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Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

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DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-3740-6_8

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Chapter 8
Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

8.1 Introduction

So far we have considered DMSs and CMSs in which masses of particles mn and
their number have not changed. In nature and technology, however, phenomena are
commonly known where the number of particles of a system or their mass change
over time.
If floating icebergs are heated by the Sun’s rays, then the ice melts and their
mass decreases. If the falling snow becomes frozen to the floating icebergs, then
their mass increases. Earth’s mass increases when meteorites fall on its surface. In
turn, the mass of the meteorites before they reach Earth’s surface decreases as a
result of burning in Earth’s atmosphere. The mass of rockets decreases as the fuel
they contain burns. The mass of elements transported on a conveyor belt changes as
a result of their loading and unloading.

8.2 Change in Quantity of Motion and Angular Momentum

Let the mass of a mechanical system m.t/ be changing in time according to the
equation
m .t/ D m0  m1 .t/ C m2 .t/ ; (8.1)
where m.t/ D m.t0 /, m1 .t/  0, (m2 .t/  0) denotes the mass of particles leaving
(entering) the system (Fig. 8.1).
Let us choose a time instant t during motion of the system, and let for this instant
the momentum p of the considered system of particles increase by p during time
t. Then, by p let us denote the momentum of analogous system, but of a constant
mass. At the instant t C t the quantity of motion of a system of variable mass is
equal to
p C p D p C p  p1 C p2 : (8.2)

J. Awrejcewicz, Classical Mechanics: Dynamics, Advances in Mechanics 341

and Mathematics 29, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-3740-6 8,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012
342 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

Fig. 8.1 Motion of a body of variable mass with respect to the inertial coordinate system
O 0 X10 X20 X30

This means that the increment of momentum of the investigated system follows
from the increment of momentum of a system of constant mass and the additional
quantity of motion delivered .p2 / and removed .p1 / to/from the system during
time t.
From the preceding equation we obtain

p D p  p1 C p2 (8.3)

because at the instant t we have

p D p : (8.4)
Dividing by t and on the assumption that t ! 0 we get

p p p1 p2

lim D lim  lim C lim ; (8.5)
t !0 t t !0 t t !0 t t !0 t

hence
dp
D F C FR
1 C F2 ;
R
(8.6)
dt
where

p dp
F D lim D ;
t !0 t dt
p1 p2
1 D  lim
FR ; FR2 D lim ; (8.7)
t !0 t t !0 t

and F is a main vector of a system of external forces acting at the time instant t.
Equation (8.6) extends the well-known theorem concerning the change in the
quantity of motion (momentum) of a system. On its right-hand side additionally
appear the so-called thrust forces, FR R
1 and F2 .
8.3 Motion of a Particle of a Variable Mass System 343

In a similar way one can generalize the theorem regarding the change in angular
momentum (moment of momentum) of a system. Applying an argument analogous
to the previous one, we obtain

K C K D K C K  K1 C K2 ; (8.8)

where K is the moment of momentum of the system with respect to a certain

arbitrary chosen fixed pole in the coordinate system O 0 X10 X20 X30 , and K1.2/ denotes
the sum of moments of a quantity of motion for those particles that left (entered)
the considered system of variable mass during the time interval t. Dividing the
preceding equation by t and proceeding to the limit as t ! 0 we have

dK
D M C MR
1 C M2 ;
R
(8.9)
dt
where

M K
M D lim D ;
t !0 t dt
K1 K2
1 D  lim
MR ; 2 D lim
MR : (8.10)
t !0 t t !0 t

Equation (8.9) is a generalization of a theorem concerning changes in the angular

momentum of a mechanical system. On its right-hand side additionally appear
moments of a thrust force, MR R
1 and M2 .

8.3 Motion of a Particle of a Variable Mass System

Let us consider a particle A belonging to the investigated system of variable mass,

and let the mass of this particle be described by (8.11) in the form

mA .t/ D mA .t0 /  mA1 .t/ C mA2 .t/ : (8.11)

The kinematics of a particle of variable mass is presented in Fig. 8.2. In Fig. 8.2
the absolute velocity of a piece of mass m2 is denoted by u2 , whereas the absolute
velocity of a piece of mass m1 is denoted by u1 . We will assume that mA1 
mA .t0 / and mA2  mA .t0 /.
In order to derive the differential equation of the motion of a particle of variable
mass m.t/, we will make use of (8.6). A quantity of motion (momentum) of
particle A at an arbitrary time instant t reads

p .t/ D m .t/ v .t/ ; (8.12)

344 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

Fig. 8.2 Particle of mass m0

in absolute system OX1 X2 X3
at time instant t and piece of
mass m1 expelled (absorbed
m2 ) from (by) particle A

and the changes in momentum that follow from absorbing mass m2 and expelling
mass m1 by particle A during the time interval t are respectively equal to

pi D mi ui ; i D 1; 2: (8.13)

According to (8.7) we have

p1 m1 u1 dm1

1 D  lim
FR D  lim D u1 ;
t !0 t t !0 t dt
p2 m2 u2 dm2
2 D lim
FR D lim D u2 : (8.14)
t !0 t t !0 t dt

Substituting (8.12) and (8.14) into (8.6) we obtain

d dm1 dm2
Œm .t/ v .t/ D F  u1 C u2 ; (8.15)
dt dt dt
and following the transformations we have

mRrA D F  m
P 1 .u1  v/ C m
P 2 .u2  v/ : (8.16)

The obtained (8.16) is called a generalized Meshcherskiy1 equation, and it

describes the motion of a particle of variable mass. If the mass of particle A does
not change, then mP1 D m P 2 D 0, and from (8.16) we obtain Newton’s second law
on the motion of particle A of constant mass m.

1
Ivan Meshcherskiy (1859–1935), professor working mainly in Saint Petersburg.
8.3 Motion of a Particle of a Variable Mass System 345

In previous calculations the dynamics of a particle of variable mass was presented

descriptively during the derivation of (8.6) and (8.9). Presently we will proceed in
a different way (see [1, 2]) by taking into account only the change in momentum
of particle A. Let an elementary mass dm2 of velocity u2 .t/ be added, and an
elementary mass dm1 of velocity u1 .t/ be removed, to/from particle A of mass m.t/
and velocity v.t/. The momenta at the time instants t and t C dt are equal to

p .t/ D .m C dm1 / v C dm2 u2 ;

p .t C dt/ D .m C dm2 / .v C dv/ C dm1 u1 :

The increment of momentum is equal to

p .t C dt/  p .t/ D vdm2 C dvdm2 C mdv C dm1 u1  vdm1  dm2 u2 ;

and neglecting differentials of the second order and dividing by dt we obtain

the generalized Meshcherskiy equation (8.16), where F D dp=dt. Following the
introduction of relative velocities,

wi D ui  v; i D 1; 2: (8.17)

Respectively expelling and absorbing the mass by particle A (8.16) takes the
form
mRrA D F  m
P 1 w1 C m
P 2 w2 : (8.18)
Taking into account relation (8.17), (8.18) is identical to (8.16). If the case of
separation of mass from particle A is considered alone, then from (8.11) for mA2 
0 we obtain
m.t/ D m.t0 /  m1 .t/; (8.19)
hence
P
m.t/ D m
P 1 .t/: (8.20)
Substituting (8.20) into (8.18) we get

mRrA D F C FR
1: (8.21)

The preceding equation is called a Meshcherskiy equation. From (8.21) it follows

that the effect of separation of mass is equivalent to the action of an additional force
FR1 D mw P 1 on particle A, called a thrust force. The thrust force FR 1 (removal of
mass) has a sense opposite to the sense of velocity w1 , whereas the thrust force FR 2
(addition of mass) has the same sense as the sense of the relative velocity w2 . The
quantity m P 1 .m
P 2 / is called the mass removal (addition) per second.
In a special case, where the absolute velocity of the mass that separates is u1 D 0,
(8.21) takes the form

dv dm
m DF v (8.22)
dt dt
346 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

or
d.mv/
D F: (8.23)
dt
We have shown that if the absolute velocity of the mass that separates is equal
to zero, then the derivative of momentum of particle A balances the external forces
acting on this particle. If, in turn, the relative velocity of the mass that separates is
w1 D u1  v D 0, then from (8.21) we obtain

dv
m.t/ D F: (8.24)
dt
In this case we obtained an equation that is formally consistent with Newton’s
second law on the motion of a particle of constant mass.

8.4 Motion of a Rocket (Two Problems of Tsiolkovsky)

Let us now consider two problems of Tsiolkovsky.2

8.4.1 First Tsiolkovsky Problem

Let a rocket, treated further as a particle, be moving in space, and let the action
of external forces on it be negligibly small. The initial conditions of motion are as
follows: v.0/ D v0 , m.t/ D m0 C m1 .t/, where m0 is the mass of the rocket and
m1 .t/ is the mass of fuel .m1 .0/ D m10 /.
In the considered case, the Meshcherskiy equation, (8.21), takes the form

dv dm
m D w1 : (8.25)
dt dt
Let us assume that the relative velocity of combustion gases w1 D u1 v D const
and its sense are opposite to those of velocity vector v. It follows that a rocket moves
along a straight line according to the sense of vector v (Fig. 8.3).
Following the projection (multiplication by E1 ) of (8.25) onto the axis OX we
obtain
dv dm
m D w1
dt dt

2
Konstantin Tsiolkowsky (1857–1935), Russian teacher of mathematics and physics of Polish
origin; precursor to the theory of rocket flight.
8.4 Motion of a Rocket (Two Problems of Tsiolkovsky) 347

Fig. 8.3 Motion of rocket in

a force-free field

or
dm
dv D w1 : (8.26)
m
Integrating (8.26) we have

v.t/ D w1 ln m C C; (8.27)

where C is the constant of integration equal to C D v0 C w1 ln.m0 C m10 /.

Finally, the time change in the velocity of a rocket is described by the scalar
equation
 
dx m0 C m10
 v.t/ D v0 C w1 ln : (8.28)
dt m.t/

The maximum velocity is reached by the rocket after the fuel is completely spent,
that is, when m.t / D m0 , and it is equal to
 
m10
v.t / D v0 C w1 ln 1 C : (8.29)
m0

The obtained equation is called a rocket equation. The maximum velocity of

a rocket does not depend on the process of fuel combustion, that is, whether
combustion proceeds slowly or quickly. The constant quantity m10 =m0 is also
known as a Tsiolkovsky constant.
In contrast, the trajectory of motion of a rocket does depend on the process of
fuel combustion. Integrating (8.28), for the initial condition x.0/ D 0, we have

Zt
m00
x.t/ D v0 t C w1 ln d; (8.30)
m./
0

where m00 D m0 C m10 .

348 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

Fig. 8.4 Vertical motion of

rocket in Earth’s gravitational
field

8.4.2 Second Tsiolkovsky Problem

Let a rocket, treated further as a particle, move vertically upward in a uniform

gravitational field of Earth, its resistance to motion being neglected. The relative
velocity of ejection of fuel combustion products is constant and directed vertically
downward (Fig. 8.4).
In this case after projection of the Meshcherskiy equation (8.21) onto the axis
OX3 we get
dv dm
m D mg  w1 ; (8.31)
dt dt
or, separating the variables,

dm
d.v C gt/ D w : (8.32)
m
Integrating the preceding equation we have

v C gt D w ln m C C: (8.33)

The constant C is equal to

C D v0 C w ln m00 : (8.34)
8.4 Motion of a Rocket (Two Problems of Tsiolkovsky) 349

Substituting the obtained value of C into (8.33) we have

 0 
dx3 m0
 v.t/ D v0  gt C w ln : (8.35)
dt m.t/

If we assume the initial conditions to be x3 .0/ D 0, v0 D 0, then following the

integration of (8.35) we get

Zt  
m00 1
x3 .t/ D w ln d  gt 2 : (8.36)
m.t/ 2
0

Let the fuel combustion take place according to the following process:

m.t/ D m00 e˛t ; (8.37)

where ˛ is a constant coefficient characterizing the speed of fuel combustion.

The mass of combustion products m1 .t/ can be calculated from

m.t/ C m1 .t/ D m0 C m10  m00

and is equal to
 
m1 .t/ D m0 C m10  .m0 C m10 / e˛t D m00 1  e˛t : (8.38)

The thrust force is equal to

P 1 w1 D m00 w1 ˛e˛t D m.t/w1 ˛;

F1R D m (8.39)

where ˛w1 is the acceleration imposed on the rocket due to fuel combustion.
Because we assumed certain combustion process described by (8.37), from (8.35)
we have  0 
m0
v.t/ D v0  gt C w ln ˛t ;
e
and for v0 D 0 we obtain
v.t/ D .˛w  g/ t: (8.40)
In turn, from (8.36) (or by integrating (8.40)) we have

t2
x3 .t/ D .˛w  g/ : (8.41)
2
From the last equation it follows that the launch of the rocket is possible if
˛w > g, that is, the acceleration coming from a thrust force F1R should exceed
the acceleration of gravity.
350 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

If the fuel is burned completely at the time instant t D tf , then according to

(8.37) we have
m.tf / D m0 C m1 .tf / D m00 e˛tf ;
that is,
m0 D m00 e˛tf ; (8.42)
because at the instant tk we have no more fuel, that is, m1 .tf / D 0.
From (8.42) we can determine the time required for complete combustion of fuel
by a rocket, which is equal to

tf D ; (8.43)
˛
where
 
m10
 D ln 1 C :
m0
From (8.40) and (8.41) one can determine the velocity and ceiling height of a
rocket corresponding to the time instant when the fuel is spent:

vf D .˛w  g/ ; (8.44)
˛

 2 .˛w  g/
x3f D : (8.45)
2˛ 2

Because at the instant when the fuel has run out t D tf and vf D v.tf /, for
such initial conditions a rocket of mass m.tf / D m0 additionally climbs in Earth’s
gravitational field at the height

v2f 2
hd D D .˛w  g/2 : (8.46)
2g 2˛ 2 g

We obtain the maximum height h of the rocket using (8.45) and (8.46):
 
 2w w 1
h D hd C x3f D  : (8.47)
2 g ˛

The height reached by a rocket depends on the coefficient of the fuel combustion
rate ˛. For example, at a rapid (explosive) rate of fuel combustion the height attained
is equal to
 2 w2
hmax D : (8.48)
2g
8.5 Equations of Motion of a Body with Variable Mass 351

8.5 Equations of Motion of a Body with Variable Mass

A group of particles n D 1; : : : ; N , between which the mutual distances do not

change and at least one of which is a particle with variable mass, is called a rigid
body of variable mass [3].
According to the previous calculations, let the particles of the body (the material
system) change their mass according to (8.1), that is,

mn .t/ D m0n  m1n .t/ C m2n .t/; n D 1; : : : ; N; (8.49)

where m1n .t/ is the total mass lost by particle n at time t, and m2n .t/ is the total
mass gained by the particle at time t.
Let us further consider the case of motion of a rigid body with variable mass
about a certain fixed point O (motion about a point of a system with variable mass).
The angular momentum KO of the system about point O is equal to (in the system
rigidly connected to the body OX100 X200 X300 )

dKO
C !  KO D MZ
O C MO ;
R
(8.50)
dt

where MZ O is the main moment of external forces acting on the system with respect
to point O, and MR O is the additional moment of a thrust force that needs to be
determined.
According to relation (8.8) we have

X
N
dK1O D dm1n rn  u1n ;
nD1

X
N
dK2O D dm2n rn  u2n ; (8.51)
nD1

where rn is a radius vector of particle n, and on that basis a moment of thrust forces
is equal to

O D M1O C M2O ;
MR R R
(8.52)

where

X
N
dm1n
1O D 
MR rn  u1n ;
nD1
dt

X
N
dm2n
2O D 
MR rn  u2n :
nD1
dt
352 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

Introducing the notion of relative velocity wn according to equations

u1n D vn C w1n ;
u2n D vn C w2n ; (8.53)

we have

X
N
dm1n X
N
dm2n
O D
MR rn  .vn C w1n / C rn  .vn C w2n /
nD1
dt nD1
dt

X
N  
dm2n dm1n
D rn    vn
nD1
dt dt

X
N  
dm1n dm2n
C rn   w1n C w2n
nD1
dt dt

X
N   X N
dm2n dm1n dmn
D rn  w2n  w1n C rn  vn ; (8.54)
nD1
dt dt nD1
dt

where (8.49) was used.

Eventually we obtain
dI
O D MO C
MR !;
W
(8.55)
dt
where

X
N  
dm2n dm1n
O D
MW rn  w2n  w1n ;
nD1
dt dt

dI XN
dmn
!D rn  .!  rn / ; (8.56)
dt nD1
dt

and I is the matrix of the inertia tensor of a body for point O, and in this case the
matrix depends on time. Because KO D I!, from (8.50) and taking into account
(8.55) we obtain

dI d! dI
!CI C !  I! D MZ
O C MO C
W
!;
dt dt dt
hence
d!
I C !  I! D MZ
O C MO :
W
(8.57)
dt
8.5 Equations of Motion of a Body with Variable Mass 353

If the axes of a coordinate system during the process of gaining and losing
mass remain the principal axes of inertia, then (8.57) has the following scalar
representation:

d!1
I1 .t/ C .I3 .t/  I2 .t// !2 !3 D M1 C M1W ;
dt
d!2
I2 .t/ C .I1 .t/  I3 .t// !1 !3 D M2 C M2W ;
dt
d!3
I3 .t/ C .I2 .t/  I1 .t// !1 !2 D M3 C M3W ; (8.58)
dt

where Ii .t/ are the moments of inertia of the body with respect to the axes OXi ,
Mi are the projections of a main vector of external forces onto these axes, and
! D !1 E1 C !2 E2 C !3 E3 .
In the case of rotation of the body about a fixed axis (let it be the axis OX3 ), we
have ! D !3 E3 , and from the last equation of (8.58) we obtain

d!3
I3 .t/ D M3 C M3W : (8.59)
dt
As distinct from the previously considered case of the rotation of a rigid body
about a fixed axis, on the right-hand side additionally appeared the moment of a
thrust force, and on the left-hand side the mass moment of inertia of a body changing
in time.
Example 8.1. Figure 8.5 shows a drum having moment of inertia I0 with respect to
the axis OX3 perpendicular to the plane of the drawing and passing through point O,
onto which a rope of length S and mass m is wound. Determine the angular velocity
of the drum on the assumption that the rope started to reel out from the drum at an
initial velocity of zero and the drum axis was horizontal.
For the solution of the problem we make use of (8.59). In this case

dI
M3W D .!1  !/ ;
dt
where !1 is the angular velocity of an elementary moment of inertia dI of a rope
separating from a drum that is rotating with angular velocity !. The element of the
rope leaving the drum has a velocity equal to the peripheral speed of the drum, that
is, r!1 D r!, i.e., M3W D 0.
The equation of motion of the investigated system is analogous to (8.24) for the
rotational motion. The problem reduces to the analysis of equation

d!
I.'.t// D M Z;
dt
354 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

Fig. 8.5 Rope reeling out

of a drum

where
m
I.'.t// D I0 C mr 2  .r'/r 2 :
S
In turn, the moment M Z follows from the action of the force coming from the
rope reeling out from the drum and is equal to
m
M Z .'.t// D .r'/gr:
S
Because
d! d! d' d!
D D! ;
dt d' dt d'
from the equation of motion we have
 m 3  d! m
I0 C mr 2  r ' ! D r 2 g';
S d' l

and separating the variables we get

mr 2 g '
!d! D m 3 d':
S I0 C mr 2  Sr '
8.5 Equations of Motion of a Body with Variable Mass 355

Setting I0 D 3mr 2 we have

Z 
!2 g '
D d' C C :
2 S 4  Sr '

The obtained indefinite integral is calculated by substitution:

r
t D4 ';
S
hence
S S
d' D  dt; 'D .4  t/ :
r r
We have then
Z Z
' 4t S2
D dt D 2 .4 ln jtj C t/
4  Sr ' t r
4S 2 ˇˇ r ˇˇ S S
D 2 ln ˇ4  ' ˇ  ' C C ;
r S r r
that is,
 
!2 g 4S ˇˇ r ˇˇ
D  ln ˇ4  ' ˇ  ' C C :
2 r r S
The integration constant is determined from the initial condition !.0/ D 0 and
is equal to
4S
C D ln 4:
r
The desired function

  12
2g 4S h r i 4S
!  !Œ'.t/ D  ln 4  '  ' C ln 4 :
r r S r

The maximum angular velocity ! D !max is obtained after the rope has been
completely unwound, that is, substituting '  'max D Sr into the preceding formula.

Example 8.2. A body of mass m is thrown upward with initial speed v0 , and there
is a chain of unit mass  stacked on a horizontal plane and attached to the body.
Determine the maximum height attained by the chain (Fig. 8.6).
During the motion of the chain its links are successively lifted from the stationary
stack, that is, their absolute velocity is equal to zero. The problem is therefore
described by (8.23), which in our case takes the form
d
Œ.m C x/ x
P D mg:
dt
356 8 Dynamics of Systems of Variable Mass

Fig. 8.6 Projection of ball of

mass m with attached chain

The first integral of the preceding equation reads

mxP C x xP D mgt C C1

or

d x 2
mx C D mgt C C1 :
dt 2
The second integral is equal to

x 2 t2
mx C D mg C C1 t C C2 :
2 2

Let x.0/ D x0 , x.0/

P D v0 . The constant C1 is found from the equation

C1 D .m C x0 / v0 ;

and the constant C2 reads

 x0 
C2 D m C x0 :
2
 References 357

The maximum height is attained for a velocity of mass equal to xP  v.t / D 0,

that is, for the time instant

C1 .m C x0 /v0
t D D :
mg mg

The desired quantity x.t / D x is determined from the equation

x2 .m C x0 /2 v20 .m C x0 /2 v20  x0 

mx C D C C mC x0
2 2mg mg 2

or, following transformation,

  
2m .m C x0 /2 v20 2m
x2 C x  C C x0 x0 D 0:
 mg 

For x0 D 0 we have
2m mv20
x2 C x  D 0:
 g
Solving the preceding quadratic equation and rejecting the negative root we
obtain
s  
m 1 4m m v20
x D  C C : 
 2   g

Finally, this chapter can be supplemented by the classic works [4–9].

References

1. J. Nizioł, Methods of Solving Mechanical Tasks (WNT, Warsaw, 2002) (in Polish)
2. W. Kurnik, Lectures on General Mechanics (Warsaw Technological University Press, Warsaw,
2005) (in Polish)
3. A.D. Markeev, Theoretical Mechanics (Nauka, Moscow, 1990) (in Russian)
4. S.T. Thornton, J.B. Marion, Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (Saunders College
Publishers, New York, 1995)
5. A.P. Arya, Introduction to Classical Mechanics (Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, 1998)
6. J.V. José, E.J. Saletan, Classical Dynamics: A Contemporary Approach (Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 1998)
7. H. Goldstein, C. Poole, J. Safko, Classical Mechanics, 3rd edn. (Addison-Wesley,
San Francisco, 2002)
8. T.W.B. Kibble, F.H. Berkshire, Classical Mechanics, 5th edn. (Imperial College Press, London,
2004)
9. R.D. Gregory, Classical Mechanics (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011)

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