dy
gives the apparent viscosity.[1]
1.4 References
[1] Fox, Robert; McDonald, Alan; Pritchard, Philip (2012). Fluid Mechanics (8 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 76–83. ISBN
978-1-118-02641-0.
Chapter 2
This article is about net positive suction head. For the fire hose coupling thread, see Glossary of firefighting equip-
ment § N.
In a hydraulic circuit, net positive suction head (NPSH) may refer to one of two quantities in the analysis of
cavitation:
1. The Available NPSH (NPSHA): a measure of how close the fluid at a given point is to flashing, and so to
cavitation.
2. The Required NPSH (NPSHR): the head value at a specific point (e.g. the inlet of a pump) required to keep
the fluid from cavitating.
NPSH is particularly relevant inside centrifugal pumps and turbines, which are parts of a hydraulic system that are
most vulnerable to cavitation. If cavitation occurs, the drag coefficient of the impeller vanes will increase drastically
- possibly stopping flow altogether - and prolonged exposure will damage the impeller.
3
4 CHAPTER 2. NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD
A simple hydraulic pumping circuit. Point 0 is the free suction surface, and point i is the inlet of the impeller.
Experimentally, NPSHR is often defined as the NPSH3 , the point at which the head output of the pump decreases
by 3% at a given flow due to reduced hydraulic performance. On multi-stage pumps this is limited to a 3% drop in
the first stage head.[4]
The violent collapse of the cavitation bubble creates a shock wave that can carve material from internal pump compo-
nents (usually the leading edge of the impeller) and creates noise often described as “pumping gravel”. Additionally,
the inevitable increase in vibration can cause other mechanical faults in the pump and associated equipment.
2.6 References
[1] Frank M. White Fluid Mechanics, 7th Ed., p. 771
[4] http://www.pumps.org/content_detail.aspx?id=1770
Non-Newtonian fluid
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not follow Newton’s Law of Viscosity. Most commonly, the viscosity
(the measure of a fluid’s ability to resist gradual deformation by shear or tensile stresses) of non-Newtonian fluids is
dependent on shear rate or shear rate history. Some non-Newtonian fluids with shear-independent viscosity, however,
still exhibit normal stress-differences or other non-Newtonian behavior. Many salt solutions and molten polymers are
non-Newtonian fluids, as are many commonly found substances such as ketchup, custard, toothpaste, starch suspen-
sions, maizena, paint, blood, and shampoo.
In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is linear, passing through the origin,
the constant of proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the
shear stress and the shear rate is different and can even be time-dependent (Time Dependent Viscosity). Therefore,
a constant coefficient of viscosity cannot be defined.
Although the concept of viscosity is commonly used in fluid mechanics to characterize the shear properties of a
fluid, it can be inadequate to describe non-Newtonian fluids. They are best studied through several other rheological
properties that relate stress and strain rate tensors under many different flow conditions—such as oscillatory shear or
extensional flow—which are measured using different devices or rheometers. The properties are better studied using
tensor-valued constitutive equations, which are common in the field of continuum mechanics.
3.1.1 Summary
The viscosity of a shear thickening fluid, or dilatant fluid, appears to increase when the shear rate increases. Corn
starch dissolved in water (“oobleck”, see below) is a common example: when stirred slowly it looks milky, when
stirred vigorously it feels like a very viscous liquid.
A familiar example of the opposite, a shear thinning fluid, or pseudoplastic fluid, is wall paint: The paint should flow
readily off the brush when it is being applied to a surface but not drip excessively. Note that all thixotropic fluids
are extremely shear thinning, but they are significantly time dependent, whereas the colloidal “shear thinning” fluids
respond instantaneously to changes in shear rate. Thus, to avoid confusion, the latter classification is more clearly
termed pseudoplastic.
Another example of a shear thinning fluid is blood. This application is highly favoured within the body, as it allows
the viscosity of blood to decrease with increased shear strain rate.
7
8 CHAPTER 3. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID
t ic
s
la
Shear stress (τ) [Pa]
p
m
gha
n
Bi ia
n
o n
t
e w
N
Fluids that have a linear shear stress/shear strain relationship require a finite yield stress before they begin to flow (the
plot of shear stress against shear strain does not pass through the origin). These fluids are called Bingham plastics.
Several examples are clay suspensions, drilling mud, toothpaste, mayonnaise, chocolate, and mustard. The surface
of a Bingham plastic can hold peaks when it is still. By contrast Newtonian fluids have flat featureless surfaces when
still.
There are also fluids whose strain rate is a function of time. Fluids that require a gradually increasing shear stress to
maintain a constant strain rate are referred to as rheopectic. An opposite case of this is a fluid that thins out with time
and requires a decreasing stress to maintain a constant strain rate (thixotropic).
3.2. EXAMPLES 9
3.2 Examples
Many common substances exhibit non-Newtonian flows. These include:[5]
• Food such as butter, cheese, jam, ketchup, mayonnaise, soup, taffy, and yogurt
• Natural substances such as magma, lava, gums, and extracts such as vanilla extract
• Biological fluids such as blood, saliva, semen, mucus and synovial fluid
• Slurries such as cement slurry and paper pulp, emulsions such as mayonnaise, and some kinds of dispersions
3.2.1 Oobleck
An inexpensive, non-toxic example of a non-Newtonian fluid is a suspension of starch (e.g. cornstarch) in water,
sometimes called “Oobleck”, “ooze”, or “magic mud” (1 part of water to 1.5–2 parts of corn starch).[7][8][9] Uncooked
10 CHAPTER 3. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID
Oobleck on a subwoofer. Applying force to oobleck, by sound waves in this case, makes the non-Newtonian fluid thicken.[6]
cornflour has the same properties. The name “oobleck” is derived from the Dr. Seuss book Bartholomew and the
Oobleck.[7]
Because of its properties, oobleck is often used in demonstrations that exhibit its unusual behavior. A person may
walk on a large tub of oobleck without sinking due to its shear thickening properties, given the individual moves
quickly enough to provide enough force with each step to cause the thickening. Also, if oobleck is placed on a large
subwoofer driven at a sufficiently high volume, it will thicken and form standing waves in response to low frequency
sound waves from the speaker.
3.2.2 Flubber
Flubber is a non-Newtonian fluid, easily made from polyvinyl alcohol–based glues (such as white “school” glue)
and borax. It flows under low stresses but breaks under higher stresses and pressures. This combination of fluid-
like and solid-like properties makes it a Maxwell fluid. Its behaviour can also be described as being viscoplastic or
gelatinous.[10]
Another example of this is chilled caramel ice cream topping (so long as it incorporates hydrocolloids such as
carrageenan and gellan gum). The sudden application of force—by stabbing the surface with a finger, for exam-
ple, or rapidly inverting the container holding it—causes the fluid to behave like a solid rather than a liquid. This
is the “shear thickening” property of this non-Newtonian fluid. More gentle treatment, such as slowly inserting a
spoon, will leave it in its liquid state. Trying to jerk the spoon back out again, however, will trigger the return of the
temporary solid state.[11]
3.3. SEE ALSO 11
Silly Putty is a silicone polymer based suspension which will flow, bounce, or break depending on strain rate.
Plant resin is a viscoelastic solid polymer. When left in a container, it will flow slowly as a liquid to conform to the
contours of its container. If struck with greater force, however, it will shatter as a solid.
3.2.6 Ketchup
Ketchup is a shear thinning fluid.[2][12] Shear thinning means that the fluid viscosity decreases with increasing shear
stress. In other words, fluid motion is initially difficult at slow rates of deformation, but will flow more freely at high
rates.
• Caramel
• Complex fluid
• Dilatant
• Herschel–Bulkley fluid
• Navier–Stokes equations
• Newtonian fluid
• Pseudoplastic
• Quicksand
• Rheology
• Superfluids
• Weissenberg effect
• Thixotropy
[13]
12 CHAPTER 3. NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID
3.4 References
[1] Tropea, Cameron; Yarin, Alexander L.; Foss, John F. (2007). Springer handbook of experimental fluid mechanics. Springer.
pp. 661, 676. ISBN 978-3-540-25141-5.
[2] Garay, Paul N. (1996). Pump Application Desk Book (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 358. ISBN 978-0-88173-231-3.
[3] Rao, M. A. (2007). Rheology of Fluid and Semisolid Foods: Principles and Applications (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 8. ISBN
978-0-387-70929-1.
[4] Schramm, Laurier L. (2005). Emulsions, Foams, and Suspensions: Fundamentals and Applications. Wiley VCH. p. 173.
ISBN 978-3-527-30743-2.
[5] Chhabra, R.P. (2006). Bubbles, Drops, and Particles in Non-Newtonian Fluids. (2nd ed.). Hoboken: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
pp. 9–10. ISBN 1420015389.
[6] This demonstration of oobleck is a popular subject for YouTube videos, such as this.
[9] Rupp, Rebecca. “Magic Mud and Other Great Experiments”. The Complete Home Learning Source Book. pp. 235–236.
[11] Barra, Giuseppina (2004). The Rheology of Caramel (PhD). University of Nottingham.
[12] Cartwright, Jon (2 September 2011). “Microscopy reveals why ketchup squirts”. Chemistry World. Royal Society of
Chemistry.
[13] Wikipedia
Pitot tube
Aircraft use pitot tubes to measure airspeed. The example, from an Airbus A380, combines a pitot tube (right) with a static port and
an angle-of-attack vane (left). Air-flow is right to left.
A pitot (/ˈpiːtoʊ/ PEE-toh) tube is a pressure measurement instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. The pitot
tube was invented by the French engineer Henri Pitot in the early 18th century[1] and was modified to its modern
form in the mid-19th century by French scientist Henry Darcy.[2] It is widely used to determine the airspeed of an
aircraft, water speed of a boat, and to measure liquid, air and gas flow velocities in industrial applications. The pitot
13
14 CHAPTER 4. PITOT TUBE
Simple Pitot
tube
Static
source
Pitot-static
tube
tube is used to measure the local flow velocity at a given point in the flow stream and not the average flow velocity in
the pipe or conduit.[3]
4.1. THEORY OF OPERATION 15
( )
ρu2
pt = ps +
2
Solving that for flow velocity:
√
2(pt − ps )
u=
ρ
NOTE: The above equation applies only to fluids that can be treated as incompressible. Liquids are treated as
incompressible under almost all conditions. Gases under certain conditions can be approximated as incompressible.
See Compressibility.
16 CHAPTER 4. PITOT TUBE
where:
The dynamic pressure, then, is the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure. The dynamic
pressure is then determined using a diaphragm inside an enclosed container. If the air on one side of the diaphragm
is at the static pressure, and the other at the stagnation pressure, then the deflection of the diaphragm is proportional
to the dynamic pressure.
In aircraft, the static pressure is generally measured using the static ports on the side of the fuselage. The dynamic
pressure measured can be used to determine the indicated airspeed of the aircraft. The diaphragm arrangement de-
scribed above is typically contained within the airspeed indicator, which converts the dynamic pressure to an airspeed
reading by means of mechanical levers.
Instead of separate pitot and static ports, a pitot-static tube (also called a Prandtl tube) may be employed, which has
a second tube coaxial with the pitot tube with holes on the sides, outside the direct airflow, to measure the static
pressure.[4]
If a liquid column manometer is used to measure the pressure difference pt – ps , or ∆p ,
∆p
∆h =
ρl g
where:
Therefore,
√
2(∆h ∗ (ρl g))
V =
ρ
4.2 Aircraft
Main article: Pitot-static system
A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-sensitive instruments that is most often used in aviation to determine an
aircraft’s airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend. A pitot-static system generally consists of a pitot tube,
a static port, and the pitot-static instruments.[5] Errors in pitot-static system readings can be extremely dangerous as
the information obtained from the pitot static system, such as airspeed, is potentially safety-critical.
Several commercial airline incidents and accidents have been traced to a failure of the pitot-static system. Examples
include Austral Líneas Aéreas Flight 2553, Northwest Airlines Flight 6231, and one of the two X-31s.[6] The French
air safety authority BEA said that pitot tube icing was a contributing factor in the crash of Air France Flight 447 into
the Atlantic Ocean.[7] In 2008 Air Caraïbes reported two incidents of pitot tube icing malfunctions on its A330s.[8]
Birgenair Flight 301 had a fatal pitot tube failure which investigators suspected was due to insects creating a nest
inside the pitot tube; the prime suspect is the Black and yellow mud dauber wasp.
Aeroperú Flight 603 had a pitot-static system failure due to the cleaning crew leaving the static port blocked with
tape.
4.3. INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS 17
In industry, the flow velocities being measured are often those flowing in ducts and tubing where measurements by an
anemometer would be difficult to obtain. In these kinds of measurements, the most practical instrument to use is the
pitot tube. The pitot tube can be inserted through a small hole in the duct with the pitot connected to a U-tube water
gauge or some other differential pressure gauge for determining the flow velocity inside the ducted wind tunnel. One
use of this technique is to determine the volume of air that is being delivered to a conditioned space.
The fluid flow rate in a duct can then be estimated from:
Volume flow rate (cubic feet per minute) = duct area (square feet) × flow velocity (feet per minute)
Volume flow rate (cubic meters per second) = duct area (square meters) × flow velocity (meters per
second)
4.5 References
Notes
18 CHAPTER 4. PITOT TUBE
Weather instruments at Mount Washington Observatory. Pitot tube static anemometer is on the right.
[1] Pitot, Henri (1732). “Description d'une machine pour mesurer la vitesse des eaux courantes et le sillage des vaisseaux”
(PDF). Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences avec les mémoires de mathématique et de physique tirés des registres de
cette Académie: 363–376. Retrieved 2009-06-19.
[2] Darcy, Henry (1858). “Note relative à quelques modifications à introduire dans le tube de Pitot” (PDF). Annales des Ponts
et Chaussées: 351–359. Retrieved 2009-07-31.
[3] Geankoplis, C.J. (2003). Transport processes and separation process principles (includes unit operations) (4th ed.). New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.
[4] “How Aircraft Instruments Work.” Popular Science, March 1944, pp. 116.
[5] Willits, Pat, ed. (2004) [1997]. Guided Flight Discovery - Private Pilot. Abbot, Mike Kailey, Liz. Jeppesen Sanderson.
pp. 2–48–2–53. ISBN 0-88487-333-1.
[7] “Training flaws exposed in Rio-Paris crash report”. Reuters. 5 July 2012. Retrieved 5 October 2012.
[8] Daly, Kieran (11 June 2009). “Air Caraibes Atlantique memo details pitot icing incidents”. Flight International. Retrieved
19 February 2012.
[9] “Instrumentation: Pitot Tube Static Anemometer, Part 1”. Mount Washington Observatory. Retrieved 14 July 2014.
Bibliography
• Kermode, A.C. (1996) [1972]. Mechanics of Flight. Barnard, R.H. (Ed.) and Philpott, D.R. (Ed.) (10th ed.).
Prentice Hall. pp. 63–67. ISBN 0-582-23740-8.
• Pratt, Jeremy M. (2005) [1997]. The Private Pilot’s Licence Course: Principles of Flight, Aircraft General
Knowledge, Flight Performance and Planning (3rd ed.). gen108–gen111. ISBN 1-874783-23-3.
4.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 19
• Tietjens, O.G. (1934). Applied Hudro- and Aeromechanics, based on lectures of L. Prandtl, Ph.D. Dove Pub-
lications, Inc. pp. 226–239. ISBN 0-486-60375-X.
• Saleh, J.M. (2002). Fluid Flow Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional.
Pressure measurement
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure
and display pressure in an integral unit are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good
example as it uses a column of liquid to both measure and indicate pressure. Likewise the widely used Bourdon
20
5.1. ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURES — ZERO REFERENCE 21
gauge is a mechanical device which both measures and indicates, and is probably the best known type of gauge.
A vacuum gauge is an absolute pressure gauge used to measure the pressures lower than the ambient atmospheric
pressure.
Other methods of pressure measurement involve sensors which can transmit the pressure reading to a remote indicator
or control system (telemetry).
• Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
• Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute pressure minus
atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. To distinguish a negative pressure, the value may be
appended with the word “vacuum” or the gauge may be labeled a “vacuum gauge.” These are further divided
into two subcategories: high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure
ranges of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several
different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 10−11
mbar.
• Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are added only when clarification is needed.
Tire pressure and blood pressure are gauge pressures by convention, while atmospheric pressures, deep vacuum pres-
sures, and altimeter pressures must be absolute.
For most working fluids where a fluid exists in a closed system, gauge pressure measurement prevails. Pressure
instruments connected to the system will indicate pressures relative to the current atmospheric pressure. The situation
changes when extreme vacuum pressures are measured; absolute pressures are typically used instead.
Differential pressures are commonly used in industrial process systems. Differential pressure gauges have two inlet
ports, each connected to one of the volumes whose pressure is to be monitored. In effect, such a gauge performs
the mathematical operation of subtraction through mechanical means, obviating the need for an operator or control
system to watch two separate gauges and determine the difference in readings.
Moderate vacuum pressure readings can be ambiguous without the proper context, as they may represent absolute
pressure or gauge pressure without a negative sign. Thus a vacuum of 26 inHg gauge is equivalent to an absolute
pressure of 30 inHg (typical atmospheric pressure) − 26 inHg = 4 inHg.
Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and weather. If the absolute
pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For
example, when a car drives up a mountain, the (gauge) tire pressure goes up because atmospheric pressure goes down.
The absolute pressure in the tire is essentially unchanged.
Using atmospheric pressure as reference is usually signified by a g for gauge after the pressure unit, e.g. 70 psig,
which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure. There are two types of
gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).
A vented gauge pressure transmitter for example allows the outside air pressure to be exposed to the negative side of
the pressure sensing diaphragm, via a vented cable or a hole on the side of the device, so that it always measures the
pressure referred to ambient barometric pressure. Thus a vented gauge reference pressure sensor should always read
zero pressure when the process pressure connection is held open to the air.
A sealed gauge reference is very similar except that atmospheric pressure is sealed on the negative side of the di-
aphragm. This is usually adopted on high pressure ranges such as hydraulics where atmospheric pressure changes will
have a negligible effect on the accuracy of the reading, so venting is not necessary. This also allows some manufac-
turers to provide secondary pressure containment as an extra precaution for pressure equipment safety if the burst
pressure of the primary pressure sensing diaphragm is exceeded.
22 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
There is another way of creating a sealed gauge reference and this is to seal a high vacuum on the reverse side of
the sensing diaphragm. Then the output signal is offset so the pressure sensor reads close to zero when measuring
atmospheric pressure.
A sealed gauge reference pressure transducer will never read exactly zero because atmospheric pressure is always
changing and the reference in this case is fixed at 1 bar.
To produce an absolute pressure sensor the manufacturer will seal a high vacuum behind the sensing diaphragm. If
the process pressure connection of an absolute pressure transmitter is open to the air, it will read the actual barometric
pressure.
5.2 Units
The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equal to one newton per square metre (N·m−2 or kg·m−1 ·s−2 ). This special
name for the unit was added in 1971; before that, pressure in SI was expressed in units such as N·m−2 . When
indicated, the zero reference is stated in parenthesis following the unit, for example 101 kPa (abs). The pound per
square inch (psi) is still in widespread use in the US and Canada, for measuring, for instance, tire pressure. A letter
is often appended to the psi unit to indicate the measurement’s zero reference; psia for absolute, psig for gauge, psid
for differential, although this practice is discouraged by the NIST.[1]
Because pressure was once commonly measured by its ability to displace a column of liquid in a manometer, pressures
are often expressed as a depth of a particular fluid (e.g., inches of water). Manometric measurement is the subject
of pressure head calculations. The most common choices for a manometer’s fluid are mercury (Hg) and water; water
is nontoxic and readily available, while mercury’s density allows for a shorter column (and so a smaller manometer)
to measure a given pressure. The abbreviation “W.C.” or the words “water column” are often printed on gauges and
measurements that use water for the manometer.
Fluid density and local gravity can vary from one reading to another depending on local factors, so the height of a
fluid column does not define pressure precisely. So measurements in "millimetres of mercury" or "inches of mercury"
can be converted to SI units as long as attention is paid to the local factors of fluid density and gravity. Temperature
fluctuations change the value of fluid density, while location can affect gravity.
Although no longer preferred, these manometric units are still encountered in many fields. Blood pressure is mea-
sured in millimetres of mercury (see torr) in most of the world, and lung pressures in centimeters of water are still
common, as in settings for CPAP machines. Natural gas pipeline pressures are measured in inches of water, expressed
as “inches W.C.” Scuba divers often use a manometric rule of thumb: the pressure exerted by ten meters depth of sea
water (“10 msw”) is approximately equal to one atmosphere. In vacuum systems, the units torr (millimeter of mer-
cury), micron (micrometer of mercury),[2] and inch of mercury (inHg) are most commonly used. Torr and micron
usually indicates an absolute pressure, while inHg usually indicates a gauge pressure.
Atmospheric pressures are usually stated using hectopascal (hPa), kilopascal (kPa), millibar (mbar) or atmospheres
(atm). In American and Canadian engineering, stress is often measured in kip. Note that stress is not a true pressure
since it is not scalar. In the cgs system the unit of pressure was the barye (ba), equal to 1 dyn·cm−2 . In the mts system,
the unit of pressure was the pieze, equal to 1 sthene per square metre.
Many other hybrid units are used such as mmHg/cm2 or grams-force/cm2 (sometimes as [[kg/cm<sup>2</sup>]]
without properly identifying the force units). Using the names kilogram, gram, kilogram-force, or gram-force (or
their symbols) as a unit of force is prohibited in SI; the unit of force in SI is the newton (N).
instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow. Pitot-static tubes, for example perform this measurement on
airplanes to determine airspeed. The presence of the measuring instrument inevitably acts to divert flow and create
turbulence, so its shape is critical to accuracy and the calibration curves are often non-linear.
5.3.1 Applications
• Altimeter
• Barometer
• MAP sensor
• Pitot tube
• Sphygmomanometer
5.4 Instruments
Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and disadvantages. Pressure
range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of magnitude from one instrument design to
the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical tube filled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista
Torricelli in 1643. The U-Tube was invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1661.
5.4.1 Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area
at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured,
and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. They have poor dynamic response.
Piston
Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a spring (for example tire-pressure gauges of compara-
tively low accuracy) or a solid weight, in which case it is known as a deadweight tester and may be used for calibration
of other gauges.
Liquid column gauges consist of a column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The
column will rise or fall until its weight (a force applied due to gravity) is in equilibrium with the pressure differential
between the two ends of the tube (a force applied due to fluid pressure). A very simple version is a U-shaped tube
half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which might
be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied
pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic pressure
equation, P = hgρ. Therefore, the pressure difference between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P 0
in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving Pa − P 0 = hgρ. In other words, the pressure on either end of the
liquid (shown in blue in the figure) must be balanced (since the liquid is static) and so Pa = P 0 + hgρ.
In most liquid column measurements, the result of the measurement is the height, h, expressed typically in mm,
cm, or inches. The h is also known as the pressure head. When expressed as a pressure head, pressure is specified
in units of length and the measurement fluid must be specified. When accuracy is critical, the temperature of the
measurement fluid must likewise be specified, because liquid density is a function of temperature. So, for example,
pressure head might be written “742.2 mmH " or “4.2 inH2 O at 59 °F” for measurements taken with mercury or
water as the manometric fluid, respectively. The word “gauge” or “vacuum” may be added to such a measurement to
distinguish between a pressure above or below the atmospheric pressure. Both mm of mercury and inches of water
are common pressure heads which can be converted to S.I. units of pressure using unit conversion and the above
formulas.
24 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic corrections may have to be made for the height between
the moving surface of the manometer working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired
except when measuring differential pressure of a fluid (for example across an orifice plate or venturi), in which case
the density ρ should be corrected by subtracting the density of the fluid being measured.[3]
Although any fluid can be used, mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm3 ) and low vapour pressure.
For low pressure differences, light oil or water are commonly used (the latter giving rise to units of measurement such
as inches water gauge and millimetres H2 O. Liquid-column pressure gauges have a highly linear calibration. They
have poor dynamic response because the fluid in the column may react slowly to a pressure change.
When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too
high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from
mixing but this can be unnecessary, for example when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential
pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few Torr (a few
100 Pa) to a few atmospheres. (Approximately 1,000,000 Pa)
A single-limb liquid-column manometer has a larger reservoir instead of one side of the U-tube and has a scale beside
the narrower column. The column may be inclined to further amplify the liquid movement. Based on the use and
structure following type of manometers are used[4]
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micromanometer
3. Differential manometer
McLeod gauge
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer until the pressure is
a few millimetres of mercury. The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is capable of good
accuracy. Unlike other manometer gauges, the McLeod gauge reading is dependent on the composition of the gas
since the interpretation relies on the sample compressing as an ideal gas. Due to the compression process, the McLeod
gauge completely ignores partial pressures from non-ideal vapors that condense, such as pump oils, mercury, and even
water if compressed enough.
Useful range: from around 10−4 torr [5] (roughly 10−2 Pa) to vacuums as high as 10−6 Torr (0.1 mPa),
0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges
can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These
indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.[6]
5.4.2 Aneroid
Aneroid gauges are based on a metallic pressure-sensing element that flexes elastically under the effect of a pressure
difference across the element. “Aneroid” means “without fluid,” and the term originally distinguished these gauges
from the hydrostatic gauges described above. However, aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a
liquid as well as a gas, and they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid. For this reason, they
are often called mechanical gauges in modern language. Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of gas being
measured, unlike thermal and ionization gauges, and are less likely to contaminate the system than hydrostatic gauges.
The pressure sensing element may be a Bourdon tube, a diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change
shape in response to the pressure of the region in question. The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be
read by a linkage connected to a needle, or it may be read by a secondary transducer. The most common secondary
transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical deflection. Gauges
that rely on a change in capacitance are often referred to as capacitance manometers.
5.4. INSTRUMENTS 25
Bourdon
“Eugene Bourdon” redirects here. For the professor of architectural design, see Eugene Bourdon (architect).
The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain its circular form
in cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and thus involv-
ing moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials, the strain of the material of the tube is
magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or
uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized. Eugene Bourdon patented his gauge in France in 1849, and it was widely
adopted because of its superior sensitivity, linearity, and accuracy; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon’s American
patent rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges. Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg,
Germany patented a successful diaphragm (see below) pressure gauge, which, together with the Bourdon gauge, rev-
olutionized pressure measurement in industry.[7] But in 1875 after Bourdon’s patents expired, his company Schaeffer
and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges.
In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid
pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted into
the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link that is usually adjustable. A small-diameter pinion gear is
on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio. The positioning of the indicator card behind
the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the
pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for variations in the behavior of the Bourdon tube itself. Differential
pressure can be measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting linkages.
Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure;
vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion. Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends (but most
use diaphragms or capsules, see below). When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, such as when the gauge is
near a reciprocating pump, an orifice restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear
on the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the entire case
including the pointer and indicator card can be filled with an oil or glycerin. Tapping on the face of the gauge is not
recommended as it will tend to falsify actual readings initially presented by the gauge. The Bourdon tube is separate
from the face of the gauge and thus has no effect on the actual reading of pressure. Typical high-quality modern
gauges provide an accuracy of ±2% of span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full
scale.[8]
In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and vacuum gauge has
been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure
gauge used for automotive diagnosis:
• the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated in centimetres of mercury on its
inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale.
• the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure or turbo boost and is calibrated in fractions
of 1 kgf/cm2 on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.
• A: Receiver block. This joins the inlet pipe to the fixed end of the Bourdon tube (1) and secures the chassis
plate (B). The two holes receive screws that secure the case.
• B: Chassis plate. The face card is attached to this. It contains bearing holes for the axles.
• C: Secondary chassis plate. It supports the outer ends of the axles.
• D: Posts to join and space the two chassis plates.
Moving Parts:
1. Stationary end of Bourdon tube. This communicates with the inlet pipe through the receiver block.
2. Moving end of Bourdon tube. This end is sealed.
3. Pivot and pivot pin.
26 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
4. Link joining pivot pin to lever (5) with pins to allow joint rotation.
7. Sector gear.
8. Indicator needle axle. This has a spur gear that engages the sector gear (7) and extends through the face to
drive the indicator needle. Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the pivot pin and the
difference between the effective radius of the sector gear and that of the spur gear, any motion of the Bourdon
tube is greatly amplified. A small motion of the tube results in a large motion of the indicator needle.
9. Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and hysteresis.
Diaphragm
A second type of aneroid gauge uses deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions of different pressure.
The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can be determined by using calibration.
The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference
face can be open to atmosphere to measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or
can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure. The deformation can
be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used.
For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often used.
shape:
• Flat
• corrugated
• flattened tube
• capsule
Bellows
In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an absolute pressure be measured,
the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows chamber, called an aneroid, which means
“without liquid”. (Early barometers used a column of liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended
by a vacuum.) This bellows configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating needle and
dial card), altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry instruments used in weather balloon
radiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven by the external pres-
sure. Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as air speed indicators and rate of climb indicators (variometers) have
connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber and to an external enclosing chamber.
Magnetic coupling
These gauges use the attraction of two magnets to translate differential pressure into motion of a dial pointer. As
differential pressure increases, a magnet attached to either a piston or rubber diaphragm moves. A rotary magnet that
is attached to a pointer then moves in unison. To create different pressure ranges, the spring rate can be increased or
decreased.
5.5. ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS 27
The spinning rotor gauge works by measuring the amount a rotating ball is slowed by the viscosity of the gas being
measured. The ball is made of steel and is magnetically levitated inside a steel tube closed at one end and exposed to
the gas to be measured at the other. The ball is brought up to speed (about 2500 rad/s), and the speed measured after
switching off the drive, by electromagnetic transducers.[10] The range of the instrument is 10−5 to 102 Pa (103 Pa with
less accuracy). It is accurate and stable enough to be used as a secondary standard. The instrument requires some
skill and knowledge to use correctly. Various corrections must be applied and the ball must be spun at a pressure well
below the intended measurement pressure for five hours before using. It is most useful in calibration and research
laboratories where high accuracy is required and qualified technicians are available.[11]
Piezoresistive Strain Gage Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to
applied pressure.
Capacitive Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied pres-
sure.
Magnetic Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall
Effect, or by eddy current principle.
Piezoelectric Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the sensing
mechanism due to pressure.
Optical Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied pressure.
Potentiometric Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied pres-
sure.
Resonant Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in gas
density, caused by applied pressure.
Generally, as a real gas increases in density -which may indicate an increase in pressure- its ability to conduct heat
increases. In this type of gauge, a wire filament is heated by running current through it. A thermocouple or resistance
thermometer (RTD) can then be used to measure the temperature of the filament. This temperature is dependent on
the rate at which the filament loses heat to the surrounding gas, and therefore on the thermal conductivity. A common
variant is the Pirani gauge, which uses a single platinum filament as both the heated element and RTD. These gauges
are accurate from 10−3 Torr to 10 Torr, but their calibration is sensitive to the chemical composition of the gases
being measured.
A Pirani gauge consist of a metal wire open to the pressure being measured. The wire is heated by a current flowing
through it and cooled by the gas surrounding it. If the gas pressure is reduced, the cooling effect will decrease, hence
the equilibrium temperature of the wire will increase. The resistance of the wire is a function of its temperature: by
measuring the voltage across the wire and the current flowing through it, the resistance (and so the gas pressure) can
be determined. This type of gauge was invented by Marcello Pirani.
28 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Two-wire
In two-wire gauges, one wire coil is used as a heater, and the other is used to measure temperature due to convection.
Thermocouple gauges and thermistor gauges work in this manner using thermocouple or thermistor, respectively,
to measure the temperature of the heated wire.
Most ion gauges come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. In the hot cathode version, an electrically heated
filament produces an electron beam. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them.
The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends
on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10−3 Torr to 10−10 Torr. The principle behind
cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in the discharge of a high voltage. Cold Cath-
ode gauges are accurate from 10−2 Torr to 10−9 Torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction
geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be
invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will
usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate
measurement.[12]
Hot cathode
A hot-cathode ionization gauge is composed mainly of three electrodes acting together as a triode, wherein the cathode
is the filament. The three electrodes are a collector or plate, a filament, and a grid. The collector current is measured
in picoamps by an electrometer. The filament voltage to ground is usually at a potential of 30 volts, while the grid
voltage at 180–210 volts DC, unless there is an optional electron bombardment feature, by heating the grid, which
may have a high potential of approximately 565 volts. The most common ion gauge is the hot-cathode Bayard-Alpert
gauge, with a small ion collector inside the grid. A glass envelope with an opening to the vacuum can surround the
electrodes, but usually the Nude Gauge is inserted in the vacuum chamber directly, the pins being fed through a
ceramic plate in the wall of the chamber. Hot-cathode gauges can be damaged or lose their calibration if they are
exposed to atmospheric pressure or even low vacuum while hot. The measurements of a hot-cathode ionization gauge
are always logarithmic.
Electrons emitted from the filament move several times in back and forth movements around the grid before finally
entering the grid. During these movements, some electrons collide with a gaseous molecule to form a pair of an
ion and an electron (Electron ionization). The number of these ions is proportional to the gaseous molecule density
multiplied by the electron current emitted from the filament, and these ions pour into the collector to form an ion
current. Since the gaseous molecule density is proportional to the pressure, the pressure is estimated by measuring
the ion current.
The low-pressure sensitivity of hot-cathode gauges is limited by the photoelectric effect. Electrons hitting the grid
produce x-rays that produce photoelectric noise in the ion collector. This limits the range of older hot-cathode gauges
to 10−8 Torr and the Bayard-Alpert to about 10−10 Torr. Additional wires at cathode potential in the line of sight
between the ion collector and the grid prevent this effect. In the extraction type the ions are not attracted by a wire,
but by an open cone. As the ions cannot decide which part of the cone to hit, they pass through the hole and form an
ion beam. This ion beam can be passed on to a:
5.6. DYNAMIC TRANSIENTS 29
• Faraday cup
• Microchannel plate detector with Faraday cup
• Quadrupole mass analyzer with Faraday cup
• Quadrupole mass analyzer with Microchannel plate detector Faraday cup
• ion lens and acceleration voltage and directed at a target to form a sputter gun. In this case a valve lets gas into
the grid-cage.
Cold cathode
There are two subtypes of cold-cathode ionization gauges: the Penning gauge (invented by Frans Michel Penning),
and the Inverted magnetron, also called a Redhead gauge. The major difference between the two is the position
of the anode with respect to the cathode. Neither has a filament, and each may require a DC potential of about 4 kV
for operation. Inverted magnetrons can measure down to 1x10−12 Torr.
Likewise, cold-cathode gauges may be reluctant to start at very low pressures, in that the near-absence of a gas
makes it difficult to establish an electrode current - in particular in Penning gauges, which use an axially symmetric
magnetic field to create path lengths for electrons that are of the order of metres. In ambient air, suitable ion-pairs
are ubiquitously formed by cosmic radiation; in a Penning gauge, design features are used to ease the set-up of a
discharge path. For example, the electrode of a Penning gauge is usually finely tapered to facilitate the field emission
of electrons.
Maintenance cycles of cold cathode gauges are, in general, measured in years, depending on the gas type and pressure
that they are operated in. Using a cold cathode gauge in gases with substantial organic components, such as pump
oil fractions, can result in the growth of delicate carbon films and shards within the gauge that eventually either
short-circuit the electrodes of the gauge or impede the generation of a discharge path.
is also provided on pressure-measuring devices that are used in field environments i.e., Piston Gauges, Manometers,
and Low-Absolute-Pressure (Vacuum) Instruments.
These methods are designed to assist in the evaluation of measurement uncertainty based on current technology and
engineering knowledge, taking into account published instrumentation specifications and measurement and applica-
tion techniques. This Supplement provides guidance in the use of methods to establish the pressure-measurement
uncertainty.
5.8 History
Further information: Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
5.12 References
[1] NIST
[2] http://vacaero.com/information-resources/vacuum-pump-practice-with-howard-tring/1290-understanding-vacuum-measurement-units.
html
[3] Methods for the Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes, Part 1. Orifice Plates, Nozzles and Venturi Tubes. British Standards
Institute. 1964. p. 36.
[4] [Was: "fluidengineering.co.nr/Manometer.htm". At 1/2010 that took me to bad link. Types of fluid Manometers]
[6] Beckwith, Thomas G.; Roy D. Marangoni & John H. Lienhard V (1993). “Measurement of Low Pressures”. Mechanical
Measurements (Fifth ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 591–595. ISBN 0-201-56947-7.
[8] Boyes, Walt (2008). Instrumentation Reference Book (Fourth ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 1312.
[10] A. Chambers, Basic Vacuum Technology, pp. 100-102, CRC Press, 1998 ISBN 0585254915.
[11] John F. O'Hanlon, A User’s Guide to Vacuum Technology, pp. 92-94, John Wiley & Sons, 2005 ISBN 0471467154.
[12] Robert M. Besançon, ed. (1990). “Vacuum Techniques”. The Encyclopedia of Physics (3rd ed.). Van Nostrand Reinhold,
New York. pp. 1278–1284. ISBN 0-442-00522-9.
• Manometer
32 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
5.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 33
Membrane-type manometer
5.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 35
An original 19th century Eugene Bourdon compound gauge, reading pressure both below and above ambient with great sensitivity.
36 CHAPTER 5. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Mechanical details
5.13. EXTERNAL LINKS 39
Dead-weight tester. This uses known calibrated weights on a piston to generate a known pressure.
Chapter 6
Pump
6.1 Types
Mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to the fluid.
Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement pumps, impulse pumps, velocity
pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps and valveless pumps. There are two basic types of pumps: positive displacement
and centrifugal. Although axial-flow pumps are frequently classified as a separate type, they have essentially the same
operating principles as centrifugal pumps.[2]
A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and forcing (displacing) that trapped
volume into the discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the discharge
side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as
the cavity collapses. The volume is constant through each cycle of operation.
42
6.1. TYPES 43
Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, theoretically can produce the same flow at
a given speed (RPM) no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus, positive displacement pumps are constant flow
machines. However, a slight increase in internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate.
in case.
A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the discharge side of the pump, because it
has no shutoff head like centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement pump operating against a closed discharge valve
continues to produce flow and the pressure in the discharge line increases until the line bursts, the pump is severely
damaged, or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive displacement pump is therefore necessary. The relief
valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety
valves. The internal valve is usually only used as a safety precaution. An external relief valve in the discharge line,
with a return line back to the suction line or supply tank provides increased safety.
44 CHAPTER 6. PUMP
A large, electrically driven pump (electropump) for waterworks near the Hengsteysee, Germany
Horizontally mounted lobe pump (right) shown with its electric motor (left) and drive-shaft bearing (middle)
A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the mechanism used to move the fluid:
• Rotary-type positive displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible vane or sliding vane, circumfer-
6.1. TYPES 45
Discharge
Vane
Suction
Lobe pump internals
ential piston, flexible impeller, helical twisted roots (e.g. the Wendelkolben pump) or liquid-ring pumps
• Reciprocating-type positive displacement: piston pumps, plunger pumps or diaphragm pumps
• Linear-type positive displacement: rope pumps and chain pumps
Rotary positive displacement pumps These pumps move fluid using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum
that captures and draws in the liquid.
Advantages: Rotary pumps are very efficient because they naturally remove air from the lines, eliminating the need
to bleed the air from the lines manually.
Drawbacks: The nature of the pump requires very close clearances between the rotating pump and the outer edge,
making it rotate at a slow, steady speed. If rotary pumps are operated at high speeds, the fluids cause erosion, which
eventually causes enlarged clearances that liquid can pass through, which reduces efficiency.
Rotary positive displacement pumps fall into three main types:
• Gear pumps – a simple type of rotary pump where the liquid is pushed between two gears
• Screw pumps – the shape of the internals of this pump is usually two screws turning against each other to pump
the liquid
• Rotary vane pumps – similar to scroll compressors, these have a cylindrical rotor encased in a similarly shaped
housing. As the rotor orbits, the vanes trap fluid between the rotor and the casing, drawing the fluid through
the pump.
Reciprocating pumps move the fluid using one or more oscillating pistons, plungers, or membranes (diaphragms),
while valves restrict fluid motion to the desired direction.
46 CHAPTER 6. PUMP
Pumps in this category range from simplex, with one cylinder, to in some cases quad (four) cylinders, or more. Many
reciprocating-type pumps are duplex (two) or triplex (three) cylinder. They can be either single-acting with suction
during one direction of piston motion and discharge on the other, or double-acting with suction and discharge in both
directions. The pumps can be powered manually, by air or steam, or by a belt driven by an engine. This type of pump
was used extensively in the 19th century—in the early days of steam propulsion—as boiler feed water pumps. Now
reciprocating pumps typically pump highly viscous fluids like concrete and heavy oils, and serve in special applications
that demand low flow rates against high resistance. Reciprocating hand pumps were widely used to pump water from
wells. Common bicycle pumps and foot pumps for inflation use reciprocating action.
These positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing cavity on the
discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the
discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of operation.
Typical reciprocating pumps are:
• Plunger pumps – a reciprocating plunger pushes the fluid through one or two open valves, closed by suction on
the way back.
• Diaphragm pumps – similar to plunger pumps, where the plunger pressurizes hydraulic oil which is used to flex
a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used to pump hazardous and toxic fluids.
• Piston pumps displacement pumps – usually simple devices for pumping small amounts of liquid or gel manually.
The common hand soap dispenser is such a pump.
Various positive-displacement pumps The positive displacement principle applies in these pumps:
This is the simplest of rotary positive displacement pumps. It consists of two meshed gears that rotate in a closely
fitted casing. The tooth spaces trap fluid and force it around the outer periphery. The fluid does not travel back on
the meshed part, because the teeth mesh closely in the center. Gear pumps see wide use in car engine oil pumps and
in various hydraulic power packs.
A screw pump is a more complicated type of rotary pump that uses two or three screws with opposing thread —
e.g., one screw turns clockwise and the other counterclockwise. The screws are mounted on parallel shafts that have
gears that mesh so the shafts turn together and everything stays in place. The screws turn on the shafts and drive fluid
through the pump. As with other forms of rotary pumps, the clearance between moving parts and the pump’s casing
is minimal.
Widely used for pumping difficult materials, such as sewage sludge contaminated with large particles, this pump
consists of a helical rotor, about ten times as long as its width. This can be visualized as a central core of diameter x
with, typically, a curved spiral wound around of thickness half x, though in reality it is manufactured in single casting.
This shaft fits inside a heavy duty rubber sleeve, of wall thickness also typically x. As the shaft rotates, the rotor
gradually forces fluid up the rubber sleeve. Such pumps can develop very high pressure at low volumes.
Named after the Roots brothers who invented it, this lobe pump displaces the liquid trapped between two long
helical rotors, each fitted into the other when perpendicular at 90°, rotating inside a triangular shaped sealing line
configuration, both at the point of suction and at the point of discharge. This design produces a continuous flow with
equal volume and no vortex. It can work at low pulsation rates, and offers gentle performance that some applications
require.
Applications include:
A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump. It contains fluid within a flexible tube fitted inside a circular
pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made). A number of rollers, shoes, or wipers attached to a
rotor compresses the flexible tube. As the rotor turns, the part of the tube under compression closes (or occludes),
forcing the fluid through the tube. Additionally, when the tube opens to its natural state after the passing of the cam
it draws (restitution) fluid into the pump. This process is called peristalsis and is used in many biological systems such
as the gastrointestinal tract.
Triplex-style plunger pumps Triplex plunger pumps use three plungers, which reduces the pulsation of single
reciprocating plunger pumps. Adding a pulsation dampener on the pump outlet can further smooth the pump ripple,
or ripple graph of a pump transducer. The dynamic relationship of the high-pressure fluid and plunger generally
requires high-quality plunger seals. Plunger pumps with a larger number of plungers have the benefit of increased
flow, or smoother flow without a pulsation dampener. The increase in moving parts and crankshaft load is one
drawback.
Car washes often use these triplex-style plunger pumps (perhaps without pulsation dampeners). In 1968, William
Bruggeman significantly reduced the size of the triplex pump and increased the lifespan so that car washes could use
equipment with smaller footprints. Durable high pressure seals, low pressure seals and oil seals, hardened crankshafts,
hardened connecting rods, thick ceramic plungers and heavier duty ball and roller bearings improve reliability in
triplex pumps. Triplex pumps now are in a myriad of markets across the world.
Triplex pumps with shorter lifetimes are commonplace to the home user. A person who uses a home pressure washer
for 10 hours a year may be satisfied with a pump that lasts 100 hours between rebuilds. Industrial-grade or continuous
duty triplex pumps on the other end of the quality spectrum may run for as much as 2,080 hours a year.[3]
The oil and gas drilling industry uses massive semi trailer-transported triplex pumps called mud pumps to pump
drilling mud, which cools the drill bit and carries the cuttings back to the surface.[4] Drillers use triplex or even
quintuplex pumps to inject water and solvents deep into shale in the extraction process called fracking.[5]
Devised in China as chain pumps over 1000 years ago, these pumps can be made from very simple materials: A rope,
a wheel and a PVC pipe are sufficient to make a simple rope pump. Rope pump efficiency has been studied by grass
roots organizations and the techniques for making and running them have been continuously improved.[6]
6.1. TYPES 49
• Hydraulic ram pumps – kinetic energy of a low-head water supply is stored temporarily in an air-bubble
hydraulic accumulator, then used to drive water to a higher head.
• Pulser pumps – run with natural resources, by kinetic energy only.
• Airlift pumps – run on air inserted into pipe, which pushes the water up when bubbles move upward
Instead of a gas accumulation and releasing cycle, the pressure can be created by burning of hydrocarbons. Such
combustion driven pumps directly transmit the impulse form a combustion event through the actuation membrane to
the pump fluid. In order to allow this direct transmission, the pump needs to be almost entirely made of an elastomer
(e.g. silicone rubber). Hence, the combustion causes the membrane to expand and thereby pumps the fluid out of the
adjacent pumping chamber. The first combustion-driven soft pump was developed by ETH Zurich.[7]
1. Continuous energy
2. Conversion of added energy to increase in kinetic energy (increase in velocity)
3. Conversion of increased velocity (kinetic energy) to an increase in pressure head
A practical difference between dynamic and positive displacement pumps is how they operate under closed valve
conditions. Positive displacement pumps physically displace fluid, so closing a valve downstream of a positive dis-
placement pump produces a continual pressure build up that can cause mechanical failure of pipeline or pump.
Dynamic pumps differ in that they can be safely operated under closed valve conditions (for short periods of time).
Radial-flow pumps
Such a pump is also referred to as a centrifugal pump. The fluid enters along the axis or center, is accelerated by the
impeller and exits at right angles to the shaft (radially); an example is the centrifugal fan, which is commonly used to
implement a vacuum cleaner. Generally, a radial-flow pump operates at higher pressures and lower flow rates than
an axial- or a mixed-flow pump.
50 CHAPTER 6. PUMP
Axial-flow pumps
These are also referred to as All fluid pumps. The fluid is pushed outward or inward and move fluid axially. They
operate at much lower pressures and higher flow rates than radial-flow (centripetal) pumps.
Mixed-flow pumps
Mixed-flow pumps function as a compromise between radial and axial-flow pumps. The fluid experiences both radial
acceleration and lift and exits the impeller somewhere between 0 and 90 degrees from the axial direction. As a
consequence mixed-flow pumps operate at higher pressures than axial-flow pumps while delivering higher discharges
than radial-flow pumps. The exit angle of the flow dictates the pressure head-discharge characteristic in relation to
radial and mixed-flow.
Eductor-jet pump
This uses a jet, often of steam, to create a low pressure. This low pressure sucks in fluid and propels it into a higher
pressure region.
Gravity pumps include the syphon and Heron’s fountain. The hydraulic ram is also sometimes called a gravity pump;
in a gravity pump the water is lifted by gravitational force.
Steam pumps have been for a long time mainly of historical interest. They include any type of pump powered by a
steam engine and also pistonless pumps such as Thomas Savery's or the Pulsometer steam pump.
Recently there has been a resurgence of interest in low power solar steam pumps for use in smallholder irrigation
in developing countries. Previously small steam engines have not been viable because of escalating inefficiencies as
vapour engines decrease in size. However the use of modern engineering materials coupled with alternative engine
configurations has meant that these types of system are now a cost effective opportunity.
Valveless pumping assists in fluid transport in various biomedical and engineering systems. In a valveless pumping
system, no valves (or physical occlusions) are present to regulate the flow direction. The fluid pumping efficiency of
a valveless system, however, is not necessarily lower than that having valves. In fact, many fluid-dynamical systems
in nature and engineering more or less rely upon valveless pumping to transport the working fluids therein. For
instance, blood circulation in the cardiovascular system is maintained to some extent even when the heart’s valves
fail. Meanwhile, the embryonic vertebrate heart begins pumping blood long before the development of discernible
chambers and valves. In microfluidics, valveless impedance pumps have been fabricated, and are expected to be
particularly suitable for handling sensitive biofluids. Ink jet printers operating on the Piezoelectric transducer principle
also use valveless pumping. The pump chamber is emptied through the printing jet due to reduced flow impedance
in that direction and refilled by capillary action..
6.2. PUMP REPAIRS 51
Examining pump repair records and mean time between failures (MTBF) is of great importance to responsible and
conscientious pump users. In view of that fact, the preface to the 2006 Pump User’s Handbook alludes to “pump
failure” statistics. For the sake of convenience, these failure statistics often are translated into MTBF (in this case,
installed life before failure).[10]
In early 2005, Gordon Buck, John Crane Inc.’s chief engineer for Field Operations in Baton Rouge, LA, examined
the repair records for a number of refinery and chemical plants to obtain meaningful reliability data for centrifugal
pumps. A total of 15 operating plants having nearly 15,000 pumps were included in the survey. The smallest of
these plants had about 100 pumps; several plants had over 2000. All facilities were located in the United States. In
addition, considered as “new”, others as “renewed” and still others as “established”. Many of these plants—but not
all—had an alliance arrangement with John Crane. In some cases, the alliance contract included having a John Crane
Inc. technician or engineer on-site to coordinate various aspects of the program.
Not all plants are refineries, however, and different results occur elsewhere. In chemical plants, pumps have tra-
ditionally been “throw-away” items as chemical attack limits life. Things have improved in recent years, but the
somewhat restricted space available in “old” DIN and ASME-standardized stuffing boxes places limits on the type
of seal that fits. Unless the pump user upgrades the seal chamber, the pump only accommodates more compact and
simple versions. Without this upgrading, lifetimes in chemical installations are generally around 50 to 60 percent of
the refinery values.
Unscheduled maintenance is often one of the most significant costs of ownership, and failures of mechanical seals and
bearings are among the major causes. Keep in mind the potential value of selecting pumps that cost more initially,
but last much longer between repairs. The MTBF of a better pump may be one to four years longer than that of its
non-upgraded counterpart. Consider that published average values of avoided pump failures range from US$2600
to US$12,000. This does not include lost opportunity costs. One pump fire occurs per 1000 failures. Having fewer
pump failures means having fewer destructive pump fires.
As has been noted, a typical pump failure based on actual year 2002 reports, costs US$5,000 on average. This
includes costs for material, parts, labor and overhead. Extending a pump’s MTBF from 12 to 18 months would save
US$1,667 per year — which might be greater than the cost to upgrade the centrifugal pump’s reliability.[10][11][12]
6.3 Applications
Pumps are used throughout society for a variety of purposes. Early applications includes the use of the windmill
or watermill to pump water. Today, the pump is used for irrigation, water supply, gasoline supply, air conditioning
systems, refrigeration (usually called a compressor), chemical movement, sewage movement, flood control, marine
services, etc.
Because of the wide variety of applications, pumps have a plethora of shapes and sizes: from very large to very small,
from handling gas to handling liquid, from high pressure to low pressure, and from high volume to low volume.
Typically, a liquid pump can't simply draw air. The feed line of the pump and the internal body surrounding the
pumping mechanism must first be filled with the liquid that requires pumping: An operator must introduce liquid
into the system to initiate the pumping. This is called priming the pump. Loss of prime is usually due to ingestion
of air into the pump. The clearances and displacement ratios in pumps for liquids, whether thin or more viscous,
usually cannot displace air due to its compressibility. This is the case with most velocity (rotodynamic) pumps — for
example, centrifugal pumps.
Positive–displacement pumps, however, tend to have sufficiently tight sealing between the moving parts and the casing
or housing of the pump that they can be described as self-priming. Such pumps can also serve as priming pumps, so
called when they are used to fulfill that need for other pumps in lieu of action taken by a human operator.
52 CHAPTER 6. PUMP
Multiphase pumping applications, also referred to as tri-phase, have grown due to increased oil drilling activity. In
addition, the economics of multiphase production is attractive to upstream operations as it leads to simpler, smaller
in-field installations, reduced equipment costs and improved production rates. In essence, the multiphase pump can
accommodate all fluid stream properties with one piece of equipment, which has a smaller footprint. Often, two
smaller multiphase pumps are installed in series rather than having just one massive pump.
For midstream and upstream operations, multiphase pumps can be located onshore or offshore and can be connected
to single or multiple wellheads. Basically, multiphase pumps are used to transport the untreated flow stream produced
from oil wells to downstream processes or gathering facilities. This means that the pump may handle a flow stream
(well stream) from 100 percent gas to 100 percent liquid and every imaginable combination in between. The flow
stream can also contain abrasives such as sand and dirt. Multiphase pumps are designed to operate under changing or
fluctuating process conditions. Multiphase pumping also helps eliminate emissions of greenhouse gases as operators
strive to minimize the flaring of gas and the venting of tanks where possible.[15]
Helico-axial pumps (centrifugal) A rotodynamic pump with one single shaft that requires two mechanical seals,
this pump uses an open-type axial impeller. It’s often called a Poseidon pump, and can be described as a cross between
an axial compressor and a centrifugal pump.
Twin-screw (positive-displacement) The twin-screw pump is constructed of two inter-meshing screws that move
the pumped fluid. Twin screw pumps are often used when pumping conditions contain high gas volume fractions and
fluctuating inlet conditions. Four mechanical seals are required to seal the two shafts.
Progressive cavity (positive-displacement) Progressive cavity pumps are single-screw types typically used in shal-
low wells or at the surface. This pump is mainly used on surface applications where the pumped fluid may contain a
considerable amount of solids such as sand and dirt.
Electric submersible (centrifugal) These pumps are basically multistage centrifugal pumps and are widely used
in oil well applications as a method for artificial lift. These pumps are usually specified when the pumped fluid is
mainly liquid.
6.4. SPECIFICATIONS 53
Buffer tank A buffer tank is often installed upstream of the pump suction nozzle in case of a slug flow. The buffer
tank breaks the energy of the liquid slug, smooths any fluctuations in the incoming flow and acts as a sand trap.
As the name indicates, multiphase pumps and their mechanical seals can encounter a large variation in service con-
ditions such as changing process fluid composition, temperature variations, high and low operating pressures and
exposure to abrasive/erosive media. The challenge is selecting the appropriate mechanical seal arrangement and
support system to ensure maximized seal life and its overall effectiveness.[15][16][17]
6.4 Specifications
Pumps are commonly rated by horsepower, flow rate, outlet pressure in metres (or feet) of head, inlet suction in
suction feet (or metres) of head. The head can be simplified as the number of feet or metres the pump can raise or
lower a column of water at atmospheric pressure.
From an initial design point of view, engineers often use a quantity termed the specific speed to identify the most
suitable pump type for a particular combination of flow rate and head.
The power imparted into a fluid increases the energy of the fluid per unit volume. Thus the power relationship is
between the conversion of the mechanical energy of the pump mechanism and the fluid elements within the pump.
In general, this is governed by a series of simultaneous differential equations, known as the Navier–Stokes equations.
However a more simple equation relating only the different energies in the fluid, known as Bernoulli’s equation can
be used. Hence the power, P, required by the pump:
∆pQ
P =
η
where Δp is the change in total pressure between the inlet and outlet (in Pa), and Q, the volume flow-rate of the
fluid is given in m3 /s. The total pressure may have gravitational, static pressure and kinetic energy components; i.e.
energy is distributed between change in the fluid’s gravitational potential energy (going up or down hill), change in
velocity, or change in static pressure. η is the pump efficiency, and may be given by the manufacturer’s information,
such as in the form of a pump curve, and is typically derived from either fluid dynamics simulation (i.e. solutions to
the Navier–Stokes for the particular pump geometry), or by testing. The efficiency of the pump depends upon the
pump’s configuration and operating conditions (such as rotational speed, fluid density and viscosity etc.)
6.6 Efficiency
Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power imparted on the fluid by the pump in relation to the power supplied
to drive the pump. Its value is not fixed for a given pump, efficiency is a function of the discharge and therefore also
operating head. For centrifugal pumps, the efficiency tends to increase with flow rate up to a point midway through the
operating range (peak efficiency or Best Efficiency Point (BEP) ) and then declines as flow rates rise further. Pump
performance data such as this is usually supplied by the manufacturer before pump selection. Pump efficiencies tend
to decline over time due to wear (e.g. increasing clearances as impellers reduce in size).
54 CHAPTER 6. PUMP
When a system includes a centrifugal pump, an important design issue is matching the head loss-flow characteristic
with the pump so that it operates at or close to the point of its maximum efficiency.
Pump efficiency is an important aspect and pumps should be regularly tested. Thermodynamic pump testing is one
method.
6.7 References
[1] Pump classifications. Fao.org. Retrieved on 2011-05-25.
[2] Improving Pumping System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry, Second Edition, May 2006. Accessed 2015-05-22.
[3] “Definitive Guide: Pumps Used in Pressure Washers”. The Pressure Washr Review. Retrieved May 14, 2016.
[5] “Stimulation and Fracturing pumps: Reciprocating, Quintuplex Stimulation and Fracturing Pump”. Gardner Denver.
[6] Tanzania water blog – example of grass roots researcher telling about his study and work with the rope pump in Africa.
[7] C.M. Schumacher, M. Loepfe, R.Fuhrer, R.N. Grass, and W.J. Stark, “3D printed lost-wax casted soft silicone monoblocks
enable heart-inspired pumping by internal combustion,” RSC Advances, Vol. 4,pp. 16039–16042, 2014.
[8] Demirbas, Ayhan (2008-11-14). Biofuels: Securing the Planet’s Future Energy Needs. Springer Science & Business Media.
ISBN 9781848820111.
[10] Pump Statistics Should Shape Strategies. Mt-online.com 1 October 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2014.
[12] Wasser, Goodenberger, Jim and Bob (November 1993). “Extended Life, Zero Emissions Seal for Process Pumps”. John
Crane Technical Report. Routledge. TRP 28017.
[13] Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times. London: Routledge. p. 143.
ISBN 0-415-15291-7.
[16] John Crane Seal Sentinel – John Crane Increases Production Capabilities with Machine that Streamlines Four Machining
Functions into One. Sealsentinel.com. Retrieved on 2011-05-25.
• Hicks, Tyler G. and Theodore W. Edwards. Pump Application Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book Company.1971.
ISBN 0-07-028741-4
• Karassik, Igor, ed. (2007). Pump Handbook (4 ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 9780071460446.
• Robbins, L. B. “Homemade Water Pressure Systems”. Popular Science, February 1919, pages 83–84. Article
about how a homeowner can easily build a pressurized home water system that does not use electricity.
6.8. FURTHER READING 55
Antique “pitcher” pump (c. 1924) at the Colored School in Alapaha, Georgia, US
6.8. FURTHER READING 57
Gear pump
58 CHAPTER 6. PUMP
Screw pump
6.8. FURTHER READING 59
Cavity pump
Derelict windmill connected to water pump with water storage tank in the foreground
Irrigation is underway by pump-enabled extraction directly from the Gumti, seen in the background, in Comilla, Bangladesh.
Chapter 7
In differential calculus, the Reynolds transport theorem (also known as the Leibniz–Reynolds transport theorem),
or in short Reynolds’ theorem, is a three-dimensional generalization of the Leibniz integral rule which is also known
as differentiation under the integral sign. The theorem is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912). It is used to
recast derivatives of integrated quantities and is useful in formulating the basic equations of continuum mechanics.
Consider integrating f = f(x,t) over the time-dependent region Ω(t) that has boundary ∂Ω(t), then taking the derivative
with respect to time:
∫
d
f dV.
dt Ω(t)
If we wish to move the derivative within the integral, there are two issues: the time dependence of f, and the in-
troduction of and removal of space from Ω due to its dynamic boundary. Reynolds’ transport theorem provides the
necessary framework.
∫ ∫ ∫
d ∂f ( )
f dV = dV + vb · n f dA
dt Ω(t) Ω(t) ∂t ∂Ω(t)
in which n(x,t) is the outward-pointing unit normal vector, x is a point in the region and is the variable of integration,
dV and dA are volume and surface elements at x, and vb (x,t) is the velocity of the area element (not the flow velocity).
The function f may be tensor-, vector- or scalar-valued.[4] Note that the integral on the left hand side is a function
solely of time, and so the total derivative has been used.
vb · n = v · n.
66
7.3. A SPECIAL CASE 67
(∫ ) ∫ ∫
d ∂f
f dV = dV + (v · n)f dA.
dt Ω(t) Ω(t) ∂t ∂Ω(t)
∫ ∫
d ∂f
f dV = dV.
dt Ω Ω ∂t
as expected. (This simplification is not possible if the flow velocity is incorrectly used in place of the velocity of an
area element.)
∫ ∫
d b(t) b(t)
∂f ∂b(t) ( ) ∂a(t) ( )
f (x, t) dx = dx + f b(t), t − f a(t), t ,
dt a(t) a(t) ∂t ∂t ∂t
which, up to swapping x and t, is the standard expression for differentiation under the integral sign.
7.5 Notes
[1] L. G. Leal, 2007, p. 23.
[2] O. Reynolds, 1903, Vol. 3, p. 12–13
[3] J.E. Marsden and A. Tromba, 5th ed. 2003
[4] H. Yamaguchi, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Springer c2008 p23
[5] T. Belytschko, W. K. Liu, and B. Moran, 2000, Nonlinear Finite Elements for Continua and Structures, John Wiley and
Sons, Ltd., New York.
[6] Gurtin M. E., 1981, An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics. Academic Press, New York, p. 77.
7.6 References
• L. G. Leal, 2007, Advanced transport phenomena: fluid mechanics and convective transport processes, Cam-
bridge University Press, p. 912.
• O. Reynolds, 1903, Papers on Mechanical and Physical Subjects, Vol. 3, The Sub-Mechanics of the Universe,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
• J. E. Marsden and A. Tromba, 2003, Vector Calculus, 5th ed., W. H. Freeman .
68 CHAPTER 7. REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM
• http://planetmath.org/reynoldstransporttheorem
Chapter 8
Rheopecty
Rheopecty or rheopexy is the rare property of some non-Newtonian fluids to show a time-dependent increase in
viscosity (time-dependent viscosity); the longer the fluid undergoes shearing force, the higher its viscosity.[1] Rheopec-
tic fluids, such as some lubricants, thicken or solidify when shaken. The opposite and much more common type of
behaviour, in which fluids become less viscous the longer they undergo shear, is called thixotropy.
Examples of rheopectic fluids include gypsum pastes and printer inks. In the body synovial fluid exhibits the extraor-
dinary property of inverse thixotropy or rheopexy.[2]
There is ongoing research into new ways to make and use rheopectic materials. There is great interest in possible
military uses of this technology. Moreover, the high end of the sports market has also begun to respond to it. Body
armor and combat vehicle armor are key areas where efforts are being made to use rheopectic materials. Work is also
being done to use these materials in other kinds of protective equipment, which is seen as potentially useful to reduce
apparent impact stress in athletics, motor sports, transportation accidents, and all forms of parachuting. In particular,
footwear with rheopectic shock absorption is being pursued as a dual-use technology that can provide better support
to those who must frequently run, leap, climb, or descend.
8.2 References
[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/0/22880407
[2] O'Neill, p.l (1996). “The Inverse Thixotropic Behaviour of Synovial Fluid”.
[3] Sato, Tatsuo (August 1995). “Rheology of suspensions”. The Journal of Coatings Technology: 69. Retrieved March 12,
2016.
69
Chapter 9
Specific speed
Specific speed Ns, is used to characterize turbomachinery speed.[1] Common commercial and industrial practices
use dimensioned versions which are of equal utility. Specific speed is most commonly used in pump applications to
define the suction specific speed —a quasi non-dimensional number that categorizes pump impellers as to their type
and proportions. In Imperial units it is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar
impeller would operate if it were of such a size as to deliver one gallon per minute against one foot of hydraulic head.
In metric units flow may be in l/s or m³/s and head in m, and care must be taken to state the units used.
Performance is defined as the ratio of the pump or turbine against a reference pump or turbine, which divides the
actual performance figure to provide a unitless figure of merit. The resulting figure would more descriptively be
called the “ideal-reference-device-specific performance.” This resulting unitless ratio may loosely be expressed as a
“speed,” only because the performance of the reference ideal pump is linearly dependent on its speed, so that the ratio
of [device-performance to reference-device-performance] is also the increased speed at which the reference device
would need to operate, in order to produce the performance, instead of its reference speed of “1 unit.”
Specific speed is an index used to predict desired pump or turbine performance. i.e. it predicts the general shape of
a pumps impeller. It is this impeller’s “shape” that predicts its flow and head characteristics so that the designer can
then select a pump or turbine most appropriate for a particular application. Once the desired specific speed is known,
basic dimensions of the unit’s components can be easily calculated.
Several mathematical definitions of specific speed (all of them actually ideal-device-specific) have been created for
different devices and applications.
Low-specific speed radial flow impellers develop hydraulic head principally through centrifugal force. Pumps of
higher specific speeds develop head partly by centrifugal force and partly by axial force. An axial flow or propeller
pump with a specific speed of 10,000 or greater generates its head exclusively through axial forces. Radial impellers
are generally low flow/high head designs whereas axial flow impellers are high flow/low head designs. In theory,
the discharge of a “purely” centrifugal machine (pump, turbine, fan, etc.)is tangential to the rotation of the impeller
whereas a “purely” axial-flow machine’s discharge will be parallel to the axis of rotation. There are also machines
that exhibit a combination of both properties and are specifically referred to as “mixed-flow” machines.
Centrifugal pump impellers have specific speed values ranging from 500 to 10,000 (English units), with radial flow
pumps at 500-4000, mixed flow at 2000-8000 and axial flow pumps at 7000-20,000. Values of specific speed less
than 500 are associated with positive displacement pumps.
As the specific speed increases, the ratio of the impeller outlet diameter to the inlet or eye diameter decreases. This
ratio becomes 1.0 for a true axial flow impeller.
√
n Q
Ns = (H)3/4
where:
70
9.2. NET SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED 71
Ns
n
Q
H
Note that the units used affect the specific speed value in the above equation and consistent units should be used for
comparisons. Pump specific speed can be calculated using British gallons or using Metric units (m3 /s or L/s and
metres head), changing the values listed above.
√
n Q
The following equation gives a dimensionless specific speed. Ns = (H)3/4
where:
Ω
Hn
Q
The factor 0.2626 is only required when the specific speed is to be adjusted to English units. In countries which use
the metric system, the factor is omitted, and quoted specific speeds are correspondingly larger.
9.3.3 Example
Given a flow and head for a specific hydro site, and the RPM requirement of the generator, calculate the specific
speed. The result is the main criteria for turbine selection or the starting point for analytical design of a new turbine.
Once the desired specific speed is known, basic dimensions of the turbine parts can be easily calculated.
Turbine calculations:
2.294
Ns =
Hn0.486
√
Hn
De = 84.5(0.79 + 1.602Ns )
60 ∗ Ω
De
Well-designed efficient machines typically use the following values: Impulse turbines have the lowest ns values, typi-
cally ranging from 1 to 10, a Pelton wheel is typically around 4, Francis turbines fall in the range of 10 to 100, while
Kaplan turbines are at least 100 or more, all in imperial units.
9.5 References
[1] Shepard, Dennis G. (1956). Principles of Turbomachinery. McMillan. ISBN 0 - 471 - 85546 - 4. LCCN 56002849.
[3] “NPSH and Suction Specific Speed - Goulds Pumps - ITT Corporation”. ITT Corporation. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
9.5. REFERENCES 73
[4] “Article #3: Suction Specific Speed (NSS)". Pumping Machinery. Retrieved 2016-06-09.
[5] “Specific Suction Speed for Pumps”. Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 2007-07-13.
[6] http://www.thermopedia.com/content/859/
[7] “Technical derivation of basic impulse turbine physics, by J.Calvert”. Mysite.du.edu. Retrieved 2012-07-08.
[8] Sayers, A. T. (1990). Hydraulic and Compressible Flow Turbomachines. Mcgraw Hill Book Co Ltd. ISBN 978-0-07-
707219-3.
Chapter 10
Terminal velocity
10.1 Examples
Based on wind resistance, for example, the terminal velocity of a skydiver in a belly-to-earth (i.e., face down) free-fall
position is about 195 km/h (122 mph or 54 m/s).[2] This velocity is the asymptotic limiting value of the velocity, and
the forces acting on the body balance each other more and more closely as the terminal velocity is approached. In
this example, a speed of 50% of terminal velocity is reached after only about 3 seconds, while it takes 8 seconds to
reach 90%, 15 seconds to reach 99% and so on.
Higher speeds can be attained if the skydiver pulls in his or her limbs (see also freeflying). In this case, the ter-
minal velocity increases to about 320 km/h (200 mph or 90 m/s),[2] which is almost the terminal velocity of the
peregrine falcon diving down on its prey.[3] The same terminal velocity is reached for a typical .30-06 bullet dropping
downwards—when it is returning to the ground having been fired upwards, or dropped from a tower—according to
a 1920 U.S. Army Ordnance study.[4]
Competition speed skydivers fly in a head-down position and can reach speeds of 530 km/h (330 mph); the current
record is held by Felix Baumgartner who jumped from a height of 128,100 feet (39,000 m) and reached 1,342 km/h
(834 mph), though he achieved this velocity at high altitude, where extremely thin air presents less drag force.
10.2 Physics
74
10.2. PHYSICS 75
√
2mg
Vt =
ρACd
where
1
Fnet = ma = mg − ρv 2 ACd
2
At equilibrium, the net force is zero (F = 0);
1
mg − ρv 2 ACd = 0
2
Solving for v yields
√
2mg
v=
ρACd
∇p = µ∇2 v
where
76 CHAPTER 10. TERMINAL VELOCITY
The analytical solution for the creeping flow around a sphere was first given by Stokes in 1851. From Stokes’ solution,
the drag force acting on the sphere can be obtained as
24
(6) D = 3πµdV or Cd =
Re
1
where the Reynolds number, Re = µ ρdV . The expression for the drag force given by equation (6) is called Stokes’
law.
When the value of Cd is substituted in the equation (5), we obtain the expression for terminal velocity of a spherical
object moving under creeping flow conditions:
gd2
Vt = (ρs − ρ)
18µ
Applications
The creeping flow results can be applied in order to study the settling of sediments near the ocean bottom and the fall
of moisture drops in the atmosphere. The principle is also applied in the falling sphere viscometer, an experimental
device used to measure the viscosity of highly viscous fluids, for example oil, parrafin, tar etc.
10.2.3 Finding the terminal velocity when the drag coefficient is not known
In principle one doesn't know beforehand whether to apply the creeping flow solution, or what coefficient of drag to
use, because the coefficient depends on the speed. What one can do in this situation is to calculate the product of the
coefficient of drag and the square of the Reynolds number:
mgD2
Cd Re2 =
Aρν 2
where ν is the kinematic viscosity, equal to μ/ρ. This product is a function of Reynolds number, and one can consult
a graph of C versus Re to find where along the curve the product attains the correct value (a qualitative example of
such a graph for spheres is found at this NASA site: ) From this one knows the coefficient of drag and one can then
use the formula given above to find the terminal velocity.
For a spherical object, the above-mentioned product can be simplified:
4mg
Cd Re2 =
πρν 2
We can see from this that the regime and the drag coefficient depend only on the sphere’s weight and the fluid prop-
erties. There are three regimes: creeping flow, intermediate-Reynolds number Newton’s Law (almost constant drag
coefficient), and a high-Reynolds number regime.[5] In the latter regime the boundary layer is everywhere turbulent
(see Golf ball#Aerodynamics). These regimes are given in the following table. The weight range for each regime is
given for water and air at 1 atm pressure and 25 °C. Note though that the weight (given in terms of mass in standard
gravity) is the weight in the fluid, which is less than the mass times the local gravity because of buoyancy.
Between the first two regimes there is a smooth transition. But notice that there is overlap between the ranges of
C Re2 for the last two regimes. Spheres in this weight range have two stable terminal velocities. A rough surface,
such as of a dimpled golf ball, allows transition to the lower drag coefficient at a lower Reynolds number.
10.3. TERMINAL VELOCITY IN THE PRESENCE OF BUOYANCY FORCE 77
(1) W = Fb + D
where
If the falling object is spherical in shape, the expression for the three forces are given below:
π 3
(2) W = d ρs g
6
π
(3) Fb = d3 ρg
6
1
(4) D = Cd ρV 2 A
2
where
Substitution of equations (2–4) in equation (1) and solving for terminal velocity, Vt to yield the following expression
√ ( )
4gd ρs − ρ
(5) Vt =
3Cd ρ
• Free fall
• Terminal ballistics
78 CHAPTER 10. TERMINAL VELOCITY
10.5 References
[1] “Terminal Velocity”. NASA Glenn Research Center. Retrieved March 4, 2009.
[2] Huang, Jian (1999). “Speed of a Skydiver (Terminal Velocity)". The Physics Factbook. Glenn Elert, Midwood High
School, Brooklyn College.
[3] “All About the Peregrine Falcon (archived)". U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. December 20, 2007. Archived from the
original on March 8, 2010.
[4] The Ballistician (March 2001). “Bullets in the Sky”. W. Square Enterprises, 9826 Sagedale, Houston, Texas 77089.
[5] Robert H. Perry; Cecil Chilton (eds.). Chemical Engineer’s Handbook (fifth ed.). pp. 5–62. ISBN 978-0070494787.
Fd
80 CHAPTER 10. TERMINAL VELOCITY
Fd
Fg
Creeping flow past a sphere: streamlines, drag force Fd and force by gravity Fg
10.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 81
Settling velocity Ws of a sand grain (diameter d, density 2650 kg/m3 ) in water at 20 °C, computed with the formula of Soulsby
(1997).
Chapter 11
Thixotropy
Thixotropy is a time-dependent shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that are thick, or viscous, under
static conditions will flow (become thin, less viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, sheared or otherwise stressed
(time dependent viscosity). They then take a fixed time to return to a more viscous state. In other words: some
non-Newtonian pseudoplastic fluids show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes shear
stress, the lower its viscosity. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which takes a finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity
when introduced to a steep change in shear rate. Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such
as ketchup, and are called pseudoplastic fluids. Others such as yogurt take much longer and can become nearly solid.
Many gels and colloids are thixotropic materials, exhibiting a stable form at rest but becoming fluid when agitated.
Some fluids are anti-thixotropic: constant shear stress for a time causes an increase in viscosity or even solidification.
Constant shear stress can be applied by shaking or mixing. Fluids which exhibit this property are usually called
rheopectic. They are much less common.
11.2 Applications
Many kinds of paints and inks— e.g.plastisols used in silkscreen textile printing— exhibit thixotropic qualities. In
many cases it is desirable for the fluid to flow sufficiently to form a uniform layer, then to resist further flow, thereby
preventing sagging on a vertical surface. Some other inks, such as those used in CMYK-type process printing, are
designed to regain viscosity even faster, once they are applied, in order to protect the structure of the dots for accurate
color reproduction.
82
11.3. ETYMOLOGY 83
11.3 Etymology
The word comes from Ancient Greek θίξις thixis “touch” (from thinganein “to touch”) and -tropy, -tropous, from
Ancient Greek -τρόπος -tropos “of turning”, from τρόπος tropos “a turn”, from τρέπειν trepein, “to turn”. It was
invented by Herbert Freundlich originally for a sol-gel transformation.[3]
11.5 References
[1] Hendrickson, T: “Massage for Orthopedic Conditions”, page 9. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.
[2] Garlaschelli, Ramaccini, Della Sala, “The Blood of St. Januarius”, Chemistry in Britain 30.2, (1994:123)
[3] Reiner, M., & Scott Blair, G. W., (1967) in Eich, F. R., (ed) Rheology, Theory and Applications Vol 4 p 465 (Academic
Press, NY)
• Derakhshandeh, B. Vlassopolous D., and Hatzikiriakos S.G., Thixotropy, Yielding and ultrasonic Doppler
velocimetry in pulp fibre suspensions, in Rheologica Acta DOI 10.1007/s00397-011-0577-7, 2011)
• Dam break wave of thixotropic fluid in Journal Hydraulic Engineering, 2006, Vol. 132, No. 3, pp. 280–293
84 CHAPTER 11. THIXOTROPY
Time-dependent viscosity
Time-dependent viscosity is a property of one class of non-Newtonian fluids in which the apparent viscosity of the
fluid changes with time as the fluid continues to undergo shear.
Most commonly, in a non-Newtonian fluid, the viscosity (the measure of a fluid’s ability to resist gradual deformation
by shear or tensile stresses) of the fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history (time). These shear-thickening
fluids are divided into two groups: time dependent and time-independent viscosity. In the case of time dependent
viscosity, the apparent viscosity of a fluid changes with time as the fluid is continuously sheared. They can be termed
as memory materials. If the apparent viscosity decreases with time, the fluid is called thixotropic and if it increases
with time, it is called rheopectic. Thixotropic behaviour is the result of a break down in the microstructure of the
material as shearing continues. This happens when the shear is exceeded of a limit. It leads to non-linear stress-strain
behaviour. Thixotropy can be associated with the effect of bubbles. Examples of these types of fluids are gelatine,
shortening, cream, paints, yogurt, xanthan gum solutions, aqueous iron oxide gels, gelatine gels, pectin gels, synovial
fluid, hydrogenated castor oil, some clays (including bentonite, and montmorillonite), carbon black suspension in
molten tire rubber, some drilling muds, many paints, many floc suspensions, and many colloidal suspensions. In the
case of rheopatic fluids, the structure builds as shearing continues. Rheopectic behaviour may be described as time-
dependent dilatant behaviour. This type of behaviour is much less common but can occur in highly concentrated
starch solutions over long periods of time. Shear induced crystallization may be responsible for rheopatic behaviour.
Other examples are gypsum pastes and printer inks.
Thixotropic fluids are fluids that show a shear thinning property. Certain gels or fluids that are thick (viscous)
under static conditions will flow (become thin, less viscous) over time when shaken, agitated, or otherwise stressed.
They then take a fixed time to return to a more viscous state. In more technical language: some non-Newtonian
pseudoplastic fluids show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the fluid undergoes shear stress, the lower
its viscosity. A thixotropic fluid is a fluid which takes a finite time to attain equilibrium viscosity when introduced
to a step change in shear rate. Some thixotropic fluids return to a gel state almost instantly, such as ketchup, and are
called pseudoplastic fluids. Others such as yogurt take much longer and can become nearly solid. Many gels and
colloids are thixotropic materials, exhibiting a stable form at rest but becoming fluid when agitated.
12.1.1 Applications
Drilling muds used in geotechnical applications can be thixotropic. Honey from honey bees may also exhibit this
property under certain conditions.(heather honey).
Synovial fluid found in joints between some bones. Both cytoplasm and the ground substance in the human body
is thixotropic, as is semen.[1] Some clay deposits found in the process of exploring caves exhibit thixotropism: an
initially solid-seeming mudbank will turn soupy and yield up moisture when dug into or otherwise disturbed. These
clays were deposited in the past by low-velocity streams which tend to deposit fine-grained sediment.
85
86 CHAPTER 12. TIME-DEPENDENT VISCOSITY
Rheopectic fluids are a rare class of non-Newtonian fluids. These show a time-dependent increase in viscosity;
the longer the fluid undergoes shearing force, the higher its viscosity.[3] Rheopectic fluids, such as some lubricants,
thicken or solidify when shaken. Examples of rheopectic fluids include gypsum pastes and printer inks.
12.2.1 Applications
There is ongoing aggressive research into new ways to make and use rheopectic materials. There is great interest in
possible military uses of this technology. Moreover, the high end of the sports market has also begun to respond to it.
Body armor and combat vehicle armor are key areas where efforts are being made to use rheopectic materials. Work
is also being done to use these materials in other kinds of protective equipment, which is seen as potentially useful
to reduce apparent impact stress in athletics, motor sports, transportation accidents, and all forms of parachuting.
In particular, footwear with rheopectic shock absorption is being pursued as a dual-use technology that can provide
better support to those who must frequently run, leap, climb, or descend.
12.3 Hysterisis
After the gradual attrition of the microstructure of the fluid, the reverse situation may take place. There is no reason
why the forward and the backward processes take place in the same manner. In reality, some hysteresis takes place.
That is the stress-strain relation is not identical when measured with increasing and decreasing strain rates.
• Viscosity
12.6. NOTES 87
Blue: With increasing shear rate the system is breaking downGreen: With decreasing shear rate the system is building up
12.6 Notes
[1] Hendrickson, T: “Massage for Orthopedic Conditions”, page 9. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2003.
[2] Garlaschelli, Ramaccini, Della the swagg fights of air forces Sala, “The Blood of St. Januarius”, Chemistry in Britain 30.2,
(1994:123)
[3] “BBC Science - How to: make a liquid that’s also a solid”. Bbc.co.uk. 2013-08-05. Retrieved 2015-03-08.
[4] “Numerical Calculation of Time‐Dependent Viscous Incompressible Flow of Fluid with Free Surface”. Retrieved 2014-
05-25.
12.7 References
• J. R. Lister and H. A. Stone (1996). Time-dependent viscous deformation of a drop in a rapidly rotating denser
fluid. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 317, pp 275–299 doi:10.1017/S0022112096000754
• Reiner, M., and Scott Blair, Rheology terminology, in Rheology, Vol. 4 pp. 461, (New York: Achedemic
Press, 1967)
• “Numerical Calculation of Time‐Dependent Viscous Incompressible Flow of Fluid with Free Surface”. Re-
trieved 2014-05-25.
88 CHAPTER 12. TIME-DEPENDENT VISCOSITY
Water hammer
liquid but sometimes also a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change direction suddenly (momentum change). A
water hammer commonly occurs when a valve closes suddenly at an end of a pipeline system, and a pressure wave
propagates in the pipe. It is also called hydraulic shock.
This pressure wave can cause major problems, from noise and vibration to pipe collapse. It is possible to reduce the
effects of the water hammer pulses with accumulators, expansion tanks, surge tanks, and other features.
Rough calculations can be made either using the Zhukovsky equation [1] , or more accurate ones using the method of
characteristics.[2]
89
90 CHAPTER 13. WATER HAMMER
13.1 History
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio described in the 1st century B.C. the effect of water hammer in lead pipes and stone tubes
of the Roman public water supply.[3][4] Water hammer was exploited before there was even a word for it: In 1772,
Englishman John Whitehurst built a hydraulic ram for a home in Cheshire, England.[5] In 1796, French inventor
Joseph Michel Montgolfier (1740–1810) built a hydraulic ram for his paper mill in Voiron.[6] In French and Italian,
the terms for “water hammer” come from the hydraulic ram: coup de bélier (French) and colpo d'ariete (Italian)
both mean “blow of the ram”.[7] As the 19th century witnessed the installation of municipal water supplies, water
hammer became a concern to civil engineers.[8][9] Water hammer also interested physiologists who were studying the
circulatory system.[10]
Although it was prefigured in work by Thomas Young,[11][10] the theory of water hammer is generally considered to
have begun in 1883 with the work of German physiologist Johannes von Kries (1853–1928), who was investigating
the pulse in blood vessels.[12][13] However, his findings went unnoticed by civil engineers.[14][15] Kries’s findings were
subsequently derived independently in 1898 by the Russian fluid dynamicist Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky (1847–
1921),[16][17] in 1898 by the American civil engineer Joseph Palmer Frizell (1832–1910),[18][19] and in 1902 by the
Italian engineer Lorenzo Allievi (1856–1941).[20]
When a pipe is suddenly closed at the outlet (downstream), the mass of water before the closure is still moving,
thereby building up high pressure and a resulting shock wave. In domestic plumbing this is experienced as a loud
banging resembling a hammering noise. Water hammer can cause pipelines to break if the pressure is high enough.
Air traps or stand pipes (open at the top) are sometimes added as dampers to water systems to absorb the potentially
damaging forces caused by the moving water.
In hydroelectric generating stations, the water travelling along the tunnel or pipeline may be prevented from entering
a turbine by closing a valve. For example, if there is 14 km of tunnel of 7.7 m diameter full of water travelling at
3.75 m/s,[21] that represents approximately 8000 megajoules of kinetic energy that must be arrested. This arresting is
frequently achieved by a surge shaft[22] open at the top, into which the water flows. As the water rises up the shaft its
kinetic energy is converted into potential energy, which causes the water in the tunnel to decelerate. At some HEP
stations, what looks like a water tower is actually one of these devices, known in these cases as a surge drum.
In the home a water hammer may occur when a dishwasher, washing machine or toilet shuts off water flow. The result
may be heard as a loud bang, repetitive banging (as the shock wave travels back and forth in the plumbing system),
or as some shuddering.
On the other hand, when an upstream valve in a pipe closes, water downstream of the valve attempts to continue
flowing creating a vacuum that may cause the pipe to collapse or implode. This problem can be particularly acute if
the pipe is on a downhill slope. To prevent this, air and vacuum relief valves or air vents are installed just downstream
of the valve to allow air to enter the line to prevent this vacuum from occurring.
Other causes of water hammer are pump failure and check valve slam (due to sudden deceleration, a check valve may
slam shut rapidly, depending on the dynamic characteristic of the check valve and the mass of the water between a
check valve and tank).
Steam distribution systems may also be vulnerable to a situation similar to water hammer, known as steam hammer.
In a steam system, a water hammer most often occurs when some of the steam condenses into water in a horizontal
section of the piping. Steam picks up the water, forming a "slug", and hurls this at high velocity into a pipe fitting,
creating a loud hammering noise and greatly stressing the pipe. This condition is usually caused by a poor condensate
drainage strategy.
Where air filled traps are used, these eventually become depleted of their trapped air over a long period of time
through absorption into the water. This can be cured by shutting off the supply, opening taps at the highest and lowest
locations to drain the system (thereby restoring air to the traps), and then closing the taps and re-opening the supply.
13.3. WATER HAMMER FROM A JET OF WATER 91
Expansion joints on a steam line that have been destroyed by steam hammer
• Reduce the pressure of the water supply to the building by fitting a regulator.
• Lower fluid velocities. To keep water hammer low, pipe-sizing charts for some applications recommend flow
velocity at or below 1.5 m/s (4.9 ft/s)
• Fit slowly closing valves. Toilet fill valves are available in a quiet fill type that closes quietly.
• Water towers (used in many drinking water systems) help maintain steady flow rates and trap large pressure
fluctuations.
• Air vessels work in much the same way as water towers, but are pressurized. They typically have an air cushion
above the fluid level in the vessel, which may be regulated or separated by a bladder. Sizes of air vessels may
be up to hundreds of cubic meters on large pipelines. They come in many shapes, sizes and configurations.
Such vessels often are called accumulators or expansion tanks.
• A hydropneumatic device similar in principle to a shock absorber called a 'Water Hammer Arrestor' can be
installed between the water pipe and the machine, to absorb the shock and stop the banging.
• Air valves often remediate low pressures at high points in the pipeline. Though effective, sometimes large
numbers of air valves need be installed. These valves also allow air into the system, which is often unwanted.
• Shorter lengths of straight pipe, i.e. add elbows, expansion loops. Water hammer is related to the speed of
sound in the fluid, and elbows reduce the influences of pressure waves.
• Arranging the larger piping in loops that supply shorter smaller run-out pipe branches. With looped piping,
lower velocity flows from both sides of a loop can serve a branch.
• Flywheel on pump.
∂P ∂v
= ρa
∂t ∂t
So for a valve closing instantaneously, the maximum magnitude of the water hammer pulse is:
13.6. THE MAGNITUDE OF THE PULSE 93
∆P = ρa0 ∆v
where ΔP is the magnitude of the pressure wave (Pa), ρ is the density of the fluid (kg m−3 ), a0 is the speed of sound
in the fluid (ms−1 ), and Δv is the change in the fluid’s velocity (ms−1 ). The pulse comes about due to Newton’s laws
of motion and the continuity equation applied to the deceleration of a fluid element.[27]
K
B=
(1 + V /a)[1 + c(K/E)(D/t)]
where
• a = wave speed
dv
F = ma = P A = ρLA .
dt
Assuming constant deceleration of the water column (dv/dt = v/t), gives:
P = ρvL/t.
where:
• F = force, N
• a = acceleration, m/s2
• P = pressure, Pa
• L = pipe length, m
The above formula becomes, for water and with imperial unit: P = 0.0135 V L/t. For practical application, a safety
factor of about 5 is recommended:
P = 0.07V L/t + P1
where P 1 is the inlet pressure in psi, V is the flow velocity in ft/sec, t is the valve closing time in seconds and L is the
upstream pipe length in feet.[28]
∆P = Z Q
In this expression:[29]
13.7. EXPRESSION FOR THE EXCESS PRESSURE DUE TO WATER HAMMER 95
The hydraulic impedance Z of the pipeline determines the magnitude of the water hammer pulse. It is itself defined
by:
√
ρB
Z=
A
with:
• compressibility of the liquid, defined by its adiabatic compressibility modulus B , resulting from the equation
of state of the liquid generally available from thermodynamic tables;
• the elasticity of the walls of the pipe, which defines an equivalent bulk modulus of compressibility for the solid
B . In the case of a pipe of circular cross section whose thickness t is small compared to the diameter D, the
equivalent modulus of compressibility is given by the following formula: B = Dt E ; in which E is the Young’s
modulus (in Pa) of the material of the pipe;
1 1 1 1
= + +
B Bl Bs Bg
• increasing the pipe diameter at constant flow, which reduces the flow velocity and hence the deceleration of
the liquid column;
• employing the solid material as tight as possible with respect to the internal fluid bulk (solid Young modulus
low with respect to fluid bulk modulus);
• introducing a device that increases the flexibility of the entire hydraulic system, such as a hydraulic accumulator;
∂V 1 ∂P
+ =0
∂x B ∂t
∂V 1 ∂P f
+ + V |V | = 0
∂t ρ ∂x 2D
where V is the fluid velocity inside pipe, ρ is the fluid density and B is the equivalent bulk modulus, f is the friction
factor.
13.11 Applications
• The water hammer principle can be used to create a simple water pump called a hydraulic ram.
• Cavitation
• Fluid dynamics
• Impact force
13.13 References
[1] Kay, Melvyn (2008). Practical Hydraulics (2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-35115-4.
[2] Shu, Jian-Jun (2003). “Modelling vaporous cavitation on fluid transients”. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and
Piping. 80 (3): 187–195. doi:10.1016/S0308-0161(03)00025-5.
[3] Vitruvius Pollio with Morris Hicky Morgan, trans. The Ten Books on Architecture (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press, 1914) ; Book 8, Chapter 6, sections 5-8 , pp. 245-246. Vitruvius states that when a water pipe crosses a
wide valley, it must sometimes be constructed as an inverted siphon. He states that cavities (“venters”) must be constructed
periodically along the pipe “and in the venter, water cushions must be constructed to relieve the pressure of the air.” “But if
there is no such venter made in the valleys, nor any substructure built on a level, but merely an elbow, the water will break
out, and burst the joints of the pipes.” Swiss engineer Martin Schwarz — Martin Schwarz, “Neue Forschungsergebnisse zu
Vitruvs colliviaria" [New research results on Vitruvius’ colliviaria], pp. 353-357, in: Christoph Ohlig, ed., Cura Aquarum
in Jordanien (Siegburg, Germany: Deutschen Wasserhistorischen Gesellschaft, 2008) — argues that Vitruvius’ phrase vis
spiritus referred not to air pressure, but to pressure transients (water hammer) in the water pipes. He found stone plugs
(colliviaria) in Roman water pipes, which could be expelled by water hammer, allowing water in the pipe to flood the air
chamber above the pipe, instead of rupturing the pipe.
[4] Ismaier, Andreas (2011), Untersuchung der fluiddynamischen Wechselwirkung zwischen Druckstößen und Anlagenkompo-
nenten in Kreiselpumpensystemen [Investigation of the fluid dynamic interaction between pressure surges and system compo-
nents in centrifugal pumping systems], Schriftenreihe des Lehrstuhls für Prozessmaschinen und Anlagentechnik, Universität
Erlangen; Nürnberg Lehrstuhl für Prozessmaschinen und Anlagentechnik (in German), 11, Shaker, ISBN 978-3-8322-
9779-4
[5] Whitehurst, John (1775), “Account of a machine for raising water, executed at Oulton, in Cheshire, in 1772”, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 65: 277–279, doi:10.1098/rstl.1775.0026 See also plate preceding page 277.
[6] Montgolfier, J. M. de (1803), “Note sur le bélier hydraulique, et sur la manière d’en calculer les effets” [Note on the hydraulic
ram, and on the method of calculating its effects] (PDF), Journal des Mines (in French), 13 (73): 42–51
[7] Tijsseling, A. S.; Anderson, A. (2008), “Thomas Young’s research on fluid transients: 200 years on” (PDF), Proceedings
of the 10th International Conference on Pressure Surges, Edinburgh, UK: 21–33 see page 22.
[8] Ménabréa, L. F. (1858), “Note sur les effects de choc de l’eau dans les conduites” [Note on the effects of water shocks in
pipes], Comptes rendus (in French), 47: 221–224
[9] Michaud, J. (1878), “Coups de bélier dans les conduites. Étude des moyens employés pour en atténeur les effects” [Water
hammer in pipes. Study of means used to mitigate its effects], Bulletin de la Société Vaudoise des Ingénieurs et des Architects
(in French), 4 (3,4): 56–64, 65–77
[10] Tijsseling, A. S.; Anderson, A. (2008). Hunt, S., ed. “Thomas Young’s research on fluid transients: 200 years on”. Proc.
of the 10th Int. Conf. on Pressure Surges. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: BHR Group: 21–33. ISBN 978-1-85598-095-2.
[11] Young, Thomas (1808). “Hydraulic investigations, subservient to an intended Croonian lecture on the motion of the blood”.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 98: 164–186.
98 CHAPTER 13. WATER HAMMER
[12] von Kries, J. (1883), “Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Druck und Geschwindigkeit, welche bei der Wellenbewegung
in elastischen Schläuchen bestehen” [On the relationships between pressure and velocity, which exist in connection with
wave motion in elastic tubing], Festschrift der 56. Versammlung Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte (Festschrift of the 56th
Convention of German Scientists and Physicians) (in German), Tübingen, Germany: Akademische Verlagsbuchhandlung:
67–88
[13] von Kries, J. (1892), Studien zur Pulslehre [Studies in Pulse Science] (in German), Tübingen, Germany: Akademische
Verlagsbuchhandlung
[14] Tijsseling, Arris S.; Anderson, Alexander (2004), “A precursor in waterhammer analysis – rediscovering Johannes von
Kries” (PDF), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Pressure Surges, Chester, UK: 739–751
[15] Tijsseling, Arris S.; Anderson, Alexander (2007), “Johannes von Kries and the history of water hammer”, Journal of
Hydraulic Engineering, 133 (1): 1–8
[16] Joukowsky, N. (1898), "Über den hydraulischen Stoss in Wasserleitungsröhren” [On the hydraulic hammer in water supply
pipes], Mémoires de l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de St.-Pétersbourg (1900), series 8 (in German), 9 (5): 1–71
[17] Tijsseling, Arris S.; Anderson, Alexander (2006), The Joukowsky equation for fluids and solids (PDF)
[18] Frizell, J. P. (1898), “Pressures resulting from changes of velocity of water in pipes”, Transactions of the American Society
of Civil Engineers, 39: 1–18
[19] Hale, R. A. (September 1911), “Obituary: Joseph Palmer Frizell, M. Am. Soc. C. E.”, Transactions of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, 73: 501–503
[20] Allievi, L. (1902), “Teoria generale del moto perturbato dell'acqua nei tubi in pressione (colpo d’ariete)" [General theory
of the perturbed motion of water in pipes under pressure (water hammer)], Annali della Società degli Ingegneri ed Architetti
Italiani (Annals of the Society of Italian Engineers and Architects) (in Italian), 17 (5): 285–325
[21] http://communities.bentley.com/products/hydraulics___hydrology/f/5925/p/60896/147250.aspx#147250
[22] http://cr4.globalspec.com/thread/73646
[23]
[24] Flight Propulsion Laboratory Department, General Electric Company, Idaho Falls, Idaho (November 21, 1962), Additional
Analysis of the SL-1 Excursion: Final Report of Progress July through October 1962 (PDF), U.S. Atomic Energy Commis-
sion, Division of Technical Information, IDO-19313; also TM-62-11-707
[25] Bruce, S.; Larock, E.; Jeppson, R. W.; Watters, G. Z. (2000), Hydraulics of Pipeline Systems, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-
1806-8
[26] Thorley, A. R. D. (2004), Fluid Transients in Pipelines (2nd ed.), Professional Engineering Publishing, ISBN 0-79180210-8
[27] Streeter, V. L.; Wylie, E. B. (1998), Fluid Mechanics (International 9th Revised ed.), McGraw-Hill Higher Education
[29] Faisandier, J., Hydraulic and Pneumatic Mechanisms, 8th edition, Dunod, Paris, 1999 (ISBN 2100499483)
[30] Bergeron, L., 1950. Du Coup de Bélier en Hydraulique - Au Coup de Foudre en Electricité. (Waterhammer in hydraulics
and wave surges in electricity.) Paris: Dunod (in French). (English translation by ASME Committee, New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1961.)
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Giftlite, GünniX, AnthonyA7, YurikBot, Wavelength, Matador, Haranoh, SWGlassPit, Hoo0, EndingPop, Trevor.tombe, CmdrObot,
Dricherby, Charlesreid1, P4lm0r3, Starryharlequin, !jim, Salih, Garethvaughan, TXiKiBoT, Lechatjaune, Agricola44, EMBaero, Bbanerje,
PixelBot, El bot de la dieta, Crowsnest, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Ozob, Arbitrarily0, Yobot, Daniele Pugliesi, Xqbot, CXCV, Freakband,
Misterkong, Calmer Waters, Chogg, BG19bot, QuarkyPi, Shyncat, Indronil Ghosh, Epicgenius, Benson Muite, Bender the Bot and
Anonymous: 45
• Rheopecty Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheopecty?oldid=783741589 Contributors: Heron, Nikai, Laurascudder, Mac Davis,
Firien, Nihiltres, Alex Bakharev, Jedwards05, Mdwyer, SmackBot, Uthbrian, Interlingua, SithiR, Thijs!bot, Dougher, Numbo3, Mr-
Bell, Tesscass, Capuchin, Dhatfield, Mild Bill Hiccup, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Yobot, Erik9bot, Tijm6140, Jdelhaxhe, عبد المؤمن, Nelg,
Aarjav12, Grendelorf, Bonks1 and Anonymous: 24
13.15. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 101
13.15.2 Images
• File:Airspeed_p1230157.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Airspeed_p1230157.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Monniaux
• File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs)
• File:Apparent_viscosity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Apparent_viscosity.svg License: GFDL
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Slashme
102 CHAPTER 13. WATER HAMMER